92protactiniumuraniumneptunium
Nd

U

(Uqb)
General
Name, symbol, numberuranium, U, 92
Chemical seriesactinides
Group, period, blockn/a7, f
Appearancesilvery gray metallic;
corrodes to a spalling
black oxide coat in air
Standard atomic weight238.02891(3)g·mol−1
Electron configuration[Rn] 5f3 6d1 7s2
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 32, 21, 9, 2
Physical properties
Phasesolid
Density (near r.t.)19. Protactinium (ˌproʊtækˈtɪniəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Pa and Atomic number 91 Neptunium (nɛpˈtjuːniəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Np and Atomic number 93 Neodymium (ˌniːoʊˈdɪmiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Nd and Atomic number 60 This is a typical display of the periodic table of the elements and contains the symbol and Atomic number of each element Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This is a list of Chemical elements, sorted by name Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This is a list of chemical elements by symbol, including the A table of Chemical elements ordered by Atomic number and color coded according to type of element In Chemistry a group, also known as a family, is a vertical column in the Periodic table of the Chemical elements There are 18 groups in History of the actinoid series From the earlier known chemical properties of actinium (89 up to uranium (92 indicating a relation to the Transition metals it was generally In Chemistry a group, also known as a family, is a vertical column in the Periodic table of the Chemical elements There are 18 groups in In the Periodic table of the elements, a period is a horizontal row of the table A block of the Periodic table of elements is a set of adjacent groups The respective highest-energy electrons in each element in a block belong to the same Atomic Occurrence Scandium yttrium and the Lanthanides (except promethium tend to occur together in the Earth's crust and are relatively abundant compared with most D-block A period 7 element is one of the Chemical elements in the seventh row (or period) of the periodic table of the elements. The f-block of the Periodic table of the elements consists of those elements (sometimes referred to as the inner transition elements) for which in the Spall are flakes of a material that are broken off a larger solid body and can be produced by a variety of mechanisms including as a result of Projectile impact Corrosion The atomic mass (ma is the Mass of an atom most often expressed in unified atomic mass units The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following list describes various Mass levels between 10&minus36&thinsp kg and 1053&thinspkg Molar mass, symbol M, is the Mass of one mole of a substance ( Chemical element or Chemical compound) In Atomic physics and Quantum chemistry, electron configuration is the arrangement of Electrons in an Atom, Molecule, or other Radon (ˈreɪdɒn is the Chemical element that has the symbol Rn and Atomic number 86 The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J An electron shell may be crudely thought of as an Orbit followed by Electrons around an Atom nucleus. In the Physical sciences a phase is a Set of states of a macroscopic physical system that have relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties A solid' object is in the States of matter characterized by resistance to Deformation and changes of Volume. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different Room temperature (also referred to as ambient temperature) is a common term to denote a certain Temperature within enclosed space at which humans are accustomed 1 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p.17. Kilogram per cubic metre is the SI measure of Density and is represented as kg/m³ where kg stands for Kilogram and m³ stands for Cubic metre The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid. 3 g·cm−3
Melting point1405. The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid.K
(1132. The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic 2 °C, 2070 °F)
Boiling point4404 K
(4131 °C, 7468 °F)
Heat of fusion9. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the Vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 The standard Enthalpy of fusion (symbol \Delta{}H_{fus} also known as the heat of fusion or specific melting heat, is the amount of 14 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization417. The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material The enthalpy of vaporization, (symbol \Delta{}_{v}H also known as the heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the Energy required 1 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capacity(25 °C) 27. The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material Specific heat capacity, also known simply as specific heat, is the measure of the heat energy required to increase the Temperature of a unit quantity 665 J·mol−1·K−1
 P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T/K 2325 2564 2859 3234 3727 4402
Atomic properties
Crystal structureorthorhombic
Oxidation states3+,4+,5+,6+[1]
(weakly basic oxide)
Electronegativity1. Vapor pressure (also known as equilibrium vapor pressure or saturation vapor pressure) is the Pressure of a Vapor in equilibrium In Mineralogy and Crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal. The oxidation number of a central atom in a coordination compound is the charge that it would have if all the Ligands were removed along with the Electron pairs In Chemistry, a base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept Protons This refers to the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons 38 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies1st: 597. The ionization potential, ionization energy or EI of an Atom or Molecule is the Energy required to remove an Electron 6 kJ·mol−1
2nd: 1420 kJ·mol−1
Miscellaneous
Magnetic orderingparamagnetic
Electrical resistivity(0 °C) 0. The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material Atomic radius, and more generally the size of an atom, is not a precisely defined Physical quantity, nor is it constant in all circumstances A picometre ( American spelling: picometer, symbol pm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one trillionth Van der Waals Volume The van der Waals volume, V, also called the atomic volume or molecular volume, is the atomic property most directly In Physics, magnetism is one of the Phenomena by which Materials exert attractive or repulsive Forces on other Materials. Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism which occurs only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field Electrical resistivity (also known as specific electrical resistance) is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of Electric current. 280 µΩ·m
Thermal conductivity(300 K) 27. In Physics, thermal conductivity, k is the property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct Heat. 5 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion(25 °C) 13. When the Temperature of a substance changes the energy that is stored in the Intermolecular bonds between atoms changes 9 µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod)(20 °C) 3155 m/s
Young's modulus208 GPa
Shear modulus111 GPa
Bulk modulus100 GPa
Poisson ratio0. Sound is a vibration that travels through an elastic medium as a Wave. In Solid mechanics, Young's modulus (E is a measure of the Stiffness of an isotropic elastic material In Materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or sometimes S or μ, is defined as the ratio of Shear Poisson's ratio ( ν) named after Simeon Poisson, is the ratio of the relative contraction strain, or transverse strain (normal to 23
CAS registry number7440-61-1
Selected isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of uranium
isoNAhalf-lifeDMDE (MeV)DP
232Usyn68.9 yα & SF5. CAS registry numbers are unique numerical identifiers for Chemical compounds Polymers biological sequences mixtures and Alloys They are also referred to Uranium ( U) is a naturally occurring element with no Stable isotopes In other words all uranium is Radioactive and hence vanishing by Radioactive Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides In Chemistry, natural abundance (NA refers to the abundance Isotopes of a Chemical element as naturally found on a planet Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. The decay energy is the Energy released by a Nuclear decay. The energy difference of the Reactants is often written as Q: where Q In Nuclear physics, a decay product, also known as a daughter product, daughter isotope or daughter nuclide, is a Nuclide A synthetic radioisotope is a Radionuclide that is not found in nature no natural process or mechanism exists which produces it or it is so unstable that it decays away in To help compare Orders of magnitude of different times this page lists times between 109 Seconds (a gigasecond) and 1010 seconds (31 Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an Atomic nucleus emits an Alpha particle (two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle Spontaneous fission (SF is a form of Radioactive decay characteristic of very heavy Isotopes and is theoretically possible for any atomic nucleus whose mass is greater 414228Th
233Usyn159,200 ySF & α4. Thorium (ˈθɔːriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Th and Atomic number 90 A synthetic radioisotope is a Radionuclide that is not found in nature no natural process or mechanism exists which produces it or it is so unstable that it decays away in To help compare Orders of magnitude of different times this page lists times between 32 000 Years and 320 000 years (1012 Seconds mdasha terasecond 909229Th
234U0. Thorium (ˈθɔːriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Th and Atomic number 90 0054%245,500 ySF & α4. A year (from Old English gēr) is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the Orbit of the Earth around the Sun 859230Th
235U0. Thorium (ˈθɔːriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Th and Atomic number 90 7204%7.038×108 ySF & α4. To help compare Orders of magnitude of different times this page lists times between 1016 seconds (320 million years and 1017 seconds (3200 million years 679231Th
236Usyn2.342×107 ySF & α4. Thorium (ˈθɔːriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Th and Atomic number 90 A synthetic radioisotope is a Radionuclide that is not found in nature no natural process or mechanism exists which produces it or it is so unstable that it decays away in To help compare Orders of magnitude of different times this page lists times between 3 572232Th
238U99. Thorium (ˈθɔːriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Th and Atomic number 90 2742%4.468×109 ySF & α4. To help compare Orders of magnitude of different times this page lists times between 1017 seconds and 1018 seconds (3 270234Th
References
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Uranium (pronounced /jʊˈreɪniəm/) is a silver-gray metallic chemical element in the actinide series of the periodic table that has the symbol U and atomic number 92. Thorium (ˈθɔːriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Th and Atomic number 90 Recommended values for many properties of the elements together with various references are collected on these data pages The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across A chemical element is a type of Atom that is distinguished by its Atomic number; that is by the number of Protons in its nucleus. History of the actinoid series From the earlier known chemical properties of actinium (89 up to uranium (92 indicating a relation to the Transition metals it was generally The periodic table of the chemical elements is a tabular method of displaying the Chemical elements Although precursors to this table exist its invention is See also Chemical formula. A chemical symbol is an Abbreviation or shortened version of the name of a Chemical element See also List of elements by atomic number In Chemistry and Physics, the atomic number (also known as the proton It has 92 protons and electrons, 6 of them valence electrons. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J In chemistry valence electrons are the Electrons contained in the outermost or valence, Electron shell of an Atom. It can have between 141 and 146 neutrons, with 146 (U-238) and 143 in its most common isotopes. This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Uranium has the highest atomic weight of the naturally occurring elements. Uranium is approximately 70% more dense than lead and is weakly radioactive. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. It occurs naturally in low concentrations (a few parts per million) in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite (see uranium mining). "Parts-per" notation is used especially in Science and Engineering, to denote Ratios (relative proportions in measured quantities particularly A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Uranium mining is the process of extraction of Uranium Ore from the ground

