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Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The Provisional Government of the French Republic ( gouvernement provisoire de la République française or GPRF was an interim government which governed The National flag of France (known in French as drapeau tricolore, drapeau français,and in military parlance les couleurs A motto (from the Italian word motto, meaning witticism sentence is a phrase meant to formally describe the general motivation or intention of a social group French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Throughout the world there are many cities that were once national Capitals but no longer have that status because the country ceased to exist the capital was moved or the capital Vichy ( Occitan: Vichèi) is a commune in the department of Allier in Auvergne in central France. Sigmaringen is a Town in southern Germany, in the state of Baden-Württemberg. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. The President of the French Republic (Président de la République française colloquially referred to in English as the President of France, is France 's elected Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) The Prime Minister of France ( Premier ministre français) in Fifth Republic is the functional Head of the government and Council of Ministers Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) Pierre Laval (28 June 1883 15 October 1945 was a French Politician and statesman who led the Vichy government during World War II, and A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation The French National Assembly. The other is the Senate ( “Sénat”) World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. In World War II, the Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Liberation of Paris' (also known as Battle for Paris) took place during World War II from 19 August 1944 until the surrender of Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Events 1500 - Portuguese Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral becomes the first European to sight Brazil. Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is Origins The franc was originally a French Gold coin of 387 g minted in 1360 on the occasion of the release of King John II ("the good", held by the This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. This government, which succeeded the Third Republic, officially called itself the French State (L'État Français), in contrast with the previous designation, "French Republic. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe " Marshal Philippe Pétain proclaimed the government following the military defeat of France by Nazi Germany during World War II and the vote by the National Assembly on July 10, 1940. The Marshal of France (Maréchal de France and pl Maréchaux de France is a military distinction in contemporary France, not a Military rank. Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) In World War II, the Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The French National Assembly. The other is the Senate ( “Sénat”) Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This vote granted extraordinary powers to Pétain, who held the title of "President of the Council" instead of President of France. The official Title President of the Council of Ministers is used to describe the Head of government of the states of Italy and Poland, and formerly The President of the French Republic (Président de la République française colloquially referred to in English as the President of France, is France 's elected Pétain headed the reactionary program of the so-called "Révolution nationale", aimed at "regenerating the Nation. Reactionary (also reactionist) is a derogatory term usually used by the Left wing in regards to movements which oppose radical change in society and seeks a return The Révolution nationale ( National Revolution) was the official ideological name under which the Vichy regime ("the French state" "
Vichy France had legal authority in both the northern zone of France, which was occupied by the German Wehrmacht, and the unoccupied southern "free zone", where the regime's administrative center of Vichy was located. Wehrmacht (literally "defense force" was the name of the unified Armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 Vichy ( Occitan: Vichèi) is a commune in the department of Allier in Auvergne in central France. The southern zone remained under Vichy control until the Allies landed in French North Africa in November 1942. The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis powers during the Second World War. France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world Recent research by the historian Simon Kitson has shown that, in spite of extensive state collaboration, Vichy led an ultimately unsuccessful campaign to preserve the sovereignty of this southern zone by arresting German spies. Simon Kitson is a British Historian. Born in Nailsworth, Gloucestershire, Kitson was educated in Bath doing his undergraduate studies at the University Vichy ( Occitan: Vichèi) is a commune in the department of Allier in Auvergne in central France. [1]
Pétain and the Vichy regime willfully collaborated with Nazi Germany to a high degree. Collaborationism, can describe the Treason of cooperating with enemy Forces occupying one's Country. The French police organized raids to capture Jews and others considered "undesirables" by the Germans in both the northern and southern zones. The National Police ( police nationale) formerly the Sûreté Nationale, is one of two National police forces and the main civil law enforcement PLEASE TAKE NOTE************
The legitimacy of Vichy France and Pétain's leadership was challenged by General Charles de Gaulle, who claimed to instead incarnate the legitimacy and continuity of France. Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French Following the Allies' invasion of France in Operation Overlord, de Gaulle proclaimed the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) in June, 1944. Operation Overlord was the code name for the invasion of northwest Europe during World War II by Allied forces The Provisional Government of the French Republic ( gouvernement provisoire de la République française or GPRF was an interim government which governed After the Liberation of Paris in August, the GPRF installed itself in Paris on August 31. The Liberation of Paris' (also known as Battle for Paris) took place during World War II from 19 August 1944 until the surrender of Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne The GPRF was recognized as the legitimate government of France by the Allies on October 23, 1944. Events 4004 BC - Creation of the world begins according to the calculations of Archbishop James Ussher 42 BC - Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
With the liberation of France in August and September, the Vichy officials and supporters moved to Sigmaringen in Germany and there established a government in exile, headed by Pétain, until April 1945. Sigmaringen Castle ( German: Schloss Sigmaringen) was the princely castle and seat of government for the Princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. A government in exile is a political group that claims to be a country's legitimate government but for various reasons is unable to exercise its legal power and instead resides in a foreign
Overview
- Further information: World War II, Events preceding World War II in Europe, and Causes of World War II
In 1940 Marshal Philippe Pétain was known mainly as a World War I hero, the victor of Verdun. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The events preceding World War II in Europe are closely tied to the rise of Fascism, especially in Nazi Germany. The culmination of events that led to World War II are generally understood to be the 1939 invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and of the Republic Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The Battle of Verdun was one of the most critical battles in World War I on the Western Front, fought between the German and French As last President of the Council of the Third Republic, Pétain suppressed the parliament and immediately turned the regime into a non-democratic government collaborating with Germany. The official Title President of the Council of Ministers is used to describe the Head of government of the states of Italy and Poland, and formerly
Vichy France was established after France surrendered to Germany on June 22, 1940 and took its name from the government's administrative center in Vichy, central France. Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Vichy ( Occitan: Vichèi) is a commune in the department of Allier in Auvergne in central France. Paris remained the official capital, to which Pétain always intended to return the government when this became possible. While officially neutral in the war, Vichy actively collaborated with the Nazis, including, to some degree, with their racial policies. The racial policy of Nazi Germany refers to the policies and laws implemented by Nazi Germany, asserting the superiority of the so-called " Aryan race " and
It is a common misconception that the Vichy regime administered only the unoccupied zone of southern France (named "free zone" (zone libre) by Vichy), while the Germans directly administered the occupied zone. In fact, the civil jurisdiction of the Vichy government extended over the whole of metropolitan France, except for Alsace-Lorraine, a disputed territory which was placed under German administration (though not formally annexed). Metropolitan France (France métropolitaine or la Métropole, or colloquially l'Hexagone) is the part of France located in Europe, including Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 French civil servants in Bordeaux, such as Maurice Papon, or Nantes were under the authority of French ministers in Vichy. ( Gascon: Bordèu) is a port city in southwest France, with one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area at a 2008 estimate Maurice Papon ( September 3 1910 &ndash February 17 2007) was a French civil servant industrial leader and Gaullist politician Nantes (Naoned Gallo: Naunnt) is a city in western France, located on the Loire River, from the Atlantic coast René Bousquet, head of French police nominated by Vichy, exercised his power directly in Paris through his second, Jean Leguay, who coordinated raids with the Nazis. René Bousquet ( 11 May 1909 – 8 June 1993) was a high-ranking French civil servant who served as secretary general of the The National Police ( police nationale) formerly the Sûreté Nationale, is one of two National police forces and the main civil law enforcement Jean Leguay ( 29 November 1909 — 5 July 1989) was a high ranking French civil servant accomplice of the Deportation of Jews from
On November 11, 1942, the Germans launched Operation Case Anton, occupying southern France, following the landing of the Allies in North Africa (Operation Torch). Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. During World War II the German authorities codenamed the occupation of Vichy France Case (or Operation) Anton. Operation Torch (initially called Operation Gymnast) was the British - American invasion of French North Africa in World War II Although Vichy's "Armistice Army" was disbanded, thus diminishing Vichy's independence, the abolition of the line of demarcation made civil administration easier. Vichy continued to exercise jurisdiction over almost all of France until the collapse of the regime following the Allied invasion in June 1944.
Until August 1945 the Vichy regime was acknowledged as the official government of France by the United States and other countries, including Canada, which was at the same time at war with Germany. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Even the United Kingdom maintained unofficial contacts with Vichy for some time, until it became apparent that the Vichy Prime Minister Pierre Laval intended full collaboration with the Germans. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Pierre Laval (28 June 1883 15 October 1945 was a French Politician and statesman who led the Vichy government during World War II, and
The Vichy government's claim to be the de jure French government was challenged by the Free French Forces of Charles de Gaulle, based first in London and later in Algiers, and French governments ever since have held that the Vichy regime was an illegal government run by traitors. The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Algiers (الجزائر Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation Kabyle: Ledzayer, Alger) is the Capital and largest In Law, treason is the Crime that covers some of the more serious acts of disloyalty to one's sovereign or Nation. Historians in particular have debated the circumstances of the vote of full powers to Pétain on July 10, 1940. Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The main arguments advanced against Vichy's right to incarnate the continuity of the French state were based on the pressure exerted by Laval on deputies in Vichy, and on the absence of 27 deputies and senators who had fled on the ship Massilia and could thus not take part in the vote. The Vichy 80 refers to a minority group of French elected parliamentarians who on July 10, 1940, voted against the constitutional change that dissolved
Within Vichy France there was a low-intensity civil war between the French Resistance, drawn from the Communist and Republican elements of society, against the reactionary elements who desired a fascist or similar regime as in Francisco Franco's Spain. Low intensity conflict (LIC is the use of Military forces applied selectively and with restraint to enforce compliance with the policies or objectives of the political A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state The French Resistance is the collective name used for the French Resistance movements which fought against the Nazi German Reactionary (also reactionist) is a derogatory term usually used by the Left wing in regards to movements which oppose radical change in society and seeks a return Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde (born December 4, 1892 in Ferrol, died November 20, 1975 in Madrid This civil war can be seen as the continuation of a division existing within French society since the 1789 French Revolution, illustrated by events such as the Bourbon Restoration and the White Terror enforced by the Chambre introuvable; the 1825 vote of the Anti-Sacrilege Act by the ultra-royalist comte de Villèle; the 1871 Paris Commune and the violent repression which followed, including the creation of the Basilique du Sacré-Coeur in expiation of the "Commune's sins"; the May 16, 1877 crisis; the Dreyfus Affair; the conflict during the application of the 1905 law on the separation of the Church and the State; the 6 February 1934 riots, etc. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814 the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne In general the term White Terror refers to acts of violence carried out by Reactionary (usually monarchist or conservative) groups as part of a La Chambre introuvable ( French for "Unobtainable Chamber" was the first Chamber of Deputies after the Second Bourbon Restoration (1815-1830 The Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825&ndash1830 was a French law against Blasphemy and Sacrilege passed in January 1825 under King Charles The term Ultra-Royalists or simply Ultras refers to a Reactionary faction which sat in the French parliament from 1815 Jean-Baptiste Guillaume Joseph Marie Anne Séraphin comte de Villèle (14 April 1773 - 13 March 1854 was a French statesman The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May The Sacré-Cœur Basilica ( French: Basilique du Sacré-Cœur, "Basilica of the Sacred Heart" is a Roman Catholic Basilica and popular The Dreyfus Affair a Political scandal which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and State ( French: Loi du 9 décembre 1905 concernant la séparation des Églises et de l'État) was passed by The 6 February 1934 crisis refers to an Anti-parliamentarist demonstration organised in Paris by Far-right leagues (antiparliamentarian A part of French society had never accepted the Republican regime issuing from the Revolution, and wished to re-establish the Ancien Régime. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in This was made apparent by the glee of the leader of the monarchist Action française, Charles Maurras, who qualified the suppression of the French Republic as a "divine surprise". The Action Française is a French Monarchist ( Orléanist) Counter-revolutionary movement and periodical founded by Maurice Pujo and __FORCETOC__ Charles Maurras ( 20 April 1868 Martigues Bouches-du-Rhône France – 16 November 1952) was [2]
The fall of France and the establishment of the Vichy Regime
France declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939 following the German invasion of Poland. The History of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the list to the right "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. Prehistoric France is the period in the human occupation (including early hominins) of the geographical area covered by present-day France which extended through Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western For Gaul before the Roman conquest see Gaul. Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in the Roman Empire, in modern day The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Merovingians (also Merovings) were a Salian Frankish dynasty that came to rule the Franks in a region (known as Francia in Latin France in the Middle Ages covers an area roughly corresponding to modern day France, from the death of Charlemagne in 814 to the middle of the 15th The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolings, or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family with its origins in the For a full history of the Capetian family see Capetian dynasty. See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and Early Modern France is the Early modern period of French history from the end of the 15th century to the end of the 18th century (or from the French Renaissance See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The History of France from 1789 to 1914 ( The long 19th century) extends from the French Revolution to World War I and includes The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814 the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe The February 1848 Revolution in France ended the reign of King Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic (1848-1852 History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May The History of France from 1914 to the present includes the later years of the Third Republic (1871–1941 World War I (1914–18 The Provisional Government of the French Republic ( gouvernement provisoire de la République française or GPRF was an interim government which governed The founding of the Fourth Republic (1944-47 See also Three Parties, Third Force (France European Unity The creation of the See also Government of France The Fifth Republic is the fifth and current republican constitution of France, which was introduced on The Kingdom of France was organised into Provinces until March 4, 1790, when the establishment of the département This is a history of the economy of France. For more information on historical cultural demographic and sociological developments in France see the chronological As of January 1, 2008, 64473140 people live in the French Republic. The military history of France encompasses an immense panorama of conflicts and struggles extending for more than 2000 years across areas including modern France, greater France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world For practical purposes the history of French art has been divided into a series of separate articles accessible through the template to the right This article is a general introduction to French literature For detailed information on French literature in specific historic periods see the separate historical articles in the The Culture of France and of the French people has been shaped by its geography, by profound historical events, and by foreign and This is a timeline of French history. To read about the background to these events see History of France. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland After the eight-month Phony War, the Germans launched their offensive in the west on May 10, 1940. The Phoney War, also called the Twilight War by Winston Churchill, der Sitzkrieg in German ("the sitting war" a In World War II, the Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Within days it became clear that French forces were overwhelmed and that military collapse was imminent. Government and military leaders, deeply shocked by the debacle, debated how to proceed. Many officials, including the Prime Minister, Paul Reynaud, wanted to move the government to French territories in North Africa, and continue the war with the French navy and colonial resources. Paul Reynaud (15 October 1878 - 21 September 1966 was a French politician and lawyer prominent in the interwar period noted for his stances on economic liberalism and North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Others, particularly the vice-premier Philippe Pétain and the commander-in-chief, General Maxime Weygand, insisted that the responsibility of the government was to remain in France and share the misfortune of its people. Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) Maxime Weygand ( 21 January 1867 - 28 January 1965) (vɛgɑ̃ was a French military commander in World War I and World The latter view called for an immediate cessation of hostilities.
While this debate continued, the government was forced to relocate several times, finally reaching Bordeaux, in order to avoid capture by advancing German forces. Communications were poor and thousands of civilian refugees clogged the roads. In these chaotic conditions, advocates of an armistice gained the upper hand. The Cabinet agreed on a proposal to seek armistice terms from Germany, with the understanding that, should Germany set forth dishonorable or excessively harsh terms, France would retain the option to continue to fight. General Huntziger, who headed the French armistice delegation, was told to break off negotiations if the Germans demanded the occupation of all metropolitan France, the French fleet or any of the French overseas territories. They did not.
France's armistice with Nazi Germany
- Further information: Armistice with France (Second Compiègne) and German occupation of France during World War II
Prime Minister Paul Reynaud resigned and, on his recommendation, President Albert Lebrun appointed the 84-year-old Pétain to replace him on June 16. The Second Armistice at Compiègne was signed at 1850 on 22 June 1940 near Compiègne, in the department of Oise, between Nazi Germany The German occupation of France in World War II occurred during the period between May 1940 to December 1944 Paul Reynaud (15 October 1878 - 21 September 1966 was a French politician and lawyer prominent in the interwar period noted for his stances on economic liberalism and Albert Lebrun (29 August 1871 6 March 1950 was a French Politician, President of France from 1932 to 1940 and as such was the last president of the Events 1487 - Battle of Stoke Field, the last dying breath of the Wars of the Roses. The Armistice with France (Second Compiègne) agreement was signed on June 22. The Second Armistice at Compiègne was signed at 1850 on 22 June 1940 near Compiègne, in the department of Oise, between Nazi Germany Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. A separate agreement was reached with Italy, which had entered the war against France on June 10, well after the outcome of the battle was beyond doubt. Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem
Hitler was motivated by a number of reasons to agree to the armistice. He feared that France would continue to fight from North Africa, and he wanted to ensure that the French navy was taken out of the war. In addition, leaving a French government in place would relieve Germany of the considerable burden of administering French territory. Finally, he hoped to direct his attentions toward Britain, where he anticipated another quick victory.