In nature, uranium atoms exist as uranium-238 (99. Uranium-238 (U-238 is the most common isotope of Uranium found in nature 284%), uranium-235 (0. Uranium-235 is an isotope of uranium that differs from the element's other common isotope Uranium-238, by its ability to cause a rapidly expanding fission 711%)[2], and a very small amount of uranium-234 (0. Uranium-234 is an isotope of Uranium. In Natural uranium and uranium ore 234U occurs as an indirect Decay product of 238U 0058%). Uranium decays slowly by emitting an alpha particle. Alpha particles (named after and denoted by the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α consist of two Protons and two Neutrons bound together into a The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4. Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page 47 billion years and that of uranium-235 is 704 million years,[3] making them useful in dating the age of the Earth (see uranium-thorium dating, uranium-lead dating and uranium-uranium dating). The word million In standard English, the -lli- in million is pronounced with an l-sound followed by a Modern geologists and Geophysicists consider the age of Earth to be around 4 Uranium-thorium dating, also called thorium-230 dating, uranium-series disequilibrium dating or uranium-series dating, is a Radiometric dating Uranium-lead is one of the oldest and most refined Radiometric dating schemes with a routine age range of about 1 million years to over 4 Uranium-uranium dating is a Radiometric dating technique utilizing the comparison of two Isotopes of Uranium (U in a sample 234U and 238U Many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its unique nuclear properties. The nucleus of an Atom is the very dense region consisting of Nucleons ( Protons and Neutrons, at the center of an atom Uranium-235 has the distinction of being the only naturally occurring fissile isotope. In Nuclear engineering, a fissile material is one that is capable of sustaining a Chain reaction of Nuclear fission. Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides Uranium-238 is both fissionable by fast neutrons, and fertile (capable of being transmuted to fissile plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor). Fertile material is a term used to describe Nuclides which generally themselves do not undergo induced fission (fissionable by thermal Neutrons) but from Plutonium-239 is an Isotope of Plutonium. Plutonium-239 is the primary Fissile isotope used for the production of Nuclear weapons although This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled An artificial fissile isotope, uranium-233, can be produced from natural thorium and is also important in nuclear technology. Uranium-233 is a Fissile artificial isotope of Uranium, which has been used in a few Nuclear reactors and has been proposed for much wider use as a Thorium (ˈθɔːriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Th and Atomic number 90 While uranium-238 has a small probability to fission spontaneously or when bombarded with fast neutrons, the much higher probability of uranium-235 and to a lesser degree uranium-233 to fission when bombarded with slow neutrons generates the heat in nuclear reactors used as a source of power, and provides the fissile material for nuclear weapons. Spontaneous fission (SF is a form of Radioactive decay characteristic of very heavy Isotopes and is theoretically possible for any atomic nucleus whose mass is greater This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both uses rely on the ability of uranium to produce a sustained nuclear chain reaction. A nuclear chain reaction occurs when one Nuclear reaction causes an average of one or more nuclear reactions thus leading to a self-propagating number of these reactions Depleted uranium (uranium-238) is used in kinetic energy penetrators and armor plating. Depleted uranium (DU is Uranium primarily composed of the Isotope Uranium-238 (U-238 A kinetic energy penetrator (also known as a KE weapon) is a type of Ammunition which like a Bullet, does not contain Explosives and uses For body armour see Armour, for armoured forces see Armoured warfare, for other uses see Armour (disambiguation. [4]

Uranium is used as a colorant in uranium glass, producing orange-red to lemon yellow hues. Uranium glass is glass which has had uranium usually in oxide diuranate form added to a glass mix prior to melting It was also used for tinting and shading in early photography. Photography (fә'tɒgrәfi or fә'tɑːgrәfi (from Greek φωτο and γραφία is the process and Art of recording pictures by means of capturing The 1789 discovery of uranium in the mineral pitchblende is credited to Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named the new element after the planet Uranus. Martin Heinrich Klaproth ( 1 December 1743 – 1 January 1817) was a German Chemist. Eugène-Melchior Péligot was the first person to isolate the metal, and its radioactive properties were uncovered in 1896 by Antoine Becquerel. Eugène-Melchior Péligot (born in Paris 1811 died in Paris 1890 Antoine Henri Becquerel (15 December 1852 &ndash 25 August 1908 was a French Physicist, Nobel laureate, and one of the discoverers of Radioactivity Research by Enrico Fermi and others starting in 1934 led to its use as a fuel in the nuclear power industry and in Little Boy, the first nuclear weapon used in war. Little Boy was the Codename of the Atomic bomb, developed via the "Manhattan Project" which was dropped on Hiroshima, on August 6 1945 by the The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were nuclear attacks near the end of World War II against the Empire of Japan by the United States at An ensuing arms race during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union produced tens of thousands of nuclear weapons that used enriched uranium and uranium-derived plutonium. The term arms race, in its original usage describes a competition between two or more parties for real or apparent military supremacy Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Enriched uranium is a kind of Uranium in which the percent composition of Uranium-235 has been increased through the process of Isotope separation. The security of those weapons and their fissile material following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 is a concern for public health and safety. The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985

## Characteristics

An induced nuclear fission event involving uranium-235

When refined, uranium is a silvery white, weakly radioactive metal, which is slightly softer than steel,[5] strongly electropositive and a poor electrical conductor. Refining (as in non-metallurgical uses consists of purifying an impure material in this case a metal The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons Electrical conductivity or specific conductivity is a measure of a material's ability to conduct an Electric current. [6] It is malleable, ductile, and slightly paramagnetic. For malleability in Cryptography, see Malleability (cryptography. Ductility is a mechanical property used to describe the extent to which materials can be deformed plastically or "stretched" into "wires" without Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism which occurs only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field [5] Uranium metal has very high density, being approximately 70% more dense than lead, but slightly less dense than gold. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79

Uranium metal reacts with almost all nonmetallic elements and their compounds, with reactivity increasing with temperature. A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed proportion by Mass. [7] Hydrochloric and nitric acids dissolve uranium, but nonoxidizing acids attack the element very slowly. Hydrochloric acid is the Solution of Hydrogen chloride ( H[[Chlorine Cl]] in water Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and [6] When finely divided, it can react with cold water; in air, uranium metal becomes coated with a dark layer of uranium oxide. [5] Uranium in ores is extracted chemically and converted into uranium dioxide or other chemical forms usable in industry. Uranium dioxide (2 an Oxide of Uranium, also known as urania or uranic oxide is a black radioactive crystalline powder

Uranium was the first element that was found to be fissile. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into parts (lighter nuclei) often producing Free neutrons and other smaller nuclei which may Upon bombardment with slow neutrons, its uranium-235 isotope will most of the time divide into two smaller nuclei, releasing nuclear binding energy and more neutrons. This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Uranium-235 is an isotope of uranium that differs from the element's other common isotope Uranium-238, by its ability to cause a rapidly expanding fission Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides The nucleus of an Atom is the very dense region consisting of Nucleons ( Protons and Neutrons, at the center of an atom Binding energy is the Mechanical energy required to disassemble a whole into separate parts If these neutrons are absorbed by other uranium-235 nuclei, a nuclear chain reaction occurs and, if there is nothing to absorb some neutrons and slow the reaction, the reaction is explosive. A nuclear chain reaction occurs when one Nuclear reaction causes an average of one or more nuclear reactions thus leading to a self-propagating number of these reactions As little as 15 lb (7 kg) of uranium-235 can be used to make an atomic bomb. [8] The first atomic bomb worked by this principle (nuclear fission).

## Applications

### Military

Depleted uranium is used by various militaries as high-density penetrators. Depleted uranium (DU is Uranium primarily composed of the Isotope Uranium-238 (U-238

The major application of uranium in the military sector is in high-density penetrators. This ammunition consists of depleted uranium (DU) alloyed with 1–2% other elements. Depleted uranium (DU is Uranium primarily composed of the Isotope Uranium-238 (U-238 At high impact speed, the density, hardness, and flammability of the projectile enable destruction of heavily armored targets. Tank armor and the removable armor on combat vehicles are also hardened with depleted uranium (DU) plates. The use of DU became a contentious political-environmental issue after the use of DU munitions by the US, UK and other countries during wars in the Persian Gulf and the Balkans raised questions of uranium compounds left in the soil (see Gulf War Syndrome). Gulf War syndrome (GWS or Gulf War illness (GWI is an Illness reported by combat Veterans of the 1991 Persian Gulf War typified by Symptoms [8]

Depleted uranium is also used as a shielding material in some containers used to store and transport radioactive materials. [6] Other uses of DU include counterweights for aircraft control surfaces, as ballast for missile re-entry vehicles and as a shielding material. [5] Due to its high density, this material is found in inertial guidance devices and in gyroscopic compasses. An Inertial Navigation System (INS is a Navigation aid that uses a Computer and motion sensors to continuously track the position orientation and Velocity A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principles of Angular momentum. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists [5] DU is preferred over similarly dense metals due to its ability to be easily machined and cast as well as its relatively low cost. [9] Counter to popular belief, the main risk of exposure to DU is chemical poisoning by uranium oxide rather than radioactivity (uranium being only a weak alpha emitter). Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an Atomic nucleus emits an Alpha particle (two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle

During the later stages of World War II, the entire Cold War, and to a much lesser extent afterwards, uranium was used as the fissile explosive material to produce nuclear weapons. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Two major types of fission bombs were built: a relatively simple device that uses uranium-235 and a more complicated mechanism that uses uranium-238-derived plutonium-239. Uranium-235 is an isotope of uranium that differs from the element's other common isotope Uranium-238, by its ability to cause a rapidly expanding fission Uranium-238 (U-238 is the most common isotope of Uranium found in nature Plutonium-239 is an Isotope of Plutonium. Plutonium-239 is the primary Fissile isotope used for the production of Nuclear weapons although Later, a much more complicated and far more powerful fusion bomb that uses a plutonium-based device in a uranium casing to cause a mixture of tritium and deuterium to undergo nuclear fusion was built. Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth In Physics and Nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple- like charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus [10]

### Civilian

The most visible civilian use of uranium is as the thermal power source used in nuclear power plants. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions

The main use of uranium in the civilian sector is to fuel commercial nuclear power plants; by the time it is completely fissioned, one kilogram of uranium-235 can theoretically produce about 20 trillion joules of energy (20×1012 joules); as much electricity as 1500 tonnes of coal. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions The joule (written in lower case ˈdʒuːl or /ˈdʒaʊl/ (symbol J) is the SI unit of Energy measuring heat, Electricity This article is about the tonne or metric ton For other tons see Ton. [4]

Commercial nuclear power plants use fuel that is typically enriched to around 3% uranium-235,[4] the CANDU reactor is the only commercial reactor capable of using unenriched uranium fuel. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions The CANDU reactor is a Canadian-invented Pressurized heavy water reactor developed initially in the late 1950s and 1960s by a partnership between Atomic Energy of Fuel used for United States Navy reactors is typically highly enriched in uranium-235 (the exact values are classified). In a breeder reactor, uranium-238 can also be converted into plutonium through the following reaction:[5] 238U (n, gamma) → 239U -(beta) → 239Np -(beta) → 239Pu. A breeder reactor is a Nuclear reactor that generates new Fissile or fissionable material at a greater rate than it consumes such material

Uranium glass glowing under UV light
Uranium glass used as lead-in seals in a vacuum capacitor

Prior to the discovery of radiation, uranium was primarily used in small amounts for yellow glass and pottery glazes (such as uranium glass and in Fiestaware). Uranium glass is glass which has had uranium usually in oxide diuranate form added to a glass mix prior to melting Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays Uranium glass is glass which has had uranium usually in oxide diuranate form added to a glass mix prior to melting A capacitor is a passive electrical component that can store Energy in the Electric field between a pair of conductors Radiation, as in Physics, is Energy in the form of waves or moving Subatomic particles emitted by an atom or other body as it changes from a higher energy Uranium glass is glass which has had uranium usually in oxide diuranate form added to a glass mix prior to melting Fiesta is a line of dinnerware glazed in differing solid Colors manufactured and marketed by the Homer Laughlin China Company of Newell West

After Marie Curie discovered radium in uranium ore, a huge industry developed to mine uranium so as to extract the radium, which was used to make glow-in-the-dark paints for clock and aircraft dials[3]. Radium (ˈreɪdiəm is a radioactive Chemical element which has the symbol Ra and Atomic number 88 This left a prodigious quantity of uranium as a 'waste product', since it takes three metric tons of uranium to extract one gram of radium, which is also one curie of radioactivity. This article is about the tonne or metric ton For other tons see Ton. For other uses of the words gram or gramme see Gram (disambiguation. A CURIE (short for Compact URI) is an abbreviated URI expressed in CURIE syntax and may be found in both XML and non-XML grammars This 'waste product' was diverted to the glazing industry, making uranium glazes very inexpensive and abundant. In addition to the pottery glazes, uranium tile glazes accounted for the bulk of the use, including common bathroom and kitchen tiles which can be colored green, yellow, mauve, black, blue, red and other colors with uranium. Uranium tiles have been used in the Glazing industry for many centuries as Uranium oxide makes an excellent Ceramic glaze, and is reasonably abundant

Uranium was also used in photographic chemicals (esp. Photography (fә'tɒgrәfi or fә'tɑːgrәfi (from Greek φωτο and γραφία is the process and Art of recording pictures by means of capturing uranium nitrate as a toner),[5] in lamp filaments, to improve the appearance of dentures, and in the leather and wood industries for stains and dyes. Uranyl nitrate ( U[[oxygen O]]2( N[[oxygen O]]32 is a Water Soluble yellow Uranium salt For the Irish surname see Toner (surname. Toner is a powder used in Laser printers and Photocopiers to form Dentures are prosthetic devices constructed to replace missing teeth and which are supported by surrounding soft and hard tissues of the Oral cavity. Uranium salts are mordants of silk or wool. A mordant is a substance used to set Dyes on fabrics by forming an insoluble compound with the dye Uranyl acetate and uranyl formate are used as stains in transmission electron microscopy, to increase the contrast of biological specimens in ultrathin sections and in negative staining of viruses, isolated cell organelles and macromolecules. Negative staining is an established method often used in Diagnostic microscopy, for contrasting a thin specimen with an optically opaque fluid A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable In Cell biology, an organelle (pronunciation /ɔː(rgəˡnɛl/ is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function and is usually separately enclosed The term macromolecule by definition implies "large Molecule "