Conditions of armistice and 10 July 1940 vote of full powers
The armistice divided France into occupied and unoccupied zones: northern and western France including the entire Atlantic coast were occupied by Germany, and the remaining two-fifths of the country were governed by the French government with the capital at Vichy under Pétain. Ostensibly, the French government administered the entire territory.
The army of the armistice
The Germans preferred to occupy northern France themselves. For the most part, the 1. 6 million French prisoners of war who were transferred in Germany at the end of year 1940 would remain in captivity during the German occupation. In addition, the French had to pay the occupation costs for the three-hundred-thousand strong German occupation army. The costs amounted to twenty million Reichmarks per day. The French had to pay at the artificial rate of twenty francs to the Mark. This was fifty times the actual costs of the occupation garrison. The French government also had the responsibility for preventing any French people from going into exile.
In southern France the French were allowed an army. Article IV of the Armistice allowed for a small French army to be kept in the unoccupied zone, the Army of the Armistice (Armée de l'Armistice). The Military of France encompasses an army, a navy, an air force and a military police force. The article also allowed for the military provision of the French colonial empire overseas. France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world The function of these forces was to keep internal order and to defend French territories from Allied assault. In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose The French forces were to remain under the overall direction of the German armed forces.
The exact strength of the Vichy French Metropolitan Army was set at 3,768 officers, 15,072 non-commissioned officers, and 75,360 men. All Vichy French forces had to be volunteers. In addition to the army, the size of the paramilitary Gendarmerie was fixed at 60,000 men plus an anti-aircraft force of 10,000 men. A gendarmerie or gendarmery (dʒɛnˈdɑrməriː or /ˌʒɑndɑrməˈriː/ after the French is a Military body charged with Police duties among civilian Despite the influx of trained soldiers from the colonial forces (reduced in size in accordance with the Armistice), there was a shortage of volunteers. As a result, 30,000 men of the 'class of 1939' were retained to fill the quota. At the beginning of 1942, these conscripts were released, but there still was an insufficient number of men. This shortage was to remain until the dissolution, despite Vichy appeals to the Germans for a regular form of conscription.
The Vichy French Metropolitan Army was deprived of tanks and other armored vehicles. The army was also desperately short of motorized transport. This was a special problem in the cavalry units which were supposed to be motorized. Surviving recruiting posters for the Army of the Armistice stress the opportunities for athletic activities, including horsemanship. This partially reflects the general emphasis placed by the Vichy regime on rural virtues and outdoor activities, and partially the realities of service in a small and technologically backward military force. Traditional features characteristic of the pre-1940 French Army, such as kepis and heavy capotes (buttoned back greatcoats), were replaced by berets and simplified uniforms. The kepi is a Cap with a flat circular top and a Visor ( American English) or peak ( British English) A beret (ber-HET in French or /ˈBer-EHT/ in English, except in the USA, where it is usually pronounced /ber-EHT is a soft round Cap, usually
The Army of the Armistice was not used against Resistance groups active in the south of France, leaving this role to the Vichy Milice (militia). The Milice Française ( French Militia) generally called simply Milice (" Militia " was a Paramilitary force Members of the regular army were therefore able to defect in significant numbers to the Maquis, following the German occupation of southern France and the disbandment of the Army of the Armistice in November 1942. The Maquis (ma'ki were the predominantly rural guerrilla bands of the French Resistance. By contrast the Milice continued to collaborate and were subject to reprisals after the Liberation.
The Vichy French colonial forces were reduced in accordance with the Armistice. Still, in the Mediterranean area alone, the Vichy French had approximately 55,000 men in Morocco, approximately 50,000 men in Algeria, and just under 40,000 men in the "Army of the Levant" in Lebanon and Syria. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The Army of the Levant ( Armée du Levant) identifies the armed forces of France and then Vichy France which occupied a portion of the " Levant Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية The colonial forces were allowed some armored vehicles. However, these tended to be "vintage" tanks as old as the World War I-era Renault FT-17. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The Renault FT 17 or Automitrailleuse à chenilles Renault FT modèle 1917 was a French light Tank; it is among the most revolutionary and influential
German custody
France was also required to turn over to German custody anyone within the country whom the Germans demanded. Within French deliberations, this was singled out as a potentially "dishonorable" term, since it would require France to hand over persons who had entered France seeking refuge from Germany. Attempts to negotiate the point with Germany were unsuccessful, and the French decided not to press the issue to the point of refusing the Armistice, though they may have hoped to ameliorate the requirement in future negotiations with Germany after the signing.
Mers-el-Kebir
Relations between the United Kingdom and the Vichy government were difficult, as the French had violated the terms of their alliance with the British by seeking a separate peace. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Vichy government broke off diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 5 July 1940 after the Royal Navy sank the French ships in port at Mers-el-Kebir, Algeria. Events 1295 - Scotland and France form an alliance the beginnings of the Auld Alliance, against England. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) The Attack on Mers-el-Kébir, also known as Operation Catapult, was a hostile engagement off the coast of French Algeria where a British Royal Navy Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The destruction of the fleet followed a standoff during which the British insisted that the French either scuttle their vessels, sail to a neutral port or join them in the war against Germany. These options were refused and the fleet was destroyed. This move by Britain hardened relations between the two former allies and caused more of the French population to side with Vichy against the British-supported Free French.
Vichy government
On July 1, 1940 the Parliament and the government gathered themselves in Vichy, a city in the center of France, which was used as a provisional capital. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Laval and Raphaël Alibert started convincing the representatives of the French people, both Senators and Assemblymen, to vote full powers to Pétain. Raphaël Alibert ( Saint-Laurent, February 17, 1887 &ndash June 5, 1963 in Paris) was a French politician Legal residents and citizens To be French according to the first article of the Constitution is to be a citizen of France regardless of one's origin race or religion ( Full Powers is a term in International law and is the authority of a person to sign a treaty or convention on behalf of a Sovereign state. They used every means available: promising some ministerial posts, threatening and intimidating others. The charismatic figures who could have opposed themselves to Laval, Georges Mandel, Edouard Daladier, etc. Georges Mandel ( June 5, 1885 &mdash July 7, 1944) was a French politician journalist and French Resistance leader Édouard Daladier (18 June 1884 - 10 October 1970 was a French Radical politician and Prime Minister of France at the start of the Second World , were on board the ship Massilia, headed for North Africa. On July 10, 1940 the Parliament, composed of the Senate and the National Assembly, voted by 569 votes against 80 (known as the Vichy 80, including 62 Radicals and Socialists), and 30 voluntary abstentions, to grant full and extraordinary powers to Marshal Pétain. Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Vichy 80 refers to a minority group of French elected parliamentarians who on July 10, 1940, voted against the constitutional change that dissolved The Radical Party ( Parti Radical, Rad also known as Parti radical valoisien) is a liberal and centrist political party in France Abstention is a term in Election procedure for when a participant in a vote either does not go to vote (on election day or in Parliamentary procedure, is present By the same vote, they also granted him the power to write a new Constitution.
The legality of this vote has been contested by the majority of French historians and by all French governments after the war. Three main arguments are put forward:
- abrogation of legal procedure
- the impossibility for the Parliament to delegate its constitutional powers without controlling its use a posteriori
- the 1884 constitutional amendment making it impossible to put into question the "republican form" of the regime
Partisans of Vichy claim, on the contrary, that the revision was voted by the two Chambers (the Senate and the National Assembly), in conformity with the law. Deputies and senators who voted to grant full powers to Pétain on this day were condemned on an individual basis after the Liberation.
The argument concerning the abrogation of procedure is grounded on the absence and on the non-voluntary abstentions of 176 representatives of the people (the 27 on board the Massilia, and additional 92 deputies and 57 senators some of whom were in Vichy, but not present for the vote). In total, the Parliament was composed of 846 members, 544 deputies and 302 senators. One senator and 26 deputies were on the Massilia. One senator did not vote. 8 senators and 12 MPs voluntarily abstained. 57 senators and 92 MPs abstained involuntarily. Thus, out of a total of 544 deputies, only 414 voted; and out of a total of 302 senators, only 235 voted. 357 deputies voted in favor of Pétain, and 57 refused to grant him full powers. 212 senators also voted for Pétain, while 23 voted against. The dubious conditions of this vote thus explain why a majority of French historians refuse to consider Vichy as a complete continuity of the French state, notwithstanding the fact that although Pétain could claim for himself legality (and a dubious legality), de Gaulle, as the Gaullist myth would later make clear, incarnated the real legitimacy. Gaullism (Gaullisme is a French political ideology based on the thought and action of Charles de Gaulle. The debate is thus not only of legitimacy versus legality (indeed, by this fact alone, Charles de Gaulle's claim to hold legitimacy ignores the interior Resistance). But it rather concerns the illegal circumstances of this vote. [3]
The text voted by the Congress stated:
"The National Assembly gives full powers to the government of the Republic, under the authority and the signature of Marshall Pétain, to the effect of promulgating by one or several acts a new Constitution of the French state. This Constitution must guarantee the rights of labour, of family and of the fatherland. It will be ratified by the nation and applied by the Assemblies which it has created. [4]
The Constitutional Acts of 11 and July 12, 1940 granted to Pétain all powers (legislative, judicial, administrative, executive — and diplomatic) and the title of "head of the French state" (chef de l'Etat français), as well as the right to nominate his successor. Events 1191 - Saladin 's garrison surrenders ending the two-year Siege of Acre. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. On 12 July, Pétain designated Pierre Laval as Vice-President and his designated successor, and appointed Fernand de Brinon as representative to the German High Command in Paris. Events 1191 - Saladin 's garrison surrenders ending the two-year Siege of Acre. Pierre Laval (28 June 1883 15 October 1945 was a French Politician and statesman who led the Vichy government during World War II, and Fernand de Brinon (August 26 1885 – April 15 1947 was a French lawyer and journalist who was one of the architects of collaboration with the Nazis during Pétain remained the head of the Vichy regime until August 20, 1944. Events 636 - Battle of Yarmouk: Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid take control of Syria and Palestine Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The French national motto, Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité (Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood), was replaced by Travail, Famille, Patrie (Work, Family, Fatherland); it was noted at the time that TFP also stood for the criminal punishment of "travaux forcés en perpetuité" ("forced labour in perpetuity"). Liberté égalité fraternité, French for " Liberty, equality, fraternity ( Brotherhood)" is the motto Paul Reynaud, who had not officially resigned as Prime Minister, was arrested in September 1940 by the Vichy government and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1941 before the opening of the Riom Trial. The Riom Trial ( February 19, 1942 - May 21, 1943) was an attempt by the regime of Vichy France, headed by Marshal Pétain
Democratic liberties and guarantees were immediately suspended (administrative internments, censorship, re-establishment of the felony of opinion (délit d'opinion, i. Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people commonly in large groups without trial In standard conditions France does not have Censorship laws being a Liberal democracy respectful of Freedom of press. e. repeal of freedom of thought and of expression), etc. Freedom of thought (also called freedom of conscience and freedom of ideas) is the freedom of an individual to hold or consider a fact viewpoint Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation. ) Elective bodies were replaced by nominated ones. The "municipalities" and the departmental commissions were thus placed under the authority of the administration and of the prefects (nominated by and dependent on the executive power). In the context of the political and geographic organization of France and many of its former colonies a department (département depaʁtǝmɑ̃ is an Administrative division A prefecture ( préfecture) in France can refer to: the Chef-lieu de département, the town in which the administration of a ''département'' In January 1941 the National Council (Conseil National), composed of notables from the countryside and the provinces, was instituted under the same conditions. Both the United States and the Soviet Union recognized the new regime, despite Charles de Gaulle's attempts, in London, to oppose this decision.
State collaboration with Nazi Germany
Historians distinguish between a state collaboration followed by the regime of Vichy, and "collaborationists", which usually refer to the French citizens eager to collaborate with Nazi Germany and who pushed towards a radicalization of the regime. "Pétainistes", on the other hand, refers to French people who supported Marshal Pétain, without being too keen on collaboration with Nazi Germany (although accepting Pétain's state collaboration). State collaboration was illustrated by the Montoire (Loir-et-Cher) interview in Hitler's train on October 24, 1940, during which Pétain and Hitler shook hands and agreed on this cooperation between the two states. Montoire-sur-le-Loir is a commune in France situated in the department of Loir-et-Cher in the region of Centre. Loir-et-Cher is a department in north-central France named after the rivers Loir and Cher. Events 69 - Second Battle of Bedriacum, forces under Antonius Primus the commander of the Danube armies loyal to Vespasian, defeat Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Organized by Laval, a strong proponent of collaboration, the interview and the handshake were photographed, and Nazi propaganda made strong use of this photo to gain support from the civilian population. Nazi propaganda is the term that describes the psychologically powerful Propaganda within Nazi Germany, much of which was centered around Jews consistently On October 30, 1940 Pétain officialized state collaboration, declaring on the radio: "I enter today on the path of collaboration. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. . . . "[5] On June 22, 1942 Laval declared that he was "hoping for the victory of Germany. Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. "
The composition of the Vichy cabinet, and its policies, were mixed. Many Vichy officials such as Pétain, though not all, were reactionaries who considered that France's unfortunate fate was a kind of divine punishment for its republican character and the actions of its left-wing governments of the 1930s, in particular of the Popular Front (1936-1938) led by Léon Blum. Reactionary (also reactionist) is a derogatory term usually used by the Left wing in regards to movements which oppose radical change in society and seeks a return The Popular Front (French Front populaire) was an alliance of left-wing movements including the French Communist Party (PCF the Socialist André Léon Blum (9 April 1872 30 March 1950 was a French politician usually identified with the moderate left and three times the Prime Minister of France. Charles Maurras, a monarchist writer and founder of the Action française movement, judged that Pétain's accession to power was, in that respect, a "divine surprise"; and many people of the same political persuasion judged that it was preferable to have an authoritarian, Catholic government similar to that of Francisco Franco's Spain, albeit under Germany's yoke, than have a republican government. __FORCETOC__ Charles Maurras ( 20 April 1868 Martigues Bouches-du-Rhône France – 16 November 1952) was The Action Française is a French Monarchist ( Orléanist) Counter-revolutionary movement and periodical founded by Maurice Pujo and Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde (born December 4, 1892 in Ferrol, died November 20, 1975 in Madrid Others, like Joseph Darnand, were strong anti-Semites and overt Nazi sympathizers. Joseph Darnand ( March 19, 1897 – October 10, 1945) was a French pro- Nazi leader and commander of the Vichy Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German A number of these joined the Légion des Volontaires Français contre le Bolchévisme (Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism) units fighting on the Eastern Front, which later became the SS Charlemagne Division. The Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism (Légion des Volontaires Français contre le Bolchévisme or simply Légion The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction The Eastern Front of World War II (die Ostfront 1941-1945, der Rußlandfeldzug 1941-1945 (Russian campaign or der Ostfeldzug 1941-1945 (Eastern Campaign The 33 Waffen-Grenadier-Division der SS Charlemagne (französische Nr
On the other hand, technocrats such as Jean Bichelonne or engineers from the Groupe X-Crise used their position to push various state, administrative and economic reforms. For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814 the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne Orléans is the name used by several branches of the Royal House of France all descended in the legitimate male line from the dynasty's royal founder Hugh Capet History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The founding of the Fourth Republic (1944-47 See also Three Parties, Third Force (France European Unity The creation of the See also Government of France The Fifth Republic is the fifth and current republican constitution of France, which was introduced on Technocracy: A form of government in which scientists and technical experts are in control "technocracy is described as that society in which those who govern justify themselves The Groupe X-Crise (or X-Crise) was a French technocratic movement created in 1931 as an aftermath of the 1929 Wall Street stock market crash These reforms would be one of the strongest element arguing in favor of the thesis of a continuity of the French administration before and after the war. Many of these civil servants remained in function after the war, or were quickly reestablished in their functions after a short-term moment during which they were set aside, while much of these reforms were retained and reinforced after the war. In the same way as the necessities of war economy during the first World War I had pushed toward state measures which organized the economy of France against the prevailing classical liberal theories, an organization which was retained after the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, reforms adopted during World War II were kept and extended. War economy is the term used to describe the contingencies undertaken by the modern State to mobilise its Economy for War production. This article addresses the current economic situation of France Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism, Laissez-faire liberalism, Market liberalism or in much of the world The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. Along with the March 15, 1944 Charter of the Conseil National de la Résistance (CNR), which gathered all Resistant movements under one unified political body, these reforms were a main instrument in the establishment of post-war dirigisme, a kind of semi-planned economy which made of France the modern social democracy it is now. Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Conseil National de la Résistance Dirigisme (from the French) (in English also "dirigism" although per the OED both spellings are used is an Economic term designating an economy Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left Examples of such continuities include the creation of the "French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems" by Alexis Carrel, a renowned physician who also supported eugenics. Alexis Carrel ( June 28, 1873 - November 5, 1944) was a French surgeon biologist and Eugenicist, who was awarded the Eugenics is a social Philosophy which advocates the improvement of Human Hereditary traits through various forms of intervention This institution would be renamed after the war National Institute of Demographic Studies (INED) and exists to this day. Another example is the creation of the national statistics institute, renamed INSEE after the Liberation. INSEE ( French: I nstitut N ational de la S tatistique et des É tudes É conomiques; inse (not) in French is the The reorganization and unification of the French police by René Bousquet, who created the Groupe mobile de réserve (GMR, Reserve Mobile Groups), a police force charged with striking fear amid the civilian population is another example of a policy of reform and restructuring deployed to poor purpose under the Vichy administration. The National Police ( police nationale) formerly the Sûreté Nationale, is one of two National police forces and the main civil law enforcement René Bousquet ( 11 May 1909 – 8 June 1993) was a high-ranking French civil servant who served as secretary general of the Starting in the summer of 1943, the GMR would be the most effective force used against the Resistants in the maquis. The Maquis (ma'ki were the predominantly rural guerrilla bands of the French Resistance. After the war they would be renamed in 1944 Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité (CRS, Republican Security Companies) which are the current anti-riot police used by the Republic. The Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité (CRS (Republican Security Companies are the riot control forces and general reserve of the French National Police.