The discovery of the radioactivity of uranium ushered in additional scientific and practical uses of the element. The long half-life of the isotope uranium-238 (4. Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page 51×109 years) makes it well-suited for use in estimating the age of the earliest igneous rocks and for other types of radiometric dating (including uranium-thorium dating and uranium-lead dating). Igneous rocks (etymology from Latin ignis, fire are rocks formed by solidification of cooled Magma (molten rock Radiometric dating (often called radioactive dating) is a technique used to date materials usually based on a comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring Uranium-thorium dating, also called thorium-230 dating, uranium-series disequilibrium dating or uranium-series dating, is a Radiometric dating Uranium-lead is one of the oldest and most refined Radiometric dating schemes with a routine age range of about 1 million years to over 4 Uranium metal is used for X-ray targets in the making of high-energy X-rays. X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. [5]

## History

### Pre-discovery use

The use of uranium in its natural oxide form dates back to at least the year 79, when it was used to add a yellow color to ceramic glazes. An oxide is a Chemical compound containing at least one Oxygen atom as well as at least one other element The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικός ( keramikos) [5] Yellow glass with 1% uranium oxide was found in a Roman villa on Cape Posillipo in the Bay of Naples, Italy by R. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Posillipo is a residential quarter of Naples, along the northern coast of the Gulf of Naples; it is called Pusilleco in the Neapolitan language The Gulf of Naples is located in the south western coast of Italy ( Province of Naples, Campania region Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest T. Gunther of the University of Oxford in 1912. The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the [11] Starting in the late Middle Ages, pitchblende was extracted from the Habsburg silver mines in Joachimsthal, Bohemia (now Jáchymov in the Czech Republic) and was used as a coloring agent in the local glassmaking industry. For other places called Joachimsthal see Joachimsthal (disambiguation Jáchymov (ˈjaxɪmof in German originally Thal, later Sankt Joachimsthal Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many [12] In the early 19th century, the world's only known source of uranium ores were these old mines.

### Discovery

Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity by exposing a photographic plate to uranium (1896). Antoine Henri Becquerel (15 December 1852 &ndash 25 August 1908 was a French Physicist, Nobel laureate, and one of the discoverers of Radioactivity Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. Photographic plates preceded Photographic film as a mean of photography

The discovery of the element is credited to the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. Martin Heinrich Klaproth ( 1 December 1743 – 1 January 1817) was a German Chemist. While he was working in his experimental laboratory in Berlin in 1789, Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likely sodium diuranate) by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. Sodium diuranate, Na2U2O7·6H2O is a Uranium Salt also known as the yellow oxide of uranium Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and Sodium hydroxide ( Na[[hydroxide OH]]) also known as Lye, caustic soda and (incorrectly according to IUPAC nomenclature [12] Klaproth mistakenly assumed the yellow substance was the oxide of a yet-undiscovered element and heated it with charcoal to obtain a black powder, which he thought was the newly discovered metal itself (in fact, that powder was an oxide of uranium). Charcoal' is the blackish residue consisting of impure Carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from Animal and Vegetation [12][13] He named the newly discovered element after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered eight years earlier by William Herschel. Sir Frederick William Herschel FRS KH ( 15 November 1738 – 25 August 1822) was a German -born British [14]

In 1841, Eugène-Melchior Péligot, who was Professor of Analytical Chemistry at the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (Central School of Arts and Manufactures) in Paris, isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with potassium. Eugène-Melchior Péligot (born in Paris 1811 died in Paris 1890 The Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers ( CNAM) or National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts is a doctoral-granting Higher education establishment (or Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Uranium tetrachloride (UCl4 is a dark green compound of Uranium. Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 [15][12] Uranium was not seen as being particularly dangerous during much of the 19th century, leading to the development of various uses for the element. One such use for the oxide was the aforementioned but no longer secret coloring of pottery and glass.

Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity by using uranium in 1896. Antoine Henri Becquerel (15 December 1852 &ndash 25 August 1908 was a French Physicist, Nobel laureate, and one of the discoverers of Radioactivity Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. [7] Becquerel made the discovery in Paris by leaving a sample of a uranium salt on top of an unexposed photographic plate in a drawer and noting that the plate had become 'fogged'. Photographic plates preceded Photographic film as a mean of photography [16] He determined that a form of invisible light or rays emitted by uranium had exposed the plate.

### Fission research

Enrico Fermi (bottom left) and the rest of the team that initiated the first artificial nuclear chain reaction (1942). A nuclear chain reaction occurs when one Nuclear reaction causes an average of one or more nuclear reactions thus leading to a self-propagating number of these reactions

A team led by Enrico Fermi in 1934 observed that bombarding uranium with neutrons produces the emission of beta rays (electrons or positrons; see beta particle). This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. In Nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of Radioactive decay in which a Beta particle (an Electron or a Positron) is emitted The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J The positrons or antielectron is the Antiparticle or the Antimatter counterpart of the Electron. Beta particles are high-energy high-speed Electrons or Positrons emitted by certain types of Radioactive nuclei such as Potassium -40 [17] The fission products were at first mistaken for new elements of atomic numbers 93 and 94, which the Dean of the Faculty of Rome, Orso Mario Corbino, christened ausonium and hesperium, respectively. Ausonium ( Atomic symbol Ao) was the name assigned to the element with Atomic number 93 now known as Neptunium. Hesperium (also known as esperium; Atomic symbol Es) was the name assigned to the element with Atomic number 94 now known as Plutonium [18][19][20][21] The experiments leading to the discovery of uranium's ability to fission (break apart) into lighter elements and release binding energy were conducted by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann[17] in Hahn's laboratory in Berlin. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into parts (lighter nuclei) often producing Free neutrons and other smaller nuclei which may Binding energy is the Mechanical energy required to disassemble a whole into separate parts Otto Hahn (8 March 1879 &ndash 28 July 1968 was a German Chemist who received the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovering Nuclear fission Friedrich Wilhelm "Fritz" Strassman ( February 22, 1902 - April 22, 1980) was a German chemist who with Lise Meitner and her nephew, physicist Otto Robert Frisch, published the physical explanation in February 1939 and named the process 'nuclear fission'. Lise Meitner (7 or 17 November 1878 &ndash 27 October 1968 was an Austrian born later Swedish physicist who studied Radioactivity and Otto Robert Frisch ( 1 October 1904 &ndash 22 September 1979) Austrian British Physicist. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into parts (lighter nuclei) often producing Free neutrons and other smaller nuclei which may [22] Soon after, Fermi hypothesized that the fission of uranium might release enough neutrons to sustain a fission reaction. Confirmation of this hypothesis came in 1939, and later work found that on average about 2 1/2 neutrons are released by each fission of the rare uranium isotope uranium-235. Uranium-235 is an isotope of uranium that differs from the element's other common isotope Uranium-238, by its ability to cause a rapidly expanding fission [17] Further work found that the far more common uranium-238 isotope can be transmuted into plutonium, which, like uranium-235, is also fissionable by thermal neutrons. Uranium-238 (U-238 is the most common isotope of Uranium found in nature Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one Chemical element or Isotope into another which occurs through Nuclear reactions Natural transmutation occurs

On 2 December 1942, another team led by Enrico Fermi was able to initiate the first artificial nuclear chain reaction, Chicago Pile-1. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A nuclear chain reaction occurs when one Nuclear reaction causes an average of one or more nuclear reactions thus leading to a self-propagating number of these reactions Chicago Pile-1 ( CP-1) was the world's first artificial Nuclear reactor. Working in a lab below the stands of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago, the team created the conditions needed for such a reaction by piling together 400 tons (360 tonnes) of graphite, 58 tons (53 tonnes) of uranium oxide, and six tons (five and a half tonnes) of uranium metal. Alonzo Stagg Field is the name of two different football fields for the University of Chicago. The University of Chicago is a Private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. The Mineral graphite, as with Diamond and Fullerene, is one of the Allotropes of carbon. Uranium oxide is an Oxide of the element Uranium. The metal uranium forms several oxides Uranium dioxide or uranium(IV oxide (UO2 [17] Later researchers found that such a chain reaction could either be controlled to produce usable energy or could be allowed to go out of control to produce an explosion more violent than anything possible using chemical explosives. An explosive material is a material that either is chemically or otherwise Energetically unstable or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied

### Bombs

The mushroom cloud over Hiroshima after the dropping of the uranium-based atomic bomb nicknamed 'Little Boy' (1945)

Two major types of atomic bomb were developed in the Manhattan Project during World War II: a plutonium-based device (see Trinity test and 'Fat Man') whose plutonium was derived from uranium-238, and a uranium-based device (nicknamed 'Little Boy') whose fissile material was highly enriched uranium. A mushroom cloud is a distinctive Mushroom -shaped Cloud of condensed Water vapor or Debris resulting from a very large Explosion. The Japanese city of ( is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture, and the largest city in the Chūgoku region of western Honshū, the largest of Japan 's Little Boy was the Codename of the Atomic bomb, developed via the "Manhattan Project" which was dropped on Hiroshima, on August 6 1945 by the The World War II Manhattan Project developed the first Nuclear weapon (atomic bomb World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Trinity was the first test of technology for a Nuclear weapon. "Fat Man" is the codename for the Atomic bomb that was detonated over Nagasaki, Japan, by the United States on August 9 Little Boy was the Codename of the Atomic bomb, developed via the "Manhattan Project" which was dropped on Hiroshima, on August 6 1945 by the Enriched uranium is a kind of Uranium in which the percent composition of Uranium-235 has been increased through the process of Isotope separation. The uranium-based Little Boy device became the first nuclear weapon used in war when it was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Japanese city of ( is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture, and the largest city in the Chūgoku region of western Honshū, the largest of Japan 's Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes of TNT, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings and killed approximately 75,000 people (see Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki). Trinitrotoluene ( TNT) is a Chemical compound with the formula C6H2(NO23CH3 The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were nuclear attacks near the end of World War II against the Empire of Japan by the United States at [16]

### Reactors

Four light bulbs lit with electricity generated from the first artificial electricity-producing nuclear reactor, EBR-I (1951)

Experimental Breeder Reactor I at the Idaho National Laboratory(INL) near Arco, Idaho became the first functioning artificial nuclear reactor on 20 December 1951. This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled Experimental Breeder Reactor I (EBR-I is a Decommissioned Research reactor and U Experimental Breeder Reactor I (EBR-I is a Decommissioned Research reactor and U The Idaho National Laboratory ( INL) is an 890-square-mile (2300-km² complex located in the Idaho desert between the town of Arco and the city of Arco is a city in Butte County, Idaho, United States. The population was 1026 at the 2000 census. Events 69 - Vespasian, formerly a general under Nero, enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January Initially, four 150-watt light bulbs were lit by the reactor, but improvements eventually enabled it to power the whole facility (later, the whole town of Arco became the first in the world to have all its electricity come from nuclear power). [23] The world's first commercial scale nuclear power station, Obninsk in the Soviet Union, began generation with its reactor AM-1 on 27 June 1954. The Nuclear power station Obninsk (Обнинская АЭС Obninskaja AES was a part of the science city Obninsk, about 110 km southwest from Moscow The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Year 1954 ( MCMLIV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1954 Gregorian calendar) Other early nuclear power plants were Calder Hall in England which began generation on 17 October 1956[24] and the Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Pennsylvania which began on 26 May 1958. Sellafield is a nuclear processing and former electricity generating site close to the village of Seascale on the coast of the Irish Sea in Cumbria England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Events 539 BC - King Cyrus The Great of Persia marches into the city of Babylon, releasing the Jews from almost Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Shippingport Atomic Power Station, "the world’s first full-scale atomic electric power plant devoted exclusively to peacetime uses" was located near the present-day The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ( often colloquially referred to as PA (its abbreviation by natives and Northeasterners is a state located in the Northeastern Events 451 - The Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sassanid Empire takes place Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Nuclear power was used for the first time for propulsion by a submarine, the USS Nautilus, in 1954. A submarine is a Watercraft that can operate independently below water as distinct from a Submersible that has only limited underwater capability "Underway on nuclear power" Following her commissioning Nautilus remained dockside for further construction and testing [17]

### Naturally Occurring Nuclear Fission

Fifteen ancient and no longer active natural nuclear fission reactors were found in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo mine in Gabon, West Africa in 1972. A natural nuclear fission reactor is a Uranium deposit where analysis of Isotope Ratios has shown that self-sustaining Nuclear chain reactions A natural nuclear fission reactor is a Uranium deposit where analysis of Isotope Ratios has shown that self-sustaining Nuclear chain reactions Oklo is a region near the town of Franceville, in the Haut-Ogooué province of the Central African state of Gabon. Gabon (gəˈbɒn or /gaˈbõ/ in French) is a country in west central Africa sharing borders with Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Republic West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. Discovered by French physicist Francis Perrin, they are collectively known as the Oklo Fossil Reactors. Francis Perrin ( Paris, 1901 - id 1992 was a French Physicist, the son of Jean Perrin. A natural nuclear fission reactor is a Uranium deposit where analysis of Isotope Ratios has shown that self-sustaining Nuclear chain reactions The ore they exist in is 1. 7 billion years old; at that time, uranium-235 constituted about three percent of the total uranium on Earth. [25] This is high enough to permit a sustained nuclear fission chain reaction to occur, providing other conditions are right. The ability of the surrounding sediment to contain the nuclear waste products in less than ideal conditions has been cited by the U. Radioactive wastes are Waste types containing radioactive Chemical elements that do not have a practical purpose S. federal government as evidence of their claim that the Yucca Mountain facility could safely be a repository of waste for the nuclear power industry. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions [25]

### Cold War legacy and waste

U. S. and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945–2006

During the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, huge stockpiles of uranium were amassed and tens of thousands of nuclear weapons were created using enriched uranium and plutonium made from uranium. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the

Since the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, an estimated 600 tons (540 tonnes) of highly enriched weapons grade uranium (enough to make 40,000 nuclear warheads) have been stored in often inadequately guarded facilities in the Russian Federation and several other former Soviet states. The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending [8] Police in Asia, Europe, and South America on at least 16 occasions from 1993 to 2005 have intercepted shipments of smuggled bomb-grade uranium or plutonium, most of which was from ex-Soviet sources. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Nuclear espionage is the purposeful giving of state secrets regarding Nuclear weapons to other states without authorization ( Espionage) [8] From 1993 to 2005 the Material Protection, Control, and Accounting Program, operated by the federal government of the United States, spent approximately US $550 million to help safeguard uranium and plutonium stockpiles in Russia. The federal government of the United States is the central United States Governmental body established by the United States Constitution. The United States dollar ( sign:$; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been [8] The improvements made provided repairs and security enhancements at research and storage facilities. Scientific American reported in February of 2006 that some of the facilities had been protected only by chain link fences which were in severe states of disrepair. According to an interview from the article, one facility had been storing samples of enriched (weapons grade) uranium in a broom closet prior to the improvement project; another had been keeping track of its stock of nuclear warheads using index cards kept in a shoe box. [26]

Above-ground nuclear tests by the Soviet Union and the United States in the 1950s and early 1960s and by France into the 1970s and 1980s[9] spread a significant amount of fallout from uranium daughter isotopes around the world. Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness yield and explosive capability of Nuclear weapons Throughout the twentieth century most nations This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a Nuclear explosion, so named because it "falls out" of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion [27] Additional fallout and pollution occurred from several nuclear accidents. This article covers notable accidents involving nuclear devices and radioactive materials

The Windscale fire at the Sellafield nuclear plant in 1957 spread iodine-131, a short lived radioactive isotope, over much of Northern England. On October 10, 1957, the Graphite core of a British Nuclear reactor at Windscale, Cumbria, caught fire releasing substantial amounts Sellafield is a nuclear processing and former electricity generating site close to the village of Seascale on the coast of the Irish Sea in Cumbria Iodine-131 (131I, also called radioiodine, is a Radioisotope of Iodine which has medical and pharmaceutical uses Northern England, The North, The North of England or (less commonly The North Country refers to the parts of England north of an ill-defined line

The Three Mile Island accident in 1979 released a small amount of iodine-131. The Three Mile Island accident of 1979 was the most significant accident in the history of the American commercial Nuclear power generating industry Iodine-131 (131I, also called radioiodine, is a Radioisotope of Iodine which has medical and pharmaceutical uses The amounts released by the partial meltdown of the Three Mile Island power plant were minimal, and an environmental survey only found trace amounts in a few field mice dwelling nearby. As I-131 has a half life of slightly more than eight days, any danger posed by the radioactive material has long since passed for both of these incidents.