Vichy's racial policies and collaboration
- Further information: Révolution nationale
As soon as it had been established, Pétain's government took measures against the so-called "undesirables": Jews, métèques (immigrants), Freemasons, Communists — inspired by Charles Maurras' conception of the "Anti-France", or "internal foreigners", which Maurras defined as the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" — but also Gypsies, homosexuals, and, in a general way, any left-wing activist. The Révolution nationale ( National Revolution) was the official ideological name under which the Vichy regime ("the French state" In Ancient Greece, the term metic meant resident alien a person who did not have citizen rights in their Greek City-state ( Polis) of residence Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based __FORCETOC__ Charles Maurras ( 20 April 1868 Martigues Bouches-du-Rhône France – 16 November 1952) was The Romani people (singular Rom, plural Roma as a Noun; also known as Romanies or Roma people) are an ethnic group with origins Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation. Vichy imitated the racial policies of the Third Reich and also engaged in natalist policies aimed at reviving the "French race", although these policies never went as far as the eugenics program implemented by the Nazis. The racial policy of Nazi Germany refers to the policies and laws implemented by Nazi Germany, asserting the superiority of the so-called " Aryan race " and Natalism or pro-birth is a belief that promotes Human reproduction. Nazi eugenics were Nazi Germany 's race-based social policies that placed the improvement of the race through Eugenics at the center of their
The internment camps already opened by the Third Republic were immediately put to a new use, before ultimately inserting themselves as necessary transit camps for the implementation of the Holocaust and the extermination of all "undesirables", including the Roma people who refer to the extermination of Gypsies as Porrajmos. There have been Internment camps and Concentration camps in France before during and after World War II. The Romani people (singular Rom, plural Roma as a Noun; also known as Romanies or Roma people) are an ethnic group with origins The Porajmos (also Porrajmos) literally Devouring, is a term considered to be coined by the Romani people to describe attempts by the regime in An October 1940 decree authorized internments of Jews on the sole basis of a prefectoral order, and the first raids took place in May 1941. A prefecture ( préfecture) in France can refer to: the Chef-lieu de département, the town in which the administration of a ''département'' [7]
The Third Republic had opened various concentration camps, first used during World War I to intern enemy aliens. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All In Law an enemy alien is a citizen of a country which is in a state of conflict with the land in which he or she is located Camp Gurs, for example, had been set up in the south-western part of France after the fall of Catalonia, in the first months of 1939, during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), to receive the Republican refugees, including Brigadists from all nations, fleeing the Francists. Camp Gurs was an internment and refugee camp constructed by the French government in 1939 Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of Right of asylum (or political asylum) is an ancient Judicial notion under which a person persecuted for political opinions or religious beliefs in his The International Brigades were Republican Military units in the Spanish Civil War, formed of many non-state sponsored volunteers of different countries But as soon as Edouard Daladier's government (April 1938-March 1940) took the decision to outlaw the French Communist Party (PCF) following the German-Soviet non-aggression pact (aka Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) signed in August 1939, these camps were also used to intern French communists. Édouard Daladier (18 June 1884 - 10 October 1970 was a French Radical politician and Prime Minister of France at the start of the Second World The French Communist Party ( French: Parti communiste français or PCF) is a political party in France which advocates the principles of Drancy internment camp was founded in 1939 for this use. Drancy deportation campof Paris, France used to hold Jews who were later deported to the Extermination camps. It later became the central transit camp through which all deportees passed before heading to the concentration and extermination camps in the Third Reich and in Eastern Europe. Extermination camps were two types of facilities that Nazi Germany built during World War II for the systematic killing of millions of people in what has become Furthermore, when the Phoney War started with France's declaration of war against Germany on September 3, 1939 these camps were used to intern enemy aliens. The Phoney War, also called the Twilight War by Winston Churchill, der Sitzkrieg in German ("the sitting war" a Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. These included German Jews and anti-fascists, but any German citizen (or Italian, Austrian, Polish, etc. Anti-fascism is the opposition to fascist ideologies organizations governments and people ) would also be interned in Camp Gurs and others. Camp Gurs was an internment and refugee camp constructed by the French government in 1939 Common-law prisoners were also evacuated from the prisons in the north of France, before the advance of the Wehrmacht, and interned in these camps. Wehrmacht (literally "defense force" was the name of the unified Armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 Camp Gurs then received its first contingent of political prisoners in June 1940, which included left-wing activists (communists, anarchists, trade-unionists, anti-militarists, etc. A political prisoner is someone held in Prison or otherwise detained perhaps under House arrest, for his or her involvement in political activity Anarchism in France dates from the 18th century Many Anarchists such as the Egalitarians took part in the French Revolution. Antimilitarism is a doctrine commonly found in the Anarchist and more globally in the Socialist movement which may be both characterized as Internationalist ), pacifists, but also French fascists who supported the victory of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. The far-right tradition in France founds its origins as the distinction of left and right in politics itself to the 1789 French Revolution. The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom Finally, after Pétain's proclamation of the "French state" and the beginning of the implementation of the "Révolution nationale" ("National Revolution"), the French administration opened up many concentration camps, to the point that historian Maurice Rajsfus wrote: "The quick opening of new camps created employment, and the Gendarmerie never ceased to hire during this period. The Révolution nationale ( National Revolution) was the official ideological name under which the Vichy regime ("the French state" A gendarmerie or gendarmery (dʒɛnˈdɑrməriː or /ˌʒɑndɑrməˈriː/ after the French is a Military body charged with Police duties among civilian "[8]
Besides the Spaniards and political prisoners already detained there, Camp Gurs was then used to intern foreign Jews, stateless persons, Gypsies, homosexuals, people involved in prostitution, indigents. . . Vichy opened its first internment camp in the northern zone on October 5, 1940, in Aincours, in the Seine-et-Oise department, which it quickly filled with PCF members. Events 869 - The Fourth Council of Constantinople is convened to decide about what to do about Patriarch Photius of Constantinople Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Seine-et-Oise was a département of France encompassing the western northern and southern parts of the metropolitan area of Paris. [9] The Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans, in the Doubs, was used to intern Gypsies. The Saline Royale ( Royal Saltworks) at Arc-et-Senans, in the forest of Chaux near Besançon, France is notable as an early Enlightenment [10] The Camp des Milles, near Aix-en-Provence, was the largest internment camp in the Southeast of France. The Camp des Milles was a French Internment camp, opened in September 1939 in a former Tile factory near the village of Les Milles part of the commune Aix (ɛks or Aix-en-Provence ( Provençal Occitan: Ais de Provença in classical norm or Ais de Prouvènço in Mistralian norm to distinguish 2,500 Jews were deported from there following the August 1942 raids[11] Spaniards were then deported, and 5,000 of them died in Mauthausen concentration camp. Mauthausen Concentration Camp (known from the summer of 1940 as Mauthausen-Gusen Concentration Camp) grew to become a large group of Nazi concentration camps [7] On the other hand, the French colonial soldiers were interned by the Germans on French territory, instead of being deported. [7]
Besides the concentration camps opened by Vichy, the Germans also opened on French territory some Ilags (Internierungslager) to detain enemy aliens, and in Alsace, which had been annexed by the Reich, they opened the camp of Natzweiler, which is the only concentration camp created by Nazis on French territory (annexed by the Third Reich). Ilag is an abbreviation of the German word Internierungslager. Natzweiler-Struthof was a Nazi Concentration camp, located in the Vosges Mountains close to the Alsatian village of Natzwiller Natzweiler included a gas chamber which was used to exterminate at least 86 detainees (mostly Jewish) with the aim obtaining a collection of undamaged skeletons (as this mode of execution did no damage to the skeletons themselves) for the use of Nazi professor August Hirt. A gas chamber is an apparatus for killing consisting of a sealed chamber into which a Poisonous or Asphyxiant gas is introduced August Hirt ( April 28 1898 in Mannheim – June 2 1945 in Schönenbach / Schwarzwald) an SS- Hauptsturmführer
Furthermore Vichy enacted a number of racist laws. In August 1940 laws against antisemitism in the media (the Marchandeau Act) were repealed, while the decree n°1775 of September 5, 1943 denaturalized a number of French citizens, in particular Jews from Eastern Europe. A decree is an order made by a Head of state or government and having the force of Law. Events 1590 - Alexander Farnese 's army forces Henry IV of France to raise the siege of Paris. Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Naturalization is the acquisition of Citizenship or Nationality by somebody who was not a citizen or national of that country when he or she was born French nationality law is historically based on the principle of Jus soli, according to Ernest Renan 's definition opposed to the German [7] Foreigners were rounded-up in "Foreign Workers Groups" (groupements de travailleurs étrangers) and, as the colonial troops, were used by the Germans as manpower. [7] The Statute on Jews then forced Jews to wear a yellow badge and excluded them from the civil administration. The Statute on Jews (Statut des juifs was discriminatory legislation against French Jews passed on October 3, 1940 by the Vichy Regime, grouping them as The yellow badge (or yellow patch) also referred to as a Jewish badge, was a cloth patch that Jews were ordered to sew on their outer garments in order
With regard to economic contribution to the German economy it is estimated that France provided 42% of the total foreign aid. [12]
Eugenics policies
In 1941 Nobel Prize winner Alexis Carrel, who had been an early proponent of eugenics and euthanasia and was a member of Jacques Doriot's French Popular Party (PPF), went on to advocate for the creation of the Fondation Française pour l’Etude des Problèmes Humains (French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems), using connections to the Pétain cabinet (specifically, French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier). The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin is awarded once a year by the Swedish Karolinska Institute. Alexis Carrel ( June 28, 1873 - November 5, 1944) was a French surgeon biologist and Eugenicist, who was awarded the Eugenics is a social Philosophy which advocates the improvement of Human Hereditary traits through various forms of intervention Euthanasia (literally "good death" in Ancient Greek) refers to the practice of ending a life in a painless manner Jacques Doriot ( September 26 1898, Bresles, Oise &mdash February 22 1945, near Mengen, Württemberg The Parti Populaire Français (French Popular Party (28th June 1936–February 22 1945 was a Fascist political party led by Jacques Doriot before and during Charged with the "study, in all of its aspects, of measures aimed at safeguarding, improving and developing the French population in all of its activities", the Foundation was created by decree of the collaborationist Vichy regime in 1941, and Carrel appointed as 'regent'. As of January 1, 2008, 64473140 people live in the French Republic. A decree is an order made by a Head of state or government and having the force of Law. [13] The Foundation also had for some time as general secretary François Perroux. François Perroux ( December 19, 1903 - June 2, 1987) was a French Economist.
The Foundation was behind the origin of the December 16, 1942 Act inventing the "prenuptial certificate", which had to precede any marriage and was supposed, after a biological examination, to insure the "good health" of the spouses, in particular in regard to sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and "life hygiene" (sic). Events 755 - An Lushan revolts against Chancellor Yang Guozhong at Fanyang, initiating the An Shi Rebellion Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans Carrel's institute also conceived the "scholar book" ("livret scolaire"), which could be used to record a student's grades in the French secondary schools, and thus classify and select them according to scholastic performance. The French educational system is highly centralized organised and ramified Beside these eugenics activities aimed at classifying the population and "improving" its "health", the Foundation also supported the October 11, 1946 law instituting occupational medicine, enacted by the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) after the Liberation. Events 1138 - A massive earthquake struck Aleppo, Syria. 1531 - Huldrych Zwingli is killed Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Occupational safety and health is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the Safety, Health and welfare of people engaged in The Provisional Government of the French Republic ( gouvernement provisoire de la République française or GPRF was an interim government which governed
The Foundation also initiated studies on demographics (Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois), nutrition (Jean Sutter), lodging (Jean Merlet) as well as the first polls (Jean Stoetzel). Polymerase (DNA directed lambda, also known as POLL, is a human Gene. The foundation, which became after the war the INED demographics institute, employed 300 researchers from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn of 1944. Demographics or demographic data refers to selected population characteristics as used in government Marketing or opinion research or the Demographic profiles [14] "The foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs—roughly one franc per inhabitant—a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation’s resources. By way of comparison, the whole Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs. "[13]
Alexis Carrel had previously published in 1935 the best-selling book titled L'Homme, cet inconnu (Man, This Unknown). Since the early 1930s, Alexis Carrel advocated the use of gas chambers to rid humanity of its "inferior stock", endorsing the scientific racism discourse. A gas chamber is an apparatus for killing consisting of a sealed chamber into which a Poisonous or Asphyxiant gas is introduced Scientific racism denotes the use of scientific or ostensibly scientific findings and methods to support or validate racist attitudes and worldviews One of the founder of these pseudoscientifical theories had been Arthur de Gobineau in his 1853-1855 essay titled An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races. Pseudoscience is defined as a body of knowledge methodology belief or practice that is claimed to be Scientific or made to appear scientific but does not adhere to the Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau ( July 14, 1816 — October 13, 1882) was a French Aristocrat, novelist and man of An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853&ndash1855 by Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau is a voluminous work while originally intended as a work of In the 1936 preface to the German edition of his book, Alexis Carrel had added a praise to the eugenics policies of the Third Reich, writing that:
"(t)he German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous. "[15]
Carrel also wrote in his book that:
"(t)he conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to insure order. Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses. A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts. ". [16]
Alexis Carrel had also taken an active part to a symposium in Pontigny organised by Jean Coutrot, the "Entretiens de Pontigny". Scholars such as Lucien Bonnafé, Patrick Tort and Max Lafont have accused Carrel of responsibility for the execution of thousands of mentally ill or impaired patients under Vichy.