The Chernobyl disaster in 1986, however, was a complete core breach meltdown and partial detonation of the reactor, which ejected iodine-131 and strontium-90 over a large area of Europe. The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear reactor accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union. Strontium-90 (90Sr is a Radioactive Isotope of Strontium, with a Half life of 28 The 28 year half-life of strontium-90 means that only recently has some of the surrounding countryside around the reactor been deemed safe enough to be habitable. [9]

## Occurrence

### Biotic and abiotic

Uraninite, also known as Pitchblende, is the most common ore mined to extract uranium. Uranium in the environment, this page is about the Science of Uranium in the environment and in animals (including humans

Uranium is a naturally occurring element that can be found in low levels within all rock, soil, and water. In Chemistry, natural abundance (NA refers to the abundance Isotopes of a Chemical element as naturally found on a planet Uranium is also the highest-numbered element to be found naturally in significant quantities on earth and is always found combined with other elements. [5] Along with all elements having atomic weights higher than that of iron, it is only naturally formed in supernova explosions. The atomic mass (ma is the Mass of an atom most often expressed in unified atomic mass units The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 A supernova (plural supernovae or supernovas) is a stellar Explosion. [28] The decay of uranium, thorium and potassium-40 in the Earth's mantle is thought to be the main source of heat[29][30] that keeps the outer core liquid and drives mantle convection, which in turn drives plate tectonics. Thorium (ˈθɔːriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Th and Atomic number 90 Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 The mantle is a part of an Astronomical object. The interior of the Earth, similar to the other Terrestrial planets, is Chemically divided The interior of Earth, similar to the other Terrestrial planets, is Chemically divided into layers Mantle convection is the slow creeping motion of Earth's rocky mantle in response to perpetual gravitationally unstable variations in its density Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere

Its average concentration in the Earth's crust is (depending on the reference) 2 to 4 parts per million,[6][9] or about 40 times as abundant as silver. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 In Geology, a crust is the outermost solid shell of a planet or moon Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen [7] The Earth's crust from the surface to 25 km (15 mi) down is calculated to contain 1017 kg (2×1017 lb) of uranium while the oceans may contain 1013 kg (2×1013 lb). An ocean (from Greek, ''Okeanos'' (Oceanus) is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the Hydrosphere. [6] The concentration of uranium in soil ranges from 0. 7 to 11 parts per million (up to 15 parts per million in farmland soil due to use of phosphate fertilizers), and 3 parts per billion of sea water is composed of the element. Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant [9]

It is more plentiful than antimony, tin, cadmium, mercury, or silver, and it is about as abundant as arsenic or molybdenum. Antimony (IPA (Received Pronunciation, /ˈæntɪmoʊni/ (US is a Chemical element with the symbol Sb (stibium meaning "mark" and Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Cadmium (ˈkædmiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Cd and Atomic number 48 Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 Molybdenum (məˈlɪbdənəm from the Greek word for the metal " Lead " is a Group 6 Chemical element with the symbol Mo [5][9] It is found in hundreds of minerals including uraninite (the most common uranium ore), autunite, uranophane, torbernite, and coffinite. An ore is a volume of rock containing components or Minerals in a mode of occurrence that renders it valuable for mining Autunite (hydrated calcium uranyl phosphate with formula Ca(UO22(PO42·10-12H2O is a yellow - greenish Fluorescent Uranophane Ca ( U[[oxygen O]]22( SiO sub>3O H)2·5 H2O is a rare calcium uranium Torbernite, whose name derives from the Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman (1735-1784 is a Radioactive, green Phosphate Mineral, found in Coffinite is a Uranium bearing silicate mineral: U(SiO41-x(OH4x [5] Significant concentrations of uranium occur in some substances such as phosphate rock deposits, and minerals such as lignite, and monazite sands in uranium-rich ores[5] (it is recovered commercially from these sources with as little as 0. A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, or Rosebud coal by Northern Pacific Railroad, is a soft brown fuel with characteristics that put it somewhere In Geology, the Mineral monazite is a reddish-brown Phosphate -containing rare earth metals and an important source of Thorium 1% uranium[7]).

Citrobacter species can have concentrations of uranium in their bodies 300 times higher than in the surrounding environment. Citrobacter is a Genus of Gram-negative coliform Bacteria in the Enterobacteriaceae family.

Some organisms, such as the lichen Trapelia involuta or microorganisms such as the bacterium Citrobacter, can absorb concentrations of uranium that are up to 300 times higher than in their environment. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Citrobacter is a Genus of Gram-negative coliform Bacteria in the Enterobacteriaceae family. [31] Citrobacter species absorb uranyl ions when given glycerol phosphate (or other similar organic phosphates). The uranyl ion is the dipositive Cation 2+, which forms salts with acids After one day, one gram of bacteria will encrust themselves with nine grams of uranyl phosphate crystals; this creates the possibility that these organisms could be used in bioremediation to decontaminate uranium-polluted water. Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses Microorganisms Fungi, green plants or their Enzymes to return the natural environment altered Radioactive contamination is the uncontrolled distribution of radioactive material in a given environment [12][32]

Plants absorb some uranium from the soil they are rooted in. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Dry weight concentrations of uranium in plants range from 5 to 60 parts per billion, and ash from burnt wood can have concentrations up to 4 parts per million. [12] Dry weight concentrations of uranium in food plants are typically lower with one to two micrograms per day ingested through the food people eat. Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an [12]

### Production and mining

Main article: Uranium mining

The worldwide production of uranium in 2003 amounted to 41 429 tonnes, of which 25% was mined in Canada. Uranium mining is the process of extraction of Uranium Ore from the ground This article is about the tonne or metric ton For other tons see Ton. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Other important uranium mining countries are Australia, Russia, Niger, Namibia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, South Africa, USA and Portugal. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula.

Yellowcake is a concentrated mixture of uranium oxides that is further refined to extract pure uranium. For the falsified documents see Yellowcake forgery. Yellowcakes (also called urania) are Uranium concentrates obtained

Uranium ore is mined in several ways: by open pit, underground, in-situ leaching, and borehole mining (see uranium mining). Open-pit mining, also known as opencast mining and open-cut mining and strip mining, refers to a method of extracting rock or Minerals Borehole Mining (BHM is a remote operated method of extracting ( Mining) mineral resources through Boreholes by means of high pressure water jets Uranium mining is the process of extraction of Uranium Ore from the ground [4] Low-grade uranium ore typically contains 0. 1 to 0. 25% of actual uranium oxides, so extensive measures must be employed to extract the metal from its ore. [33] High-grade ores found in Athabasca Basin deposits in Saskatchewan, Canada can contain up to 70% uranium oxides, and therefore must be diluted with waste rock prior to milling, as the undilute stockpiled ore could become critical and start a nuclear reaction. The Athabasca Basin is a region of Northern Saskatchewan and Alberta Canada that is best known as the world's leading source of Uranium. Saskatchewan (səˈskætʃəwən) is a prairie province in Canada, which has an area of 588276 Uranium ore is crushed and rendered into a fine powder and then leached with either an acid or alkali. In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal The leachate is then subjected to one of several sequences of precipitation, solvent extraction, and ion exchange. The resulting mixture, called yellowcake, contains at least 75% uranium oxides. For the falsified documents see Yellowcake forgery. Yellowcakes (also called urania) are Uranium concentrates obtained Yellowcake is then calcined to remove impurities from the milling process prior to refining and conversion. Calcination (also referred to as calcining) is a thermal treatment process applied to ores and other solid materials in order to bring about a Thermal decomposition