The Statute on Jews
A Nazi ordinance dated September 21, 1940 forced Jews of the "occupied zone" to declare themselves as such in police office or sub-prefectures (sous-préfectures). Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Events 1217 - The Estonian tribal leader Lembitu of Lehola was killed in a battle against Teutonic Knights. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A prefecture ( préfecture) in France can refer to: the Chef-lieu de département, the town in which the administration of a ''département'' Under the responsibility of André Tulard, head of the Service on Foreign Persons and Jewish Questions at the Prefecture of Police of Paris, a filing system registering Jewish people was created. André Tulard was a French civil administrator and police inspector The Prefecture of Police (Préfecture de Police headed by the Prefect of Police ( Préfet de Police) is an agency of the Government of France (and A filing cabinet (or file cabinet in the United States) is a piece of office equipment that is useful for temporary and permanent storage Tulard had previously created such a filing system under the Third Republic, registering members of the Communist Party (PCF). The French Communist Party ( French: Parti communiste français or PCF) is a political party in France which advocates the principles of In the sole department of the Seine, encompassing Paris and its immediate suburbs, nearly 150,000 persons, unaware of the up-coming danger and assisted by the French police, presented themselves to the police offices, in accordance with the military order. Seine was a département of France encompassing Paris and its immediate suburbs The National Police ( police nationale) formerly the Sûreté Nationale, is one of two National police forces and the main civil law enforcement The registered information was then centralized by the French police, who constituted, under the direction of inspector Tulard, a central filing system. According to the Dannecker report, "this filing system subdivised itself into files alphabetically classed, Jewish with French nationality and foreign Jewish having files of different colours, and the files were also classed, according to profession, nationality and street" (of residency[17]). Theodor Dannecker (born 27 March 1913 in Tübingen; died 10 December 1945 in Bad Tölz) was an SS Hauptsturmführer These files were then handed over to Theodor Dannecker, head of the Gestapo in France and under the orders of Adolf Eichmann, head of the RSHA IV-D. Theodor Dannecker (born 27 March 1913 in Tübingen; died 10 December 1945 in Bad Tölz) was an SS Hauptsturmführer The RSHA, or Reichssicherheitshauptamt (Reich Security Head Office was a subordinate organization of the SS. They were then used by the Gestapo on various raids, among them the August 1941 raid in the XIe arrondissement of Paris, during which 3,200 foreign Jews and 1,000 French Jews were interned in various camps, including Drancy. Drancy deportation campof Paris, France used to hold Jews who were later deported to the Extermination camps. Furthermore, the French police noted on this occasion, on each identity documents of the Jewish people, their registration as Jews. An identity document, also called a piece of identification ( ID) is a document used to verify aspects of a person's Identity. As Italian political philosopher Giorgio Agamben has pointed out, this racial profiling was an important step in the organization of the police raids against the French Jewish community. Giorgio Agamben (born 1942 in Rome) is an Italian philosopher who teaches at the Università IUAV di Venezia. Racial profiling is the inclusion of racial or ethnic characteristics in determining whether a person is considered likely to commit a particular type of crime or [18]
On October 3, 1940 the Vichy government voluntarily promulgated the first Statute on Jews, which created a special, underclass of French Jewish citizens, and enforced, for the first time ever in France, racial segregation. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Statute on Jews (Statut des juifs was discriminatory legislation against French Jews passed on October 3, 1940 by the Vichy Regime, grouping them as The contemporary concept of the underclass is a sanitized term for what was known in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as the undeserving poor and may have been coined by American sociologist The Statute first made mandatory the yellow badges, a reminiscence of old Christian anti-semitism. The yellow badge (or yellow patch) also referred to as a Jewish badge, was a cloth patch that Jews were ordered to sew on their outer garments in order Although Christian antisemitism is considered to have started around the 12th century its roots are attributed by some scholars to anti-Jewish attitudes and polemic beginning Police inspector André Tulard participated in the logistics concerning the attribution of these badges. Logistics is the management of the flow of Goods, Information and other resources including Energy and people between the point of origin and the point [19] The October 1940 Statute also excluded Jews from the administration, the armed forces, entertainment, arts, media, and certain professional roles (teachers, lawyers, doctors of medicine, etc. ). A Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs (CGQJ, Commissariat Général aux Questions Juives), was created on March 29, 1941. Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. It was first directed by Xavier Vallat, until May 1942, and then by Darquier de Pellepoix until February 1944. Xavier Vallat ( 7 July 1891 - 6 January 1972) French politician was Commissioner-General for Jewish Questions in the wartime Louis Darquier, better known under his assumed name Louis Darquier de Pellepoix ( December 19 1897, Cahors &ndash August 29 1980 Mirroring the Reich Association of Jews, the Union Générale des Israélites de France was founded.
The police also oversaw the confiscation of telephones and radios from Jewish homes and enforced a curfew on Jews starting from February 1942. A curfew can be one of the following An order by a Government for certain persons to return home daily before a certain time It attentively monitored the Jews who did not respect the prohibition according to which they were not supposed to appear in public places and had to travel in the last car of the Parisian metro.
Along with many French police officers, André Tulard was present on the day of the inauguration of Drancy internment camp in 1941, which was used as the central transit camp for detainees captured in France, in the huge majority by the French police itself. Drancy deportation campof Paris, France used to hold Jews who were later deported to the Extermination camps. All Jews and others "undesirables" passed through Drancy before heading to Auschwitz and other camps. "Auschwitz" redirects here For the town see Oświęcim Auschwitz-Birkenau () was the largest of Nazi Germany See also List of Nazi-German concentration camps, Extermination camp Prior to and during World War II, Nazi Germany under Hitler maintained
The July 1942 Vel'd'hiv round-up
In July 1942 the French police, under the orders of René Bousquet and his second in Paris, Jean Leguay, organized, along with responsibles from the SNCF train company, the Vel'd'hiv raid which took place on July 16 and July 17. The Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv (the "round-up" or "raid" of the Vel' d'Hiv from the French abbreviation for Vélodrome d'hiver, or winter velodrome René Bousquet ( 11 May 1909 – 8 June 1993) was a high-ranking French civil servant who served as secretary general of the Jean Leguay ( 29 November 1909 — 5 July 1989) was a high ranking French civil servant accomplice of the Deportation of Jews from SNCF ( Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français) (French National Railway Company is a French public enterprise The Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv (the "round-up" or "raid" of the Vel' d'Hiv from the French abbreviation for Vélodrome d'hiver, or winter velodrome Events 622 - The beginning of the Islamic calendar. 1054 - Three Roman legates fractured relations between the Western and Events 180 - Twelve inhabitants of Scillium in North Africa are executed for being Christians The police arrested 12,884 Jews—including 4,051 children which the Gestapo had not asked for—5,082 women and 3,031 men, and imprisoned them in the Winter Velodrome in unhygienic conditions, from which they were led to Drancy internment camp (run by Nazi Alois Brunner, who as of 2007 is still wanted for crimes against humanity, and French constabulary police) and then to the concentration camps. The Vélodrome d'Hiver ("Winter Velodrome" was an indoor cycle track (or Velodrome) in the rue Nélaton close to the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Drancy deportation campof Paris, France used to hold Jews who were later deported to the Extermination camps. Alois Brunner (born April 8 1912, reports of death contested is an Austrian Nazi War criminal. Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people commonly in large groups without trial By its own, this action represented more than a quarter of the 42,000 French Jews sent to Auschwitz in 1942, of which only 811 would come back after the end of the war. The Gestapo hardly had ordered it to act so; the police eagerly participated in the raid. The ( contraction of ge heime Sta ats' po' lizei: "Secret State Police" was the official Secret police of Nazi Germany On July 16, 1995, president Jacques Chirac officially recognized the active participation of French police forces in the July 16, 1942 raid. Events 622 - The beginning of the Islamic calendar. 1054 - Three Roman legates fractured relations between the Western and Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Events 622 - The beginning of the Islamic calendar. 1054 - Three Roman legates fractured relations between the Western and Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. "There was no effective police resistance until the end of Spring of 1944", wrote historians Jean-Luc Einaudi and Maurice Rajsfus[20]
In total, the Vichy government helped in the deportation of 76,000 Jews, although this number varies depending on the account, to German extermination camps; only 2,500 survived the war. [21]
August 1942 and January 1943 raids
- Further information: Battle of Marseille
The French police, headed by Bousquet, arrested 7,000 Jews in the southern zone in August 1942. The Battle of Marseille took place in the Old Port of Marseille, under the Vichy regime, on 22 23 and 24 January 1943 Two thousand five hundred of them transited through the Camp des Milles near Aix-en-Provence before joining Drancy. The Camp des Milles was a French Internment camp, opened in September 1939 in a former Tile factory near the village of Les Milles part of the commune Then, on 22, 23 and 24 January 1943, assisted by Bousquet's police force, the Germans organized a raid in Marseille. During the Battle of Marseille, the French police controlled the identity of 40,000 people, and the operation succeeded in sending 2,000 Marseillese people in the death trains, leading to the extermination camps. The Battle of Marseille took place in the Old Port of Marseille, under the Vichy regime, on 22 23 and 24 January 1943 An identity document, also called a piece of identification ( ID) is a document used to verify aspects of a person's Identity. Extermination camps were two types of facilities that Nazi Germany built during World War II for the systematic killing of millions of people in what has become The operation also encompassed the expulsion of an entire neighborhood (30,000 persons) in the Old Port before its destruction. For this occasion, SS Karl Oberg, in charge of the German Police in France, made the trip from Paris, and transmitted to Bousquet orders directly received from Himmler himself. The ( German for "Protective Squadron" abbreviated SS - or ( Runic)- was a major Nazi organization under Adolf Hitler and the General Carl Albrecht Oberg (b January 27, 1897 in Hamburg; died June 3, 1965 in Flensburg) was a Higher Heinrich Luitpold Himmler ( 7 October 1900 – 23 May 1945 was a Nazi German politician and head of the Schutzstaffel (SS. It is another notable case of the French police's willful collaboration with the Nazis. [22]
French collaborationnistes and collaborators
Stanley Hoffmann in 1974,[23] and after him, other historians such as Robert Paxton and Jean-Pierre Azéma have used the term collaborationnistes to refer to fascists and Nazi sympathizers who, for ideological reasons, wished a reinforced collaboration with Hitler's Germany. Stanley Hoffmann (born 1928 is the Paul and Catherine Buttenweiser University Professor at Harvard University. Robert Paxton (b 1932) is an American Historian specializing in Vichy France and Europe during the World War II era Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Examples of these are Parti Populaire Français (PPF) leader Jacques Doriot, writer Robert Brasillach or Marcel Déat. The Parti Populaire Français (French Popular Party (28th June 1936–February 22 1945 was a Fascist political party led by Jacques Doriot before and during Jacques Doriot ( September 26 1898, Bresles, Oise &mdash February 22 1945, near Mengen, Württemberg Robert Brasillach ( 31 March 1909 &ndash 6 February 1945) was a French author and journalist who was executed for advocating Marcel Déat ( March 7 1894, Guérigny &mdash January 5 1955, near Turin, Italy) was a French
A number of the French advocated fascist philosophies even before the occupation. Far-right organizations, such as La Cagoule, had contributed to the destabilization of the Third Republic, particularly when the left-wing Popular Front was in power. La Cagoule ( The Cowl, press nickname coined by the Action Française nationalist Maurice Pujo) officially called The Popular Front (French Front populaire) was an alliance of left-wing movements including the French Communist Party (PCF the Socialist After France's military defeat, some of these sympathisers actively assisted the Vichy regime; some even directly assisted the Nazis in taking Jewish private property, destroying synagogues and other Jewish monuments, and in shipping Jews to Nazi concentration camps. A prime example is the founder of L'Oréal cosmetics, Eugène Schueller, and his associate Jacques Corrèze. The L'Oréal Group is the world's largest Cosmetics and Beauty company and is headquartered in the Paris suburb of Clichy, France Eugène Schueller ( 20 march[[ 881]] - 23 August 1957) was the founder of L'Oréal, the world's leading company in Cosmetics and Jacques Corrèze ( February 11 1912, Auxerre &mdash 28 June 1991, Paris) a French businessman and politician
Collaborationists may have influenced the Vichy government's policies, but ultra-collaborationists never comprised the majority of the government before 1944. [24]
In order to enforce the régime's will, some paramilitary organizations with a fascist leaning were created. A paramilitary is a force whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military force but which are not regarded as having the same status Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology A notable example was the "Légion Française des Combattants" (L. F. C. ) (French Legion of Fighters), including at first only former combatants, but quickly adding "Amis de la Légion" and cadets of the Légion, who had never seen battle, but were supporters of his dictatorial regime. The name was then quickly changed to "Légion Française des Combattants et des volontaires de la Révolution Nationale" (French Legion of Fighters and Volunteers of the National Revolution). Then, Joseph Darnand created a "Service d'Ordre Légionnaire" (S. Joseph Darnand ( March 19, 1897 – October 10, 1945) was a French pro- Nazi leader and commander of the Vichy The Service d'ordre légionnaire (SOL was a Collaborationist Militia created by Joseph Darnand, a Far right veteran from the First World O. L. ), which consisted mostly of French supporters of the Nazis, of which Pétain fully approved.
Relationships with the Allied powers
The United States granted Vichy full diplomatic recognition, sending Admiral William D. Leahy to France as American ambassador. The Vichy regime, proclaimed by Marshall Pétain after the Fall of France in 1940 before Nazi Germany, was quickly recognized by the Allies, The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Diplomatic recognition in international law is a unilateral political act with domestic and international legal consequences whereby a state acknowledges an act Fleet Admiral William Daniel Leahy ( May 6, 1875 &ndash July 20, 1959) was an American naval officer Governor of An ambassador is the highest ranking Diplomat who represents their country President Roosevelt and Secretary of State Cordell Hull hoped to use American influence to encourage those elements in the Vichy government opposed to military collaboration with Germany. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by The United States Secretary of State (commonly abbreviated as SecState) is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with Foreign affairs Cordell Hull ( October 2, 1871 &ndash July 23, 1955) was an American politician from the U The Americans also hoped to encourage Vichy to resist German war demands, such as for air bases in French-mandated Syria or to move war supplies through French territories in North Africa. The essential American position was that France should take no action not explicitly required by the armistice terms that could adversely affect Allied efforts in the war.
- The USSR maintained, until June 30, 1941, full diplomatic relations with the Vichy Regime, broken after Vichy supported Operation Barbarossa. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, is defeated and killed by troops of the Usurper Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Operation Barbarossa ( Unternehmen Barbarossa) was the Codename for Nazi Germany 's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II
- Canada maintained, till the beginning of November 1942, full diplomatic relations with the Vichy Regime, until the Case Anton. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page During World War II the German authorities codenamed the occupation of Vichy France Case (or Operation) Anton. [25]
- Australia maintained, until the end of the war, full diplomatic relations with the Vichy Regime and entered also into full diplomatic relations with the Free French. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. [26]
- The United Kingdom, shortly after the Armistice (22 June 1940), attacked a large French naval contingent in Mers-el-Kebir, killing 1,297 French military personnel. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located An armistice is a situation where the warring parties agree to stop fighting Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Attack on Mers-el-Kébir, also known as Operation Catapult, was a hostile engagement off the coast of French Algeria where a British Royal Navy Vichy severed diplomatic relations. Britain feared that the French naval fleet could wind up in German hands and be used against its own naval forces, which were so vital to maintaining world-wide shipping and communications. Under the armistice, France had been allowed to retain the French Navy, the Marine Nationale, under strict conditions. The French Navy, officially the Marine nationale ( National Navy) and often called La Royale ( The Royal Navy) is the maritime arm Vichy pledged that the fleet would never fall into the hands of Germany, but refused to send the fleet beyond Germany's reach, either by sending it to Britain, or even to far away territories of the French empire, such as the West Indies. This was not enough security for Winston Churchill. French ships in British ports were seized by the Royal Navy. The French squadron at Alexandria, under Admiral René-Emile Godfroy, was effectively interned until 1943 after an agreement was reached with Admiral Andrew Browne Cunningham, commander of the Mediterranean Fleet. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια René-Emile Godfroy was a French admiral He died at Fréjus, southern France in January 1981 aged 96 Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Browne Cunningham 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope, Bt, KT, GCB, OM, DSO (7 January
President Roosevelt disliked Charles de Gaulle, whom he regarded as an "apprentice dictator. "[27] Robert Murphy, Roosevelt's representative in North Africa, prepared starting in December 1940 (a year before the United States' entrance into the war) the landing in Morocco and Algeria. Robert Daniel Murphy (1894&ndash1978 was an American Diplomat. The US first tried to support General Maxime Weygand, general delegate of Vichy for Africa until December 1941. Maxime Weygand ( 21 January 1867 - 28 January 1965) (vɛgɑ̃ was a French military commander in World War I and World This first choice having failed, they turned to Henri Giraud a short time before the landing in North Africa on November 8, 1942. Henri Honoré Giraud ( 18 January 1879 &ndash 13 March 1949) was a French general who fought in World War I and World Events 1519 - Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with great a Celebration Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Finally, after François Darlan's turn towards the Free Forces — Darlan had been president of Council of Vichy from February 1941 to April 1942 —, they played him against de Gaulle. François Darlan (7 August 1881 &ndash 24 December 1942 was a French Naval officer. US General Mark W. Clark of the combined Allied command made Admiral Darlan sign on 22 November 1942 a treaty putting "North Africa to the disposition of the Americans" and making of France "a vassal country. Mark Wayne Clark ( May 1, 1896 – April 17, 1984) was an American general during World War II and the Korean War Events 498 - Kofi Aseidu- After the death of Anastasius II, Symmachus is elected Pope in the Lateran Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. "[27] Washington then imagined, between 1941 and 1942, a protectorate status for France, who would be submitted after the Liberation to an Allied Military Government of Occupied Territories (AMGOT) as Germany. The Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories (AMGOT was the form of military rule administered by Allied forces during and after World War II within European territories After the assassination of Darlan on 24 December 1942, Washington turned again towards Henri Giraud, to whom had rallied Maurice Couve de Murville, who had financial responsibilities in Vichy, and Lemaigre-Dubreuil, a former member of La Cagoule and entrepreneur, as well as Alfred Pose, general director of the Banque nationale pour le commerce et l'industrie (National Bank for Trade and Industry). Events 563 - The Byzantine church Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is dedicated for the second time after being destroyed by Earthquakes Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Maurice Couve de Murville (24 January 1907 - 24 December 1999 was a French diplomat and Politician who was Minister of Foreign Affairs La Cagoule ( The Cowl, press nickname coined by the Action Française nationalist Maurice Pujo) officially called [27]
Creation of Free French Forces
To counter the Vichy regime, General Charles de Gaulle created the Free French Forces (FFL) after his Appeal of 18 June, 1940 radio speech. Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces The Appeal of 18th June was a famous speech by Charles de Gaulle, the leader of the Free French Forces, in 1940 Initially, Winston Churchill was ambivalent about de Gaulle and he dropped ties with Vichy only when it became clear they would not fight. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC, PC (Can ( 30 November 1874 Even so, the Free France headquarters in London was riven with internal divisions and jealousies.
The additional participation of Free French forces in the Syrian operation was controversial within Allied circles. It raised the prospect of Frenchmen shooting at Frenchmen, raising fears of a civil war. Additionally, it was believed that the Free French were widely reviled within Vichy military circles, and that Vichy forces in Syria were less likely to resist the British if they were not accompanied by elements of the Free French. Nevertheless, de Gaulle convinced Churchill to allow his forces to participate, although de Gaulle was forced to agree to a joint British and Free French proclamation promising that Syria and Lebanon would become fully independent at the end of the war.
However, there were still French naval ships under French control. A large squadron was in port at Mers El Kébir harbor near Oran. Mers-el-Kébir (المرسى الكبير “the Great Harbor” is a port town in northwestern Algeria, located by the Mediterranean Sea near Oran Oran ( Arabic:ar وهران pronounced Wahran; also transliterated as Ouahran, Spanish: Orán. Vice Admiral Somerville, with Force H under his command, was instructed to deal with the situation in July 1940. Force H was a British naval task force (though that term was not used during World War II. Various terms were offered to the French squadron, but all were rejected. Consequently, Force H opened fire on the French ships. The Attack on Mers-el-Kébir, also known as Operation Catapult, was a hostile engagement off the coast of French Algeria where a British Royal Navy Nearly 1,000 French sailors died when the Bretagne blew up in the attack. Construction Her keel was laid down on 1 July 1912 and she was launched on 21 April 1913 Less than two weeks after the armistice, Britain had fired upon forces of its former ally. The result was shock and resentment towards the UK within the French Navy, and to a lesser extent in the general French public.
Vichy French colonies
While a few French colonies went over to the Free French immediately, many remained loyal to Vichy France. The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces In time, the majority of the colonies tended to switch to the Allied side peacefully in response to persuasion and to changing events. In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose But this took time. Guadeloupe and Martinique in the West Indies, as well as French Guiana on the northern coast of South America, did not join the Free French until 1943. Guadeloupe is an island group or Archipelago located in the eastern Caribbean Sea at, with a land area of 1628 square kilometres (629 sq Martinique is an Island in the eastern Caribbean Sea, having a land area of 1128 km² The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting French Guiana (Guyane française officially fr ''Guyane'' is an Overseas department (French département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France Other French colonies had the decision to switch sides enforced more strenuously.
Conflicts with Britain in Dakar, Syria, and Madagascar
On September 23, 1940 the British launched the Battle of Dakar, also known as Operation Menace. The Battle of Dakar, also known as Operation Menace, was an unsuccessful attempt in September 1940 by the Allies to capture the strategic port of Dakar The Syria-Lebanon campaign, also known as Operation Exporter, was the Allied invasion of Vichy French -controlled Syria and Lebanon The Battle of Madagascar (or Operation Ironclad) was the Allied campaign to capture Vichy French -controlled Madagascar during World Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Battle of Dakar, also known as Operation Menace, was an unsuccessful attempt in September 1940 by the Allies to capture the strategic port of Dakar The Battle of Dakar was part of the West Africa Campaign. The name West African campaign refers to two battles during World War II: the Battle of Dakar (also known as Operation Menace) and the Battle Operation Menace was a plan to capture the strategic port of Dakar in French West Africa. For the Dakar Rally see Dakar Rally. For the Israeli submarine see INS Dakar. French West Africa ( Afrique occidentale française, AOF) was a Federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa: The port was under the control of the Vichy French. The plan called for installing Free French forces under General Charles de Gaulle in Dakar. The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French By September 25, the battle was over, the plan was unsuccessful, and Dakar remained under Vichy French control. Events 303 - On a voyage preaching the Gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens, France
In June 1941 the next flashpoint between Britain and Vichy France came when a revolt in Iraq was put down by British forces. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. German Air Force (Luftwaffe) and Italian Air Force (Regia Aeronautica) aircraft, staging through the French possession of Syria, intervened in the fighting in small numbers. ( German 'luftvafe is a generic German term for an Air force. The Royal Air Force ( Regia Aeronautica) was the name of the Italian Air Force established as an independent service from 1923 until the Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية That highlighted Syria as a threat to British interests in the Middle East. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Consequently, on June 8, British and Commonwealth forces invaded Syria and Lebanon. Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable The Armed forces of the United Kingdom, commonly known as the British Armed Forces or Her Majesty's Armed Forces, and sometimes legally the Armed Forces Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية This was known as the Syria-Lebanon Campaign or Operation Exporter. The Syria-Lebanon campaign, also known as Operation Exporter, was the Allied invasion of Vichy French -controlled Syria and Lebanon The Syrian capital, Damascus, was captured on June 17 and the five-week campaign ended with the fall of Beirut and the Convention of Acre (Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre) on July 14, 1941. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 The Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre concluded the Syria-Lebanon campaign of World War II. Events 1223 - Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father Philip II of France. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
From May 5 to November 6, 1942 Operation Ironclad, another major operation by British forces against Vichy French territory, was launched. Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This operation was known as the Battle of Madagascar. The Battle of Madagascar (or Operation Ironclad) was the Allied campaign to capture Vichy French -controlled Madagascar during World The British feared that Japanese forces might use Madagascar as a base and thus cripple British trade and communications in the Indian Ocean. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface As a result, Madagascar was invaded by British and Commonwealth forces. The island fell relatively quickly and the operation ended in victory for the British. But the operation is often viewed as an unnecessary diversion of British naval resources away from more vital theatres of operation.
French Indochina
In June 1940 the Fall of France obviously made the French hold on Indochina tenuous. The, also known as the Vietnam Expedition, was an attempt by the Empire of Japan, during the Second Sino-Japanese War to blockade China and prevent The Second French Indochina Campaign also known as the Japanese coup of March 1945, was a Japanese military operation in all Vietnam, then a French colony In World War II, the Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries The isolated colonial administration was cut off from outside help and outside supplies. After the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in September 1940, also known as the Vietnam Expedition, the French were forced to allow the Japanese to set up military bases. The, also known as the Vietnam Expedition, was an attempt by the Empire of Japan, during the Second Sino-Japanese War to blockade China and prevent First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit
This seemingly subservient behavior convinced the regime of Major-General Plaek Pibulsonggram, the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Thailand, that Vichy France would not seriously resist a confrontation with Thailand. Field Marshal Luang Plaek Pibulsonggram ( Thai: แปลก พิบูลสงคราม or ป The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj In October 1940 the military forces of Thailand attacked across the border with Indochina and launched the French-Thai War. Indochina, or the Indochinese Peninsula, is a region in Southeast Asia.
In March 1945 the Japanese staged a coup d'état in French Indochina and took control of Vietnam establishing their own colony, Empire of Vietnam, as a double puppet state. The Second French Indochina Campaign also known as the Japanese coup of March 1945, was a Japanese military operation in all Vietnam, then a French colony The Empire of Vietnam ( Vietnamese: Đế quốc Việt Nam, or (Việt Nam Đế quốc) was a short-lived Puppet state of Imperial Japan A puppet state is a State that is nominally independent but in reality under the control of another power
French Somaliland
During the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the mid-1930s and during the early stages of World War II, constant border skirmishes occurred between the forces in French Somaliland and the forces in Italian East Africa. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Djibouti ( جيبوتي Jībūtī, Somali: Jabuuti) officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Italian East Africa ( Italian: Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI was a short-lived (1936-1941 Italian Colony in Africa consisting of After the fall of France in 1940, French Somaliland declared loyalty to the Vichy France. In World War II, the Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries The colony remained loyal to Vichy France during the East African Campaign but stayed out of that conflict. The East African Campaign refers to the battles fought in East Africa during World War II. This lasted until December 1942. By that time, the Italians had been defeated and the French colony was isolated by a British blockade. Free French and the Allied forces recaptured the colony's capital of Djibouti at the end of 1942. The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose Djibouti ( جيبوتي Jībūtī, Somali: Jabuuti) officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the A local battalion from Djibouti participated in the liberation of France in 1944. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics.
French North Africa
The Allied invasion of French North Africa, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, started on 8 November 1942 with landings in Morocco and Algeria. Operation Torch (initially called Operation Gymnast) was the British - American invasion of French North Africa in World War II In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Events 1519 - Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with great a Celebration Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The invasion, known as Operation Torch, was launched because the Soviet Union had pressed the United States and Britain to start operations in Europe, and open a second front to reduce the pressure of German forces on the Russian troops. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya While the American commanders favored landing in occupied Europe as soon as possible (Operation Sledgehammer), the British commanders believed that such a move would end in disaster. During World War II, Operation Sledgehammer was an Allied contingency plan for a limited-objective cross-channel invasion of Europe in response to a German An attack on French North Africa was proposed instead. This would clear the Axis Powers from North Africa, improve naval control of the Mediterranean Sea, and prepare an invasion of Southern Europe in 1943. The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt suspected the operation in North Africa would rule out an invasion of Europe in 1943 but agreed to support British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC, PC (Can ( 30 November 1874
By the time the Tunisia Campaign was fought, the Vichy French forces in North Africa were on the Allied side. The Tunisia Campaign (also known as the Battle of Tunisia was a series of World War II battles that took place in Tunisia in the North African Campaign North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose
German invasion, November 1942
President Roosevelt continued to cultivate Vichy, and promoted General Henri Giraud as a preferable alternative to de Gaulle, despite the poor performance of Vichy forces in North Africa—Admiral François Darlan had landed in Algiers the day before Operation Torch with the XIXth Vichy Army Corps, but was neutralised within 15 hours by a 400-strong French resistance force on November 8, 1942. Henri Honoré Giraud ( 18 January 1879 &ndash 13 March 1949) was a French general who fought in World War I and World North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan François Darlan (7 August 1881 &ndash 24 December 1942 was a French Naval officer. Algiers (الجزائر Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation Kabyle: Ledzayer, Alger) is the Capital and largest Operation Torch (initially called Operation Gymnast) was the British - American invasion of French North Africa in World War II Events 1519 - Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with great a Celebration Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Nonetheless, Roosevelt and Churchill accepted Darlan, rather than de Gaulle, as the French leader in North Africa. De Gaulle had not even been informed of the landing in North Africa[28] The United States also resented the Free French taking control of St Pierre and Miquelon on December 24, 1941 because, Secretary of State Hull believed, it interfered with a U. The Territorial Collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (Collectivité territoriale de Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon is a group of small islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Events 563 - The Byzantine church Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is dedicated for the second time after being destroyed by Earthquakes Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Cordell Hull ( October 2, 1871 &ndash July 23, 1955) was an American politician from the U S. -Vichy agreement to maintain the status quo with respect to French territorial possessions in the western hemisphere.
After the November 8, 1942 putsch in North Africa by the French resistance, most Vichy figures were arrested (including General Alphonse Juin, chief commander in North Africa, and Admiral Darlan). Events 1519 - Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with great a Celebration Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Alphonse Pierre Juin ( 16 December 1888 &ndash 27 January 1967) was a Marshal of France. However, Darlan was released and U. S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower finally accepted his self-nomination as high commissioner of North Africa and French West Africa (Afrique occidentale française, AOF), a move that enraged de Gaulle, who refused to recognize Darlan's status. Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (October 14 1890 – March 28 1969 was President of the United States from 1953 until 1961 and a five-star general French West Africa ( Afrique occidentale française, AOF) was a Federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa: After Darlan signed an armistice with the Allies and took power in North Africa, Germany violated the 1940 armistice and invaded Vichy France on November 10, 1942 (operation code-named Case Anton), triggering the scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon. Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. During World War II the German authorities codenamed the occupation of Vichy France Case (or Operation) Anton. The French fleet in Toulon was Scuttled on 27 November 1942 on the order of the Admiralty of Vichy France to avoid capture by
Giraud arrived in Algiers on November 10, and agreed to subordinate himself to Darlan as the French African army commander. Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw François Darlan (7 August 1881 &ndash 24 December 1942 was a French Naval officer. Even though he was now in the Allied camp, Darlan maintained the repressive Vichy system in North Africa, including concentration camps in southern Algeria and racist laws. There have been Internment camps and Concentration camps in France before during and after World War II. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Detainees were also forced to work on the Transsaharien railroad. Jewish goods were "aryanized" (i. e. stolen), and a special Jewish Affair service was created, directed by Pierre Gazagne. Numerous Jewish children were prohibited from going to school, something which not even Vichy had implemented in metropolitan France. [28] The admiral was killed on 24 December 1942 in Algiers by the young monarchist Bonnier de La Chapelle. Events 563 - The Byzantine church Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is dedicated for the second time after being destroyed by Earthquakes Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Although de la Chapelle had been a member of the resistance group led by Henri d'Astier de La Vigerie, it is believed he was acting as an individual. Henri d'Astier de la Vigerie ( 11 September 1897 - 10 October 1952) was a French soldier ''Résistance'' member and conservative
The real power in mainland France devolved into the hands of Laval. Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around them including the behavior of other people After Admiral Darlan's assassination, Giraud became his de facto successor in French Africa with Allied support. This occurred through a series of consultations between Giraud and de Gaulle. The latter wanted to pursue a political position in France and agreed to have Giraud as commander in chief, as the more qualified military person of the two. It is questionable that he ordered that many French resistance leaders who had helped Eisenhower's troops be arrested, without any protest by Roosevelt's representative, Robert Murphy. Robert Daniel Murphy (1894&ndash1978 was an American Diplomat. Later, the Americans sent Jean Monnet to counsel Giraud and to press him into repeal the Vichy laws. Jean Omer Marie Gabriel Monnet ( November 9, 1888 &ndash March 16, 1979) is regarded by many as a chief architect of European Unity After difficult negotiations, Giraud agreed to suppress the racist laws, and to liberate Vichy prisoners of the South Algerian concentration camps. The Cremieux decree, which granted French citizenship to Jews in Algeria and which had been repealed by Vichy, was immediately restored by General De Gaulle. Adolphe Crémieux ( April 30, 1796 &ndash February 10, 1880) was a French - Jewish lawyer and statesman and a staunch defender
Giraud took part in the Casablanca conference, with Roosevelt, Churchill and de Gaulle, in January 1943. The Casablanca Conference (codenamed SYMBOL was held at the Anfa Hotel in Casablanca, Morocco, then a French Protectorate, from January 14 to The Allies discussed their general strategy for the war, and recognized joint leadership of North Africa by Giraud and de Gaulle. Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle then became co-presidents of the Comité français de la Libération Nationale, which unified the Free French Forces and territories controlled by them and had been founded at the end of 1943. The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces Democratic rule was restored in French Algeria, and the Communists and Jews liberated from the concentration camps. French rule of Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962 under a variety of governmental systems [28]
The Roosevelt administration was notably cool, if not hostile, to de Gaulle, especially resenting his refusal to cooperate in the Normandy invasion of June 6, 1944 (Operation Overlord). Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Operation Overlord was the code name for the invasion of northwest Europe during World War II by Allied forces With the Vichy leaders gone from French territory due to the US, British, and Free French invasion and advance, on October 23, 1944 the U. Events 4004 BC - Creation of the world begins according to the calculations of Archbishop James Ussher 42 BC - Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. S. , Britain and the Soviet Union formally recognized the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF), headed by de Gaulle, as the legitimate government of France. The Provisional Government of the French Republic ( gouvernement provisoire de la République française or GPRF was an interim government which governed
At the end of April 1945 Pierre Gazagne, secretary of the general government headed by Yves Chataigneau, took advantage of his absence to exile anti-imperialist leader Messali Hadj and arrest the leaders of his party, the Algerian People's Party (PPA). Ahmed Ben Messali Hadj ( Arabic, مصالي الحاج (b 1898 in Algeria, d The Algerian People's Party (in french, Parti du Peuple Algerien PPA) was a successor organization of the North African Star ( Étoile Nord-Africaine [28] On the day of the Liberation of France, the GPRF would harshly repress a rebellion in Algeria during the Sétif massacre of May 8, 1945, which has been qualified by some historians as the "real beginning of the Algerian War. The Sétif massacre refers to widespread disturbances in and around the Algerian market town of Setif located to the west of Constantine in 1945 Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar The Algerian War ( French: Guerre d'Algérie; 1954-1962 also known as Algerian War of Independence, led to Algeria 's independence from ". [28]
Independence of the S. O. L
In 1943 the Service d'ordre légionnaire (SOL) collaborationist militia, headed by Joseph Darnand, became independent and was transformed into the "Milice française" (French Militia). The Service d'ordre légionnaire (SOL was a Collaborationist Militia created by Joseph Darnand, a Far right veteran from the First World Joseph Darnand ( March 19, 1897 – October 10, 1945) was a French pro- Nazi leader and commander of the Vichy The Milice Française ( French Militia) generally called simply Milice (" Militia " was a Paramilitary force Officially directed by Pierre Laval himself, the SOL was led by Darnand, who held an SS rank and pledged an oath of loyalty to Hitler. Pierre Laval (28 June 1883 15 October 1945 was a French Politician and statesman who led the Vichy government during World War II, and The ( German for "Protective Squadron" abbreviated SS - or ( Runic)- was a major Nazi organization under Adolf Hitler and the Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Under Darnand and his sub-commanders, such as Paul Touvier and Jacques de Bernonville, the Milice was responsible for helping the German forces and police in the repression of the French Resistance and Maquis. Paul Touvier ( April 3, 1915 - July 17, 1996) was convicted of Crime against humanity for his Collaborationist role during Jacques Dugé de Bernonville ( December 20, 1897 &ndash April 26, 1972) was a French Collaborationist and senior police The French Resistance is the collective name used for the French Resistance movements which fought against the Nazi German The Maquis (ma'ki were the predominantly rural guerrilla bands of the French Resistance.