Commercial-grade uranium can be produced through the reduction of uranium halides with alkali or alkaline earth metals. Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state A halide is a Binary compound, of which one part is a Halogen Atom and the other part is an element or radical that is less Trends The alkali metals show a number of trends when moving down the group - for instance decreasing electronegativity increasing reactivity and decreasing melting and boiling Biological occurrences Beryllium's low aqueous solubility means it is rarely available to biological systems it has no known role in living organisms and when encountered [5] Uranium metal can also be made through electrolysis of KUF5 or UF4, dissolved in a molten calcium chloride (CaCl2) and sodium chloride (NaCl) solution. In chemistry and manufacturing electrolysis is a method of separating chemically bonded elements and compounds by passing an Electric current Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 Fluorine, fluorum meaning "to flow" is the Chemical element with the symbol F and Atomic number 9 Calcium chloride (CaCl2 is an ionic compound of Calcium and Chlorine. The chloride Ion is formed when the element Chlorine picks up one Electron to form an Anion (negatively-charged ion Cl&minus For sodium chloride in the diet see Salt. Sodium chloride, also known as common salt, table salt, or Halite, is a Sodium (ˈsoʊdiəm is an element which has the symbol Na( Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) atomic number 11 atomic mass 22 [5] Very pure uranium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of uranium halides on a hot filament. For the biological process see Decomposition. For chemical decomposition in general see Chemical decomposition. [5]

### Resources and reserves

Current economic uranium resources will last for over 100 years at current consumption rates, while it is expected there is twice that amount awaiting discovery. With reprocessing and recycling, the reserves are good for thousands of years. [34]. It is estimated that 5. 5 million tonnes of uranium ore reserves are economically viable[35] , while 35 million tonnes are classed as mineral resources (reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction). [36] An additional 4. 6 billion tonnes of uranium are estimated to be in sea water (Japanese scientists in the 1980s showed that extraction of uranium from sea water using ion exchangers was feasible). Seawater is Water from a Sea or Ocean. On average seawater in the world's oceans has a Salinity of about 3 For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Ion exchange is an exchange of Ions between two Electrolytes or between an electrolyte Solution and a complex. [37][38]