In addition, the Milice participated with area Gestapo head Klaus Barbie in seizing members of the resistance and minorities including Jews for shipment to detention centres, such as the Drancy deportation camp, en route to Auschwitz, and other German concentration camps, including Dachau and Buchenwald. The Milice Française ( French Militia) generally called simply Milice (" Militia " was a Paramilitary force The ( contraction of ge heime Sta ats' po' lizei: "Secret State Police" was the official Secret police of Nazi Germany Klaus Barbie ( October 25, 1913 &ndash September 25, 1991) was an SS - Hauptsturmführer, Soldier PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Drancy deportation campof Paris, France used to hold Jews who were later deported to the Extermination camps. "Auschwitz" redirects here For the town see Oświęcim Auschwitz-Birkenau () was the largest of Nazi Germany Dachau was a Nazi German Concentration camp, and the first one opened in Germany located on the grounds of an abandoned munitions Factory near the Buchenwald concentration camp (German Konzentrationslager or 'KZ' Buchenwald) was a Nazi concentration camp established on the Ettersberg (Etter Mountain near
Death toll
There were, in 1940, approximately 300,000 Jews in metropolitan France, half of them with French citizenship (and the others foreigners, mostly exiles). Metropolitan France (France métropolitaine or la Métropole, or colloquially l'Hexagone) is the part of France located in Europe, including French nationality law is historically based on the principle of Jus soli, according to Ernest Renan 's definition opposed to the German About 200,000 of them, and the large majority of foreign Jews, lived in Paris and its outskirts. Among the 150,000 French Jews, about 30,000, generally native from Central Europe, had been naturalized French during the 1930s. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Naturalization is the acquisition of Citizenship or Nationality by somebody who was not a citizen or national of that country when he or she was born On this total of 300,000 Jews, approximatively 25,000 French Jews and 50,000 foreign Jews were deported. [29] According to historian Robert Paxton, 76,000 Jews were deported and died in concentration and extermination camps. Robert Paxton (b 1932) is an American Historian specializing in Vichy France and Europe during the World War II era Including the Jews who died in concentration camps in France, this makes for a total figure of 90,000 Jewish deaths (nearly a quarter of the total Jewish population before the war). There have been Internment camps and Concentration camps in France before during and after World War II. [30]
Proportionally, this makes for a lower death toll than in some other countries (in the Netherlands, 75% of the Jewish population was exterminated). [30] This fact has been used as arguments by supporters of Vichy. However, according to Paxton, the figure would have been greatly lower if the "French state" had not willfully collaborated with Nazi Germany, which lacked staff for police activities. During the Vel'd'hiv raid of July 1942, Laval ordered the deportation of the children, against explicit German orders. The Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv (the "round-up" or "raid" of the Vel' d'Hiv from the French abbreviation for Vélodrome d'hiver, or winter velodrome Paxton pointed out that if the total number of victims had not been higher, it was due to the shortage in wagons, the Resistance of the civilian population and deportation in other countries (notably in Italy). [30]
Liberation of France and aftermath
In late summer 1944, following the Allied liberation of France with Operation Overlord in June, and the Liberation of Paris in August, Pétain and his ministers were taken to Germany by the German forces where they established a government in exile at Sigmaringen in September 1944 until April 22, 1945. Operation Overlord was the code name for the invasion of northwest Europe during World War II by Allied forces The Liberation of Paris' (also known as Battle for Paris) took place during World War II from 19 August 1944 until the surrender of Sigmaringen is a Town in southern Germany, in the state of Baden-Württemberg. Events 1500 - Portuguese Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral becomes the first European to sight Brazil. Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar
Sigmaringen had its own radio (Radio-patrie), press (La France, Le Petit Parisien)[31] and hosted the embassies of the Axis powers, Germany, Italy and Japan. Le Petit Parisien was a prominent French newspaper during the French Third Republic. The population of the Vichy French enclave was about 6,000 citizens including known collaborationist journalists, writers (Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Lucien Rebatet), actors (Le Vigan) and their families plus 500 soldiers and 700 French SS. Louis-Ferdinand Céline was the Pen name of French writer and doctor Louis-Ferdinand Destouches (27 May 1894 &ndash 1 July 1961 Lucien Rebatet ( November 15 1903, Moras-en-Valloire, Drôme – 1972 Moras-en-Valloire was a French author journalist and intellectual
Épuration légale
- Further information: Pursuit of Nazi collaborators and Épuration légale
After the liberation, France was swept for a short period with a wave of executions of Collaborationists. The pursuit of Nazi collaborators refers to the post-WWII pursuit and apprehension of individuals who were not citizens of the Third Reich at the outbreak of World War II The Épuration légale ( French "legal purge" was the wave of official trials that followed the Liberation of France and the fall of the Women who were suspected of having romantic liaisons with Nazis, or more often of being Nazi prostitutes, were publicly humiliated by having their heads shaved. Those who had engaged in the black market were also stigmatized as "war profiteers" (profiteurs de guerre), and popularly called "BOF" (Beurre Oeuf Fromage, or Butter Eggs Cheese, because of the products sold at outrageous prices during the Occupation). However, the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF, 1944-46) quickly reestablished order, and brought Collaborationists before the courts. The Provisional Government of the French Republic ( gouvernement provisoire de la République française or GPRF was an interim government which governed Many convicted Collaborationists were then amnestied under the Fourth Republic (1946-54), while some civil servants, such as Maurice Papon, succeeding in holding important functions even under Charles de Gaulle and the Fifth Republic (1958-). Amnesty (from the Greek amnestia, oblivion is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to The founding of the Fourth Republic (1944-47 See also Three Parties, Third Force (France European Unity The creation of the Maurice Papon ( September 3 1910 &ndash February 17 2007) was a French civil servant industrial leader and Gaullist politician Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French See also Government of France The Fifth Republic is the fifth and current republican constitution of France, which was introduced on
Three different periods are distinguished by historians:
- the first phase of popular convictions (épuration sauvage): executions without judgments and shaving of women's heads. Estimations by police prefects made in 1948 and 1952 counted as many as 6,000 executions before the Liberation, and 4,000 afterward. The Prefecture of Police (Préfecture de Police headed by the Prefect of Police ( Préfet de Police) is an agency of the Government of France (and
- the second phase (legal epuration or épuration légale), which began with Charles de Gaulle's June 26 and 27 1944 ordonnances on epuration (de Gaulle's first ordonnance instituting Commissions of epuration was enacted on August 18, 1943) : judgments of Collaborationists by the Commissions d'épuration, who condemned approximatively 120,000 persons (Charles Maurras, leader of the royalist Action française, condemned to life sentence on January 25, 1945, etc. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian is killed during the retreat from the Sassanid Empire. Events 293 BC - The oldest known Roman temple to Venus is founded starting the institution of Vinalia Rustica. Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. __FORCETOC__ Charles Maurras ( 20 April 1868 Martigues Bouches-du-Rhône France – 16 November 1952) was The Action Française is a French Monarchist ( Orléanist) Counter-revolutionary movement and periodical founded by Maurice Pujo and Events 41 - After a night of negotiation Claudius is accepted as Roman Emperor by the Senate Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar ), including 1,500 death sentences (Joseph Darnand, head of the Milice, and Pierre Laval, head of the French state, were executed after trial on October 4, 1945, Pierre Pucheu was inculpated at the end of 1943, Robert Brasillach, executed on February 6, 1945, etc. Joseph Darnand ( March 19, 1897 – October 10, 1945) was a French pro- Nazi leader and commander of the Vichy The Milice Française ( French Militia) generally called simply Milice (" Militia " was a Paramilitary force Pierre Laval (28 June 1883 15 October 1945 was a French Politician and statesman who led the Vichy government during World War II, and Events 610 - Heraclius arrives by ship from Africa at Constantinople, overthrows Byzantine Emperor Phocas Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Robert Brasillach ( 31 March 1909 &ndash 6 February 1945) was a French author and journalist who was executed for advocating Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar ) — many of which were later amnestied. Amnesty (from the Greek amnestia, oblivion is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to
- the third phase, more lenient towards Collaborationists (the trial of Philippe Pétain or of writer Louis-Ferdinand Céline)
Finally came the period for amnesty and graces (e. Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) Louis-Ferdinand Céline was the Pen name of French writer and doctor Louis-Ferdinand Destouches (27 May 1894 &ndash 1 July 1961 In Greek mythology, a Charis (Χάρις is one of several Charites (Χάριτες Greek: " Graces " goddesses of charm beauty g. Jean-Pierre Esteva, Xavier Vallat, creator of the General Commission for Jewish Affairs, René Bousquet, head of French police, etc. Xavier Vallat ( 7 July 1891 - 6 January 1972) French politician was Commissioner-General for Jewish Questions in the wartime René Bousquet ( 11 May 1909 – 8 June 1993) was a high-ranking French civil servant who served as secretary general of the )
Other historians have distinguished epuration against intellectuals (Brasillach, Céline, etc. ), industrials, fighters (LVF, etc. ) and civil servants (Papon, etc. ).
Philippe Pétain was charged with treason in July 1945. Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) He was convicted and sentenced to death by firing squad, but Charles de Gaulle commuted the sentence to life imprisonment. Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French Most convicts were amnestied a few years later. In the police, collaborators soon resumed official responsibilities. The National Police ( police nationale) formerly the Sûreté Nationale, is one of two National police forces and the main civil law enforcement This continuity of the administration was pointed out, in particular concerning the events of the Paris massacre of 1961, executed under the orders of head of the Parisian police Maurice Papon, who was convicted only in 1998 for crimes against humanity. The Paris massacre of 1961 refers to a massacre in Paris on 17 October 1961, during the Algerian War (1954–62 Maurice Papon ( September 3 1910 &ndash February 17 2007) was a French civil servant industrial leader and Gaullist politician
The French members of the Waffen-SS Charlemagne Division who survived the war were regarded as traitors. The 33 Waffen-Grenadier-Division der SS Charlemagne (französische Nr Some of the more prominent officers were executed, while the rank-and-file were given prison terms; some of them were given the option of doing time in Indochina (1946-54) with the Foreign Legion instead of prison. The First Indochina War (also known as the French Indochina War, the The Anti-French War, the Franco-Vietnamese War, the Franco-Vietminh War,
Singer Tino Rossi was detained in Fresnes prison, where, according to Combat newspaper, prison guards asked him for autographs. Tino Rossi ( 29 April 1906 &ndash 26 September 1983) was a singer and film actor of Corsican origin Fresnes Prison ( Centre pénitentiaire de Fresnes) is the second largest Prison in France, located in the town of Fresnes, Val-de-Marne Combat (French for "fight" was a French Newspaper created during the Second World War. Pierre Benoit or Arletty were also detained. Pierre Benoit may refer to Pierre Benoit (novelist (1886-1962 novelist and member of the Académie française Pierre Basile Benoit (1824-1870 Arletty (born 15 May 1898 - 24 July 1992 was a French Fashion model, Singer, and actress. Collaborationists were brought to the Vélodrome d'hiver, Fresnes prison or the Drancy internment camp. The Vélodrome d'Hiver ("Winter Velodrome" was an indoor cycle track (or Velodrome) in the rue Nélaton close to the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Drancy deportation campof Paris, France used to hold Jews who were later deported to the Extermination camps.
Executions without trials and other forms of "popular justice" were harshly criticized immediately after the war, with circles close to Pétainists advancing the figures of 100,000, and denouncing the "Red Terror", "anarchy", or "blind vengeance". The Red Terror in Soviet Russia was the campaign of mass arrests and Executions conducted by the Bolshevik government Anarchy (from αναρχία anarchía, "without ruler " may refer to any of the following "Absence of government a state of lawlessness Journalist Robert Aron estimated the popular executions to a number of 40,000 in 1960, provoking de Gaulle's surprise, who estimated the real number to be around 10,000, which is the figure today admitted by mainstream historians. Robert Aron ( May 25, 1898 - April 19, 1975) was a French Writer who authored a number of works on politics and history Approximatively 9,000 of these 10,000 refer to summary executions in the whole of the country, which occurred during battle. In absolute value (numbers), there have been fewer legal executions in France than in neighboring, and much smaller, Belgium, and fewer internments than in Norway or the Netherlands.
The 1980s trials
Many war criminals were judged only in the 1980s: Paul Touvier, Klaus Barbie, Maurice Papon (above-mentioned), René Bousquet, head of French police during the war, and his deputy Jean Leguay (the last two were both convicted for their responsibilities in the July 1942 rafle du Vel'd'hiv, or Vel'd'Hiv raid). Paul Touvier ( April 3, 1915 - July 17, 1996) was convicted of Crime against humanity for his Collaborationist role during Klaus Barbie ( October 25, 1913 &ndash September 25, 1991) was an SS - Hauptsturmführer, Soldier René Bousquet ( 11 May 1909 – 8 June 1993) was a high-ranking French civil servant who served as secretary general of the Jean Leguay ( 29 November 1909 — 5 July 1989) was a high ranking French civil servant accomplice of the Deportation of Jews from The Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv (the "round-up" or "raid" of the Vel' d'Hiv from the French abbreviation for Vélodrome d'hiver, or winter velodrome Nazi hunters Serge and Beate Klarsfeld spent decades trying to bring them before the courts. A Nazi-hunter is an individual who tracks down and gathers information on Former Nazis and SS members who were involved in the Holocaust so that they can Serge (born September 17, 1935, Bucharest Romania) and Beate (born February 13, 1939, Berlin Germany) A fair number of Collaborationists then joined the OAS terrorist movement during the Algerian War (1954-62). The Algerian War ( French: Guerre d'Algérie; 1954-1962 also known as Algerian War of Independence, led to Algeria 's independence from Jacques de Bernonville escaped to Québec, then Brazil. Jacques Dugé de Bernonville ( December 20, 1897 &ndash April 26, 1972) was a French Collaborationist and senior police Jacques Ploncard d'Assac became counsellor of Salazar in Portugal. Jacques Ploncard (1910-2005 also called Jacques Ploncard d'Assac was a French writer and Journalist and a Far right activist — he was among other Salazar is the name of Abel Salazar, a Portuguese physician lecturer researcher writer and painter Alberto Salazar, U
In 1993 former Vichy official René Bousquet was assassinated while he awaited prosecution in Paris following a 1989 complaint for crimes against humanity; he had been prosecuted after the war, but had been acquitted in 1949. René Bousquet ( 11 May 1909 – 8 June 1993) was a high-ranking French civil servant who served as secretary general of the In Public international law, a crime against humanity is an act of Persecution or any large scale atrocities against a body of people and is the highest level of [32] In 1994 former Vichy official Paul Touvier (1915-1996) was convicted of crimes against humanity. Paul Touvier ( April 3, 1915 - July 17, 1996) was convicted of Crime against humanity for his Collaborationist role during Maurice Papon was convicted in 1998, released three years later, and died in 2007. Maurice Papon ( September 3 1910 &ndash February 17 2007) was a French civil servant industrial leader and Gaullist politician
Historiographical debates and responsibility of France: the "Vichy Syndrome"
Up to Jacques Chirac's presidency, the official point of view of the French government was that the Vichy regime was an illegal government distinct from the French Republic, established by traitors under foreign influence. Indeed, Vichy France eschewed the formal name of France ("French Republic") and styled itself the "French State", replacing the Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité Republican motto, inherited from the 1789 French Revolution, with the reactionary Travail, Famille, Patrie motto. Liberté égalité fraternité, French for " Liberty, equality, fraternity ( Brotherhood)" is the motto The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Reactionary (also reactionist) is a derogatory term usually used by the Left wing in regards to movements which oppose radical change in society and seeks a return Travail famille patrie (English " work family fatherland " was the motto of the Vichy France government during World War II.