Exploration for uranium is continuing to increase with US$200 million being spent world wide in 2005, a 54% increase on the previous year. [36] Australia has 40% of the world's uranium ore reserves[39] and the world's largest single uranium deposit, located at the Olympic Dam Mine in South Australia. Olympic Dam is a mining centre in South Australia located some 550 km NNW of Adelaide the capital city of South Australia. South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country [40] Almost all of the uranium production is exported, under strict International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards against use in nuclear weapons. The International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA) is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. The largest single source of uranium ore in the United States was the Colorado Plateau located in Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. The Colorado Plateau, also called the Colorado Plateaus Province, is a physiographic region of the Intermontane Plateaus, roughly centered on the The U. S. federal government paid discovery bonuses and guaranteed purchase prices to anyone who found and delivered uranium ore, and was the sole legal purchaser of the uranium. The economic incentives resulted in a frenzy of exploration and mining activity throughout the Colorado Plateau from 1947 through 1959 that left thousands of miles of crudely graded roads spider-webbing the remote deserts of the Colorado Plateau, and thousands of abandoned uranium mines, exploratory shafts, and tailings piles. The frenzy ended as suddenly as it had begun, when the U. S. government stopped purchasing the uranium. ### Supply Uranium output in 2005 In 2005, seventeen countries produced concentrated uranium oxides, with Canada (27. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page 9% of world production) and Australia (22. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. 8%) being the largest producers and Kazakhstan (10. Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the 5%), Russia (8. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending 0%), Namibia (7. Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast 5%), Niger (7. Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. 4%), Uzbekistan (5. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly 5%), the United States (2. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the 5%), Ukraine (1. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. 9%) and China (1. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES 7%) also producing significant amounts. [41] The ultimate supply of uranium is believed to be very large and sufficient for at least the next 85 years[36] although some studies indicate underinvestment in the late twentieth century may produce supply problems in the 21st century. [42] Some claim that production of uranium will peak similar to peak oil. See also Uranium depletion, Hubbert peak theory Peak uranium is the point in time that the maximum global Uranium production rate is reached Kenneth S. Deffeyes and Ian D. MacGregor point out that uranium deposits seem to be log-normal distributed. There is a 300-fold increase in the amount of uranium recoverable for each tenfold decrease in ore grade. " [43] In another words, there is very little high grade ore and proportionately much more low grade ore. ## Compounds ### Oxidation states and oxides #### Oxides Triuranium octaoxide (diagram pictured) and uranium dioxide are the two most common uranium oxides. Triuranium octoxide (U3O8 is a compound of Uranium. It is present as an olive green to black odorless solid Uranium dioxide (2 an Oxide of Uranium, also known as urania or uranic oxide is a black radioactive crystalline powder Calcined uranium yellowcake as produced in many large mills contains a distribution of uranium oxidation species in various forms ranging from most oxidized to least oxidized. Particles with short residence times in a calciner will generally be less oxidized than particles that have long retention times or are recovered in the stack scrubber. While uranium content is referred to for U3O8 content, to do so is inaccurate and dates to the days of the Manhattan project when U3O8 was used as an analytical chemistry reporting standard. The World War II Manhattan Project developed the first Nuclear weapon (atomic bomb Phase relationships in the uranium-oxygen system are highly complex. In the Physical sciences a phase is a Set of states of a macroscopic physical system that have relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties The most important oxidation states of uranium are uranium(IV) and uranium(VI), and their two corresponding oxides are, respectively, uranium dioxide (UO2) and uranium trioxide (UO3). An oxide is a Chemical compound containing at least one Oxygen atom as well as at least one other element Uranium dioxide (2 an Oxide of Uranium, also known as urania or uranic oxide is a black radioactive crystalline powder Uranium trioxide (UO3, also called Uranyl oxide, uranium(VI oxide, and uranic oxide, is the hexavalent Oxide of [44] Other uranium oxides such as uranium monoxide (UO), diuranium pentoxide (U2O5), and uranium peroxide (UO4•2H2O) are also known to exist. Uranium oxide is an Oxide of the element Uranium. The metal uranium forms several oxides Uranium dioxide or uranium(IV oxide (UO2 The most common forms of uranium oxide are triuranium octaoxide (U3O8) and the aforementioned UO2. Triuranium octoxide (U3O8 is a compound of Uranium. It is present as an olive green to black odorless solid [45] Both oxide forms are solids that have low solubility in water and are relatively stable over a wide range of environmental conditions. Triuranium octaoxide is (depending on conditions) the most stable compound of uranium and is the form most commonly found in nature. Uranium dioxide is the form in which uranium is most commonly used as a nuclear reactor fuel. [45] At ambient temperatures, UO2 will gradually convert to U3O8. Because of their stability, uranium oxides are generally considered the preferred chemical form for storage or disposal. [45] #### Aqueous chemistry Ions that represent the four different oxidation states of uranium are soluble and therefore can be studied in aqueous solutions. An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge In Chemistry, the oxidation state is an indicator of the degree of Oxidation of an Atom in a Chemical compound. Solubility is the characteristic Physical property referring to the ability of a given substance the Solute, to dissolve in a Solvent. They are: U3+ (red), U4+ (green), UO2+ (unstable), and UO22+ (yellow). Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the The uranyl ion is the dipositive Cation 2+, which forms salts with acids [46] A few solid and semi-metallic compounds such as UO and US exist for the formal oxidation state uranium(II), but no simple ions are known to exist in solution for that state. A solid' object is in the States of matter characterized by resistance to Deformation and changes of Volume. Ions of U3+ liberate hydrogen from water and are therefore considered to be highly unstable. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. The UO22+ ion represents the uranium(VI) state and is known to form compounds such as the carbonate, chloride and sulfate. Uranium carbonate, UO2(CO3 is a Carbonate of Uranium that forms the backbone of several uranyl mineral species such as Andersonite Uranyl chloride, UO2Cl2 is an unstable bright yellow coloured chemical compound of Uranium. Uranyl sulfate (UO2SO4 a Sulfate of Uranium presents as an odorless lemon-yellow sand-like solid in its pure crystalline form UO22+ also forms complexes with various organic chelating agents, the most commonly encountered of which is uranyl acetate. The term complex in Chemistry is usually used to describe molecules or ensembles formed by the combination of Ligands and metal Ions. An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon. Chelation is the binding or complexation of a bi- or multidentate Ligand. Uranyl acetate (UO2(CH3COO2·2H2O is a yellow free-flowing crystalline solid of yellow rhombic Crystals with a slight acetic odor [46] #### Carbonates The Pourbaix diagram for uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium (eg perchloric acid / sodium hydroxide). In Chemistry, a Pourbaix diagram, also known as a potential/pH diagram, maps out possible stable ( equilibrium) phases of an aqueous electrochemical system Perchloric acid, HClO4 is an Oxoacid of Chlorine and is a colorless liquid soluble in water. [47] The Pourbaix diagram for uranium in carbonate solution[47] The interactions of carbonate anions with uranium(VI) cause the Pourbaix diagram to change greatly when the medium is changed from water to a carbonate containing solution. In Chemistry, a Pourbaix diagram, also known as a potential/pH diagram, maps out possible stable ( equilibrium) phases of an aqueous electrochemical system In Chemistry, a Pourbaix diagram, also known as a potential/pH diagram, maps out possible stable ( equilibrium) phases of an aqueous electrochemical system It is interesting to note that while the vast majority of carbonates are insoluble in water (students are often taught that all carbonates other than those of alkali metals are insoluble in water), uranium carbonates are often soluble in water. This is due to the fact that a U(VI) cation is able to bind two terminal oxides and three or more carbonates to form anionic complexes. The fraction digrams explain this further, it can be seen that when the pH of a uranium(VI) solution is increased that the uranium is converted to a hydrated uranium oxide hydroxide and then at high pHs to an anionic hydroxide complex. A diagram showing the relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium (eg perchloric acid / sodium hydroxide). Perchloric acid, HClO4 is an Oxoacid of Chlorine and is a colorless liquid soluble in water. [47] On addition of carbonate to the system the uranium is converted to a series of carbonate complexes when the pH is increased, one important overall effect of these reactions is to increase the solubility of the uranium in the range pH 6 to 8. This is important when considering the long term stability of used uranium dioxide nuclear fuels. A diagram showing the relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in an aqueous carbonate solution. [47] ### Hydrides, carbides and nitrides Uranium metal heated to 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F) reacts with hydrogen to form uranium hydride. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Even higher temperatures will reversibly remove the hydrogen. This property makes uranium hydrides convenient starting materials to create reactive uranium powder along with various uranium carbide, nitride, and halide compounds. For the Software development tool targeting the Symbian OS, see Carbide In chemistry a nitride is a compound of Nitrogen with a less Electronegative element where nitrogen has an Oxidation state of -3 A halide is a Binary compound, of which one part is a Halogen Atom and the other part is an element or radical that is less [48] Two crystal modifications of uranium hydride exist: an α form that is obtained at low temperatures and a β form that is created when the formation temperature is above 250 °C. [48] Uranium carbides and uranium nitrides are both relatively inert semimetallic compounds that are minimally soluble in acids, react with water, and can ignite in air to form U3O8. Uranium carbide, a Carbide of Uranium, is a hard refractive Ceramic material Uranium nitride (U2N3 is a ceramic compound used as Nuclear fuel in nuclear test reactors because it has properties similar to Uranium In English to be inert is to be in a state of doing little or nothing A semimetal is a material with a small overlap in the energy of the conduction band and Valence bands However the bottom of the conduction band is In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five [48] Carbides of uranium include uranium monocarbide (UC), uranium dicarbide (UC2), and diuranium tricarbide (U2C3). Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Both UC and UC2 are formed by adding carbon to molten uranium or by exposing the metal to carbon monoxide at high temperatures. Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO is a colorless odorless tasteless yet highly toxic Gas. Stable below 1800 °C, U2C3 is prepared by subjecting a heated mixture of UC and UC2 to mechanical stress. [49] Uranium nitrides obtained by direct exposure of the metal to nitrogen include uranium mononitride (UN), uranium dinitride (UN2), and diuranium trinitride (U2N3). Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 [49] ### Halides Uranium hexafluoride is the feedstock used to separate uranium-235 from natural uranium. Uranium hexafluoride (UF6 referred to as "hex" in the nuclear industry is a compound used in the Uranium enrichment process that produces All uranium fluorides are created using uranium tetrafluoride (UF4); UF4 itself is prepared by hydrofluorination of uranium dioxide. Uranium tetrafluoride (UF4 is a green crystalline solid compound of Uranium with an insignificant Vapor pressure and very slight Solubility [48] Reduction of UF4 with hydrogen at 1000 °C produces uranium trifluoride (UF3). Under the right conditions of temperature and pressure, the reaction of solid UF4 with gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF6) can form the intermediate fluorides of U2F9, U4F17, and UF5. Uranium hexafluoride (UF6 referred to as "hex" in the nuclear industry is a compound used in the Uranium enrichment process that produces [48] At room temperatures, UF6 has a high vapor pressure, making it useful in the gaseous diffusion process to separate highly valuable uranium-235 from the far more common uranium-238 isotope. Vapor pressure (also known as equilibrium vapor pressure or saturation vapor pressure) is the Pressure of a Vapor in equilibrium Gaseous diffusion is a technology used to produce Enriched uranium by forcing gaseous Uranium hexafluoride, UF6 through semi-permeable membranes This compound can be prepared from uranium dioxide and uranium hydride by the following process:[48] UO2 + 4HF + heat (500 °C) → UF4 + 2H2O UF4 + F2 + heat (350 °C) → UF6 The resulting UF6 white solid is highly reactive (by fluorination), easily sublimes (emitting a nearly perfect gas vapor), and is the most volatile compound of uranium known to exist. A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of Chemical substances The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called Sublimation of an element or compound is a transition from the Solid to Gas phase with no intermediate liquid stage These four properties that constitute an ideal gas can be easily remembered by the acronym RIPE which stands for - R andom Motion (molecules are in constant random motion [48] One method of preparing uranium tetrachloride (UCl4) is to directly combine chlorine with either uranium metal or uranium hydride. Uranium tetrachloride (UCl4 is a dark green compound of Uranium. Chlorine (ˈklɔriːn from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' ( khlôros, meaning 'pale green' is the Chemical element with Atomic number 17 and The reduction of UCl4 by hydrogen produces uranium trichloride (UCl3) while the higher chlorides of uranium are prepared by reaction with additional chlorine. [48] All uranium chlorides react with water and air. Bromides and iodides of uranium are formed by direct reaction of, respectively, bromine and iodine with uranium or by adding UH3 to those element's acids. A bromide Ion is a Bromine atom with charge of −1 Compounds with bromine in formal Oxidation state −1 are called bromides An iodide Ion is an iodine atom with a &minus1 charge. Compounds with iodine in formal Oxidation state &minus1 are called iodides Iodine (ˈaɪədaɪn ˈaɪədɪn or /ˈaɪədiːn/ from ιώδης iodes "violet" is a Chemical element that has the symbol I and Atomic [48] Known examples include: UBr3, UBr4, UI3, and UI4. Uranium oxyhalides are water-soluble and include UO2F2, UOCl2, UO2Cl2, and UO2Br2. Stability of the oxyhalides decrease as the atomic weight of the component halide increases. The atomic mass (ma is the Mass of an atom most often expressed in unified atomic