While the criminal behavior of Vichy France is acknowledged, this point of view denies any responsibility of the state of France, alleging that acts committed between 1940 and 1944 were unconstitutional acts devoid of legitimacy. The main proponent of this view was Charles de Gaulle himself, who insisted, as did other historians afterwards, on the unclear conditions of the June 1940 vote granting full powers to Pétain, which was refused by the minority of Vichy 80. The Vichy 80 refers to a minority group of French elected parliamentarians who on July 10, 1940, voted against the constitutional change that dissolved In particular, coercive measures used by Pierre Laval have been denounced by those historians who hold that the vote did not, therefore, have Constitutional legality (See subsection: Conditions of armistice and 10 July 1940 vote of full powers). Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944
Nevertheless, on July 16, 1995 president Jacques Chirac, in a speech, recognized the responsibility of the French State for seconding the "criminal folly of the occupying country", in particular the help of the French police, headed by René Bousquet, which assisted the Nazis in the enactment of the so-called "Final Solution. Events 622 - The beginning of the Islamic calendar. 1054 - Three Roman legates fractured relations between the Western and Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 The National Police ( police nationale) formerly the Sûreté Nationale, is one of two National police forces and the main civil law enforcement René Bousquet ( 11 May 1909 – 8 June 1993) was a high-ranking French civil servant who served as secretary general of the " The July 1942 rafle du Vel'd'hiv is a tragic example of how the French police did the Nazi work, going even further than what military orders demanded (by sending children to Drancy internment camp, last stop before the extermination camps). The Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv (the "round-up" or "raid" of the Vel' d'Hiv from the French abbreviation for Vélodrome d'hiver, or winter velodrome [33]
As historian Henry Rousso has put it in The Vichy Syndrome (1987), Vichy and the state collaboration of France remains a “past that doesn’t pass. ” Historiographical debates are still, today, passionate, opposing conflictual views on the nature and legitimacy of Vichy’s collaborationism with Nazi Germany in the implementation of the Holocaust. Three main periods have been distinguished in the historiography of Vichy: first the Gaullist period, which aimed at national reconciliation and unity under the figure of Charles de Gaulle, who conceived himself above political parties and divisions; then the 1960s, with Marcel Ophüls's film The Sorrow and the Pity (1971); finally the 1990s, with the trial of Maurice Papon, civil servant in Bordeaux in charge of the “Jewish Questions” during the war, who was convicted after a very long trial (1981-1998) for crimes against humanity. Marcel Ophüls (born November 1, 1927) is a Documentary film maker The Sorrow and the Pity ( Le Chagrin et la pitié) is a two-part Documentary film by Marcel Ophüls that concerns the French Resistance Maurice Papon ( September 3 1910 &ndash February 17 2007) was a French civil servant industrial leader and Gaullist politician The trial of Papon did not only concern an individual itinerary, but the French administration’s collective responsibility in the deportation of the Jews. Furthermore, his career after the war, which led him to be successively prefect of the Paris police during the Algerian War (1954-1962) and then treasurer of the Gaullist UDR party from 1968 to 1971, and finally Budget Minister under president Valéry Giscard d’Estaing and prime minister Raymond Barre from 1978 to 1981, was symptomatic of the quick rehabilitation of former Collaborationists after the war. The Algerian War ( French: Guerre d'Algérie; 1954-1962 also known as Algerian War of Independence, led to Algeria 's independence from Valéry Marie René Georges Giscard d'Estaing (born 2 February 1926 is a French centre - right politician who was President of the French Raymond Octave Joseph Barre (12 April 1924 25 August 2007 was a French Centre-right Politician and Economist. Critics contend that this itinerary, shared by others (although few had such public roles), demonstrates France’s collective amnesia, while others point out that the perception of the war and of the state collaboration has evolved during these years. Papon’s career was considered even more scandalous as he had been responsible, during his function as prefect of police of Paris, for the 1961 Paris massacre of Algerians during the war – which, as with Vichy’s collaboration, France still has difficulties in recognizing its responsibility – and was forced to resign from this position after the “disappearance”, in Paris in 1965, of the Moroccan anti-colonialist leader Mehdi Ben Barka. The Paris massacre of 1961 refers to a massacre in Paris on 17 October 1961, during the Algerian War (1954–62 Mehdi Ben Barka (born 1920 – Disappeared October 29, 1965) (المهدي بن بركة was a Moroccan politician, head of the left-wing
While it is certain that the Vichy government and a large number of its high administration collaborated in the implementation of the Holocaust, the exact level of such cooperation is still debated. Compared with the Jewish communities established in other countries invaded by Nazi Germany, French Jews suffered proportionately lighter losses — although, starting in 1942, repression struck as much French Jews than foreign Jews. [7] Former Vichy officials later claimed that they did as much as they could to minimize the impact of the Nazi policies, although mainstream French historians contend that the Vichy regime went beyond the Nazi expectations. Maurice Papon, who became head of the Parisian police in 1958, during which he oversaw the 1961 Paris massacre, and Budget Minister under Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, was condemned in the 1990s for crimes against humanity. Maurice Papon ( September 3 1910 &ndash February 17 2007) was a French civil servant industrial leader and Gaullist politician The Prefecture of Police (Préfecture de Police headed by the Prefect of Police ( Préfet de Police) is an agency of the Government of France (and The Paris massacre of 1961 refers to a massacre in Paris on 17 October 1961, during the Algerian War (1954–62 Valéry Marie René Georges Giscard d'Estaing (born 2 February 1926 is a French centre - right politician who was President of the French In Public international law, a crime against humanity is an act of Persecution or any large scale atrocities against a body of people and is the highest level of
The regional newspaper Nice Matin revealed on February 28, 2007 that in more than 1,000 condominium properties on the Côte d'Azur, rules dating to Vichy were still in force. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. A condominium, or condo, is a form of Housing tenure and other Real property where a specified part of a piece of real estate (usually of an apartment The French Riviera (Côte d'Azur Occitan: Còsta Azzura) is one of the most famous resort areas in the world extending along the Mediterranean Sea west One of these rules, for example, stated that:
"The contractors shall make the following statements: they are of French nationality, are not Jewish, nor married to Jewish in the sense of the laws and ordinances in force" [under Vichy, NDLR]"
The president of the CRIF-Côte d'Azur, a Jewish association group, of course condemned what one of the inhabitants of such a condominium qualified as an "anachronism" with "no consequences. "[34]
The "sword & the shield" argument
Today, Vichy supporters continue to maintain the official argument advanced by Pétain and Laval: the state collaboration was supposed to protect the French civilian population from the hardships of the Occupation. After the war, former Collaborationists and "pétainistes" (supporters of Pétain) claimed that while Charles de Gaulle had represented the “sword” of France, Pétain had been the "shield" which protected France.
The common “sword vs. shield” thesis is contradicted by mainstream historical argument. First, it bypasses the French Resistance, questionably claiming that the alternative was “collaboration in France” and “resistance in London”. This is a denial of the engagement of civilians, in particular foreign Jews, who took an active part in the Resistance in France. Far-right leader Jean-Marie Le Pen, founder of the National Front in 1972 and several times accused of Holocaust denial, racial hatred, and negationism, declared in the 1960s, when he was engaged in the rehabilitation of Collaborationists:
"Was General de Gaulle more brave than Marshal [ Pétain ] in the occupied zone? This isn't sure. Jean-Marie Le Pen (born June 20, 1928, La Trinité-sur-Mer, Brittany, France) is a French far-right Nationalist The National Front ( FN, Front national is a French Far right, Nationalist Political party, founded in 1972 by Jean-Marie Holocaust denial is the claim that the Genocide of Jews during World War II —usually referred to as The Holocaust —did not occur in the Hate speech is a term for speech intended to degrade intimidate or incite violence or prejudicial action against a person or group of people based on their race, Gender For the critical reexamination of historical facts see Historical revisionism. Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) It was much easier to resist in London than to resist in France. "[35]
"French Jews vs. foreign Jews": myth or reality?
Although this claim is rejected by the rest of the French population and by the state itself, another myth remains strong today, and is more widespread than this one. This other myth refers to the alleged “protection” by Vichy of French Jews by “accepting” to collaborate in the deportation – and, ultimately, in the extermination – of foreign Jews.
However, this nationalist argument which pretends to legitimize the French state collaboration has been rejected by several historians who are specialists of the subject, among them US historian Robert Paxton, who is widely recognized and whose foreign origin permits a more distant and objective judgment on the matter, and historian of the French police Maurice Rajsfus. Robert Paxton (b 1932) is an American Historian specializing in Vichy France and Europe during the World War II era Both were called on as experts during the Papon trial in the 1990s.
Robert Paxton thus declared, before the court, on 31 October 1997, that "Vichy took initiatives. Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar . . The armistice let it a breathing space. "[36] Henceforth, on its own Vichy decided, on the domestic plan, to implement the “National Revolution” (“Révolution nationale”). After having designated the alleged responsibles of the defeat (“democracy, parliamentarism, cosmopolitianism, left-wing, foreigners, Jews. . . ”) Vichy put in place, as soon as October 3, 1940, the first “Statute on Jews. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ” From then on, Jewish people were considered “second-zone citizens[36]”.
On the international plan, France "believed the war to be finished". Thus, as soon as July 1940, Vichy eagerly negotiated with the German authorities in an attempt to gain a place for France in the Third Reich’s “New Order”. But “Hitler never forgot the 1918 defeat. He always said no. ” Vichy’s ambition was doomed from the start. [36]
"Antisemitism was a constant theme," recalled Robert Paxton. It even opposed itself, at first, to German plans. “At this period, the Nazis had not yet decided to exterminate the Jews, but to expel them. Their idea was not to make of France an antisemitic country. To the contrary, they wanted to send there the Jews that they expelled” from the Reich. [36]
The historical turn took place in 1941-1942, with the defeat on the Eastern Front. The Eastern Front of World War II (die Ostfront 1941-1945, der Rußlandfeldzug 1941-1945 (Russian campaign or der Ostfeldzug 1941-1945 (Eastern Campaign The war then became “total”, and in August 1941, Hitler decided on the “global extermination of all European Jews. ” This new policy was officially formulated during the January 1942 Wannsee Conference, and implemented in all European occupied countries as soon as spring 1942. The Wannsee Conference was a Meeting of senior officials of the Nazi German regime held in the Berlin suburb of Wannsee on France, which praised itself for having remained an independent state (as opposed to other occupied countries) “decided to cooperate. This is the second Vichy. [36]” The first train of deportees left Drancy on 27 March 1942 for Poland--the first in a long series. Events 196 BC - Ptolemy V ascends to the throne of Egypt. 1309 - Pope Clement V excommunicates Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
“The Nazis needed the French administration. . . They always complained about the lack of staff. " recalled Paxton,[36] something which Maurice Rajsfus has also underlined. Although the American historian recognized during the trial that the "civil behaviour of certain individuals" had permitted many Jews to escape deportation, he clearly stated that:
"The French state, itself, has participated to the policy of extermination of the Jews. . . How can one pretend the reverse when such technical and administrative means have been put to this aim?” [36]
Evoking the French police’s registering of the Jews, as well as Laval’s decision, taken in August 1942 in all independence, to deport children, along with their parents, Paxton added:
"Contrary to preconceived ideas, Vichy did not sacrifice foreign jews in the hope of protecting French Jews. At the summit of the hierarchy, it knew, from the start, that the departure of these last ones was unavoidable. [36]
Paxton then evoked the case of Italy, where deportation of Jewish people had only started after the German occupation — Italy surrendered to the Allies in mid-1943. In particular, in Nice, "Italians had protected the Jews. And the French authorities complained about it to the Germans. [36]
Important figures in the Vichy regime
See Category:French collaborationists
- Philippe Pétain, head of the "French state" (Vichy)
- Pierre Laval, prime minister of the "French state"
- René Bousquet, head of the French police
- Jean Leguay, delegate of Bousquet in the "free zone", charged with crimes against humanity for his role in the July 1942 Rafle du Vel'd'Hiv
- Louis Darquier de Pellepoix, Commissionner for Jewish Affairs of the Vichy government
- Philippe Henriot, State Secretary of Information and Propaganda of Vichy
- Maurice Papon, head of the Jewish Questions Service in the prefecture of Bordeaux (condemned for crimes against humanity in 1998)
- Simon Sabiani, head of Doriot's PPF in Marseille
- Paul Touvier, condemned in 1995 for crimes against humanity for his role as head of the Milice in Lyon
- Xavier Vallat, Commissionner General for Jewish Questions
- Marcel Déat, founder of the Rassemblement national populaire (RNP) in 1941. Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) Pierre Laval (28 June 1883 15 October 1945 was a French Politician and statesman who led the Vichy government during World War II, and René Bousquet ( 11 May 1909 – 8 June 1993) was a high-ranking French civil servant who served as secretary general of the Jean Leguay ( 29 November 1909 — 5 July 1989) was a high ranking French civil servant accomplice of the Deportation of Jews from The Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv (the "round-up" or "raid" of the Vel' d'Hiv from the French abbreviation for Vélodrome d'hiver, or winter velodrome Louis Darquier, better known under his assumed name Louis Darquier de Pellepoix ( December 19 1897, Cahors &ndash August 29 1980 Philippe Henriot ( January 7 1889, Reims &mdash June 28 1944, Paris) was a French politician Maurice Papon ( September 3 1910 &ndash February 17 2007) was a French civil servant industrial leader and Gaullist politician Simon Sabiani (1888-1956 was a French politician From 1929 to 1935 he was the first counsellor ( adjoint) to the mayor of Marseille, Siméon Flaissières Paul Touvier ( April 3, 1915 - July 17, 1996) was convicted of Crime against humanity for his Collaborationist role during The Milice Française ( French Militia) generally called simply Milice (" Militia " was a Paramilitary force Xavier Vallat ( 7 July 1891 - 6 January 1972) French politician was Commissioner-General for Jewish Questions in the wartime Marcel Déat ( March 7 1894, Guérigny &mdash January 5 1955, near Turin, Italy) was a French The National Popular Rally ( French: Rassemblement national populaire, RNP 1941-1944 was one of the main Collaborationist party under Joined the government in the last months of the Occupation.
Notable collaborationists or pétainists not linked to the Vichy regime
- Marcel Bucard, founder of the Mouvement franciste far-right league and of the Légion des volontaires français contre le bolchévisme (LVF)
- Eugène Deloncle, co-founder of La Cagoule right-wing terrorist group in 1935 and then of the fascist Mouvement social révolutionnaire in 1940
- Jacques Doriot, founder of the Parti Populaire Français (PPF) and member of the LVF
- Étienne Leandri, wore the Gestapo uniform during the war (participated in the creation of the Gaullist Service d'Action Civique (SAC) in the 1960s
- Robert Brasillach, writer, executed for collaboration after the war
- Louis-Ferdinand Céline, writer
- Pierre Drieu La Rochelle, writer
- Lucien Rebatet, writer
- Charles Maurras, writer and founder of royalist movement L'Action française
- Pierre Taittinger, chairman of the municipal council of Paris in 1943-44
- Henri Lafont
- Pierre Bonny (a. Marcel Bucard ( December 7 1895, Saint-Clair-sur-Epte &ndash March 13 1946, Fort of Châtillon) was a French The Mouvement Franciste ( "Francist" Movement) was a French Fascist and Antisemitic league created by Marcel Bucard Eugène Deloncle ( June 20 1890, Brest &mdash January 17 1944, Paris) was a French engineer and Fascist La Cagoule ( The Cowl, press nickname coined by the Action Française nationalist Maurice Pujo) officially called The Mouvement Social Révolutionnaire (MSR was a right-revolutionary movement founded in France in September 1940 Jacques Doriot ( September 26 1898, Bresles, Oise &mdash February 22 1945, near Mengen, Württemberg The Parti Populaire Français (French Popular Party (28th June 1936–February 22 1945 was a Fascist political party led by Jacques Doriot before and during Étienne Leandri (1915-1995 was an intermediary close to Charles Pasqua. The SAC (Service d'Action Civique or Civic Action Service) officially created in January 1960 was a Gaullist militia founded by Jacques Foccart, Robert Brasillach ( 31 March 1909 &ndash 6 February 1945) was a French author and journalist who was executed for advocating Louis-Ferdinand Céline was the Pen name of French writer and doctor Louis-Ferdinand Destouches (27 May 1894 &ndash 1 July 1961 Pierre Eugène Drieu La Rochelle ( 3 January 1893 &ndash 15 March 1945) was a French writer of Novels short stories Lucien Rebatet ( November 15 1903, Moras-en-Valloire, Drôme – 1972 Moras-en-Valloire was a French author journalist and intellectual __FORCETOC__ Charles Maurras ( 20 April 1868 Martigues Bouches-du-Rhône France – 16 November 1952) was The Action Française is a French Monarchist ( Orléanist) Counter-revolutionary movement and periodical founded by Maurice Pujo and Pierre-Charles Taittinger ( October 4, 1887 &ndash January 22, 1965) was founder of the famous Taittinger champagne house and chairman Henri Lafont, from his real name Henri Chamberlin (1902 Paris - 26 December 1944 Arcueil) was the head of the French Gestapo during the German occupation Pierre Bonny (1895-? was a French police officer As an inspector he was the investigating officer on the 1923 Seznec case, in which he k. a. Pierre Bony)
See also
- Collaboration and Pursuit of Nazi collaborators
- Foreign relations of Vichy France
- Military history of France during World War II
- Organisation Todt
- Cadix, Allied intelligence center in Uzès
- Western Front (Frankreich) Area (Luftflotte 3, France)
- German-occupied France
- Italian-occupied France
- Franco-German cooperation
- 1942-43 Riom Trial and The Vichy 80
- Historians of Vichy France
References
- ^ Simon Kitson, The Hunt for Nazi Spies, Fighting espionage in Vichy France, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2008; Simon Kitson, Vichy et la chasse aux espions nazis, Paris, Autrement, 2005. Collaboration is a recursive process where two or more people or organizations work together toward an intersection of common goals — for example an intellectual The pursuit of Nazi collaborators refers to the post-WWII pursuit and apprehension of individuals who were not citizens of the Third Reich at the outbreak of World War II The Vichy regime, proclaimed by Marshall Pétain after the Fall of France in 1940 before Nazi Germany, was quickly recognized by the Allies, The military history of France during World War II covers the period from 1939 until 1940 which witnessed French military participation under the Third Republic, and the period The Organisation Todt (OT was a Third Reich civil and Military engineering group in Germany eponymously named for its founder Fritz Todt, an Cadix was the Codename of a World War II clandestine Allied intelligence center that operated at Uzès, on the Mediterranean Uzès is a commune in the Gard department in southern France. This Luftwaffe detachment was based in German -occupied areas of Northern France, Netherlands, Belgium, and Vichy France, to support The German occupation of France in World War II occurred during the period between May 1940 to December 1944 Fascist Italy occupied a small section of south-east France during World War II, during the time of the Vichy Government under The relations between France and Germany is embodied in a cooperation called Franco-German Partnership (French Amitié franco-allemande; German The Riom Trial ( February 19, 1942 - May 21, 1943) was an attempt by the regime of Vichy France, headed by Marshal Pétain The Vichy 80 refers to a minority group of French elected parliamentarians who on July 10, 1940, voted against the constitutional change that dissolved
- ^ Biographical entry of Charles Maurras on the Académie française's website (French)
- ^ Jean-Pierre Azéma, De Munich à la Libération, Le Seuil, 1979, p. __FORCETOC__ Charles Maurras ( 20 April 1868 Martigues Bouches-du-Rhône France – 16 November 1952) was L'Académie française, or the French Academy, is the pre-eminent French learned body on matters pertaining to the French language. 82 ISBN 2-02-005215-6
- ^ French: L'Assemblée Nationale donne les plein pouvoirs au gouvernement de la République, sous l'autorité et la signature du maréchal Pétain, à l'effet de promulguer par un ou plusieurs actes une nouvelle Constitution de l'Etat français. Cette Constitution doit garantir les droits du travail, de la famille et de la patrie. Elle sera ratifiée par la nation et appliquée par les Assemblées qu'elle aura créées.
- ^ French: Pétain: "J'entre aujourd'hui dans la voie de la collaboration. . . . "
- ^ French court strikes blow against fugitive Nazi, The Guardian, March 3, 2001
- ^ a b c d e f Film documentary on the website of the Cité nationale de l'histoire de l'immigration (French)
- ^ Maurice Rajsfus, Drancy, un camp de concentration très ordinaire, Cherche Midi éditeur (2005). The Guardian (until 1959 The Manchester Guardian) is a British Newspaper owned by the Guardian Media Group. Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Aincourt, camp d’internement et centre de tri
- ^ Saline royale d'Arc et Senans (25) - L'internement des Tsiganes
- ^ Listes des internés du camp des Milles 1941
- ^ Christoph Buchheim, 'Die besetzten Lander im Dienste der Deutschen Kriegswirtschaft', VfZ, 32, (1984), p. 119
- ^ a b See Reggiani, Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy, French Historical Studies, 2002; 25: 331-356
- ^ Gwen Terrenoire, "Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings", Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, 2003) [1]
- ^ Quoted in Andrés Horacio Reggiani. French Historical Studies is the quarterly journal of the Society for French Historical Studies (SFHS one of the two primary historical societies devoted to the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy (French historical studies, 25:2 Spring 2002) [2], p. French Historical Studies is the quarterly journal of the Society for French Historical Studies (SFHS one of the two primary historical societies devoted to the 339. Also quoted in French by Didier Daeninckx in Quand le négationnisme s’invite à l’université. Didier Daeninckx (born April 27, 1949, Saint-Denis) is a French author and left-wing politician best known for his romans noirs , on Amnistia. net website, [3], URL consulted on January 28, 2007
- ^ Quoted in Szasz, Thomas. Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Thomas Stephen Szasz (pronounced /sas/ born April 15, 1920 in Budapest, Hungary) is a Psychiatrist and Academic. The Theology of Medicine New York: Syracuse University Press, 1977.
- ^ French: « ce fichier se subdivise en fichier simplement alphabétique, les Juifs de nationalité française et étrangère ayant respectivement des fiches de couleur différentes, et des fichiers professionnels par nationalité et par rue. »
- ^ Giorgio Agamben, "Non à la biométrie", published in Le Monde on December 5, 2005 (French). Giorgio Agamben (born 1942 in Rome) is an Italian philosopher who teaches at the Università IUAV di Venezia. Le Monde (The World is a Events 63 BC - Cicero reads the last of his Catiline Orations. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Available here.
- ^ Maurice Rajsfus, La Police de Vichy — Les forces de l'ordre françaises au service de la Gestapo, 1940/1944, Le Cherche Midi éditeurs, 1995 (page 106-107) (French)
- ^ Jean-Luc Einaudi and Maurice Rajsfus (2001), op. cit. , p. 17
- ^ J. -L. Einaudi and Maurice Rajsfus, Les silences de la police — 16 July 1942 and 17 October 1961, L'Esprit frappeur, 2001, ISBN 2-84405-173-1 (Rajsfus is an historian of the French police, the second date refers to the 1961 Paris massacre under the orders of Maurice Papon, who would later be judged for his role during Vichy in Bordeaux)
- ^ Maurice Rajsfus, La Police de Vichy. Events 622 - The beginning of the Islamic calendar. 1054 - Three Roman legates fractured relations between the Western and Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 539 BC - King Cyrus The Great of Persia marches into the city of Babylon, releasing the Jews from almost Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. L'Esprit frappeur ( French for " Ghost " or " Poltergeist " is a French Publishing house, specialized in low-cost books The Paris massacre of 1961 refers to a massacre in Paris on 17 October 1961, during the Algerian War (1954–62 Maurice Papon ( September 3 1910 &ndash February 17 2007) was a French civil servant industrial leader and Gaullist politician Les Forces de l'ordre françaises au service de la Gestapo, 1940/1944, Le Cherche Midi éditeur, 1995. Chapter XIV, "La Bataille de Marseille, pp. 209–217. (French)
- ^ Stanley Hoffmann, « La droite à Vichy », in Essais sur la France, Le Seuil, 1974
- ^ Jean-Pierre Azéma, Olivier Wieviorka, Vichy 1940-44,Perrin, 2004, ISBN 2-262-02229-1, p. 234
- ^ / Canada's diplomatic relationships with Vichy: Foreign Affairs Canada.
- ^ / Australia's diplomatic relationships with Vichy: French embassy in Australia
- ^ a b c When the US wanted to take over France, Annie Lacroix-Riz, in Le Monde diplomatique, May 2003 (English, French, etc. Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed "Le Diplo" by its French readers is a monthly publication offering analysis and opinion on politics culture and current affairs )
- ^ a b c d e Extraits de l’entretien d’Annie Rey-Goldzeiguer [1 avec Christian Makarian et Dominique Simonnet, publié dans l’Express du 14 mars 2002], on the LDH website (French)
- ^ Azéma, Jean-Pierre and Bédarida, François (dir. ), La France des années noires, 2 vol. , Paris, Seuil, 1993 [rééd. Seuil, 2000 (Points Histoire)
- ^ a b c Le rôle du gouvernement de Vichy dans la déportation des juifs, notes taken during a conference of Robert Paxton at Lyon on November 4, 2000 (French)
- ^ Sigmaringen, Jean-Paul Cointet, Perrin, 2003, ISBN 2-262-01823-5
- ^ René Bousquet devant la Haute Cour de Justice (French)
- ^ En 1995, la reconnaissance des « fautes commises par l'Etat » in Le Monde, January 26, 2005 (French)
- ^ Nice Matin, February 28, 2007 (subscription only) - The news is taken up by L'Humanité on 1 March 2007, Des immeubles niçoisà l’heure de Vichy (French)
- ^ Le Pen, son univers impitoyable, Radio France Internationale, September 1, 2006 (French)
- ^ a b c d e f g h i L'Humanité, 1 November 1997 Robert Paxton donne une accablante leçon d’histoire (Robert Paxton gives a damning lesson of history (French)
Bibliography
English
- Carmen Callil Bad Faith. Robert Paxton (b 1932) is an American Historian specializing in Vichy France and Europe during the World War II era Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Le Monde (The World is a Events 1340 - King Edward III of England is declared King of France. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. L'Humanité ("Humanity" formerly the daily newspaper of the French Communist Party (PCF was founded in 1904 by Jean Jaurès, a leader of the Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Radio France Internationale (RFI was created in 1975 as part of Radio France by the Government of France to serve as a broadcast vehicle for French Equatorial Events 462 - Possible start of first Byzantine indiction cycle. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. L'Humanité ("Humanity" formerly the daily newspaper of the French Communist Party (PCF was founded in 1904 by Jean Jaurès, a leader of the Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Carmen Callil (born 1938 is an Australian author and the founder of Virago Press. A Forgotten History Of Family, Fatherland And Vichy France. New York: Knopf. 2006. ISBN 0-375-41131-3. [Biography of Louis Darquier de Pellepoix].
- Robert Gildea. Robert Nigel Gildea (born 1952 is professor of Modern History at the University of Oxford and is the author of several influential books on 20th century French history 2002. Marianne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart of France During the German Occupation. Picador. A picador (pl picadores) is one of the pair of Horsemen in a Spanish Bullfight that jab the bull with a Lance. ISBN 0-312-42359-4.
- Julian T. Jackson. Julian T Jackson (born 1954 is a prominent British Historian. France: The Dark Years, 1940-1944. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2001. ISBN 0-19-820706-9.
- Simon Kitson, The Hunt for Nazi Spies: Fighting Espionage in Vichy France, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2008. Simon Kitson is a British Historian. Born in Nailsworth, Gloucestershire, Kitson was educated in Bath doing his undergraduate studies at the University ISBN 978-0-226-43893-1.
- Megan Koreman. The Expectation of Justice: France, 1944-1946. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 1999.
- William Langer, Our Vichy gamble, Alfred Knopf, New York, 1947. William "Wild Bill" Langer ( September 30 1886 November 8 1959) was a prominent American Politician from
- Isaac Levendel. Not the Germans alone: A son's search for the truth of Vichy. North Western University Press. 2001. ISBN 0-8101-1843-2
- Michael R. Marrus and Robert Paxton. Vichy France and the Jews. Basic Books: New York. 1981. ISBN 0-465-09005-2
- George E. Melton. Darlan: Admiral and Statesman of France, 1881-1942. Westport, CT: Praeger. 1998. ISBN 0-275-95973-2.
- Henri Michel, Vichy, année 40, Robert Laffont, Paris, 1967.
- Robert O. Paxton, Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940-1944 (London, 1972) [new edition, 2000: ISBN 0-231-12469-4]
- Henry Rousso, (preface by Stanley Hoffmann). Robert Paxton (b 1932) is an American Historian specializing in Vichy France and Europe during the World War II era Henry Rousso (born 1954 in Cairo) is a contemporary French Historian specializing in World War II France Stanley Hoffmann (born 1928 is the Paul and Catherine Buttenweiser University Professor at Harvard University. The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944. Harvard University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-674-93539-X (Original first ed. 1987)
- John F. Sweets, "Choices in Vichy France: The French Under Nazi Occupation" (New York, 1986), translated into French as, "Clermont-Ferrand à l’heure allemande" (Paris, 1996)
- Martin Thomas, The French Empire at War, 1940-45, Manchester University Press, 1998, paperback 2007. John F Sweets is an American historian of modern French history specializing in the Vichy France era the French Resistance, and occupied France Martin Thomas (born 1964) is a British Historian. Thomas did both his undergraduate and doctoral studies at Oxford University, completing his D
- Richard H. Weisberg. Richard H Weisberg is a professor of Constitutional law at the Cardozo School of Law at Yeshiva University in New York City, a leading scholar Vichy Law and the Holocaust in France. New York University Press. 1998. ISBN 0-8147-9336-3
French
- Henri Amouroux, La grande histoire des Français sous l'Occupation, 8 volumes, Laffont, 1976
- Jean-Pierre Azéma & François Bedarida,Vichy et les Français, Paris, Fayard, 1996. Henri Amouroux ( July 1, 1920 Perigueux France – August 5, 2007 Le Mesnil-Mauger) was a French Historian Jean-Pierre Azéma, born in 1937 is a French Historian, and the son of the Réunionese poet Jean-Henri Azéma.
- Le régime de Vichy et les Français (dir. Jean-Pierre Azéma & François Bédarida, Institut d'histoire du temps présent), Fayard, 1992, ISBN 2-213-02683-1
- Michèle Cointet. L'Eglise sous Vichy. 1940-1945. La repentence en question. , Perrin, Paris, 1998. ISBN 2-262-01231-8
- Eric Conan et Henry Rousso. Henry Rousso (born 1954 in Cairo) is a contemporary French Historian specializing in World War II France Vichy, un passé qui ne passe pas, Fayard, Paris, 1994, ISBN 2-213-59237-3
- Yves Maxime Danan, La vie politique à Alger, de 1940 à 1944, L. G. D. J. , Paris 1963.
- André Kaspi. Les Juifs pendant l'Occupation, Seuil, Paris, 1991, ISBN 2-02-013509-4
- Simon Kitson, Vichy et la chasse aux espions nazis, Autrement, Paris, 2005, ISBN 2-74670588-5
- Serge Klarsfeld. Simon Kitson is a British Historian. Born in Nailsworth, Gloucestershire, Kitson was educated in Bath doing his undergraduate studies at the University Serge (born September 17, 1935, Bucharest Romania) and Beate (born February 13, 1939, Berlin Germany) Vichy-Auschwitz. Le rôle de Vichy dans la solution finale de la question juive en France. 1943-1944. , Fayard, Paris, 1985, ISBN 2-213-01573-2
- Herbert R. Lottman. Pétain. Seuil, 1984, ISBN 2-02-006763-3
Films
- Marcel Ophüls, 1969. Marcel Ophüls (born November 1, 1927) is a Documentary film maker The Sorrow and the Pity
External links
- Simon Kitson's Vichy web-page
- Original "Establishment of the Vichy Government" constitutional act
- Informational page about state collaboration of Vichy France with Nazi Germany. The Sorrow and the Pity ( Le Chagrin et la pitié) is a two-part Documentary film by Marcel Ophüls that concerns the French Resistance Simon Kitson is a British Historian. Born in Nailsworth, Gloucestershire, Kitson was educated in Bath doing his undergraduate studies at the University Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers
- Map of the "free" and "occupied" French zones
- National Geographic coverage of the armistice (French)
- Wartime map of fascist Europe
- Obituary of a Republic Time Magazine, July 22, 1940
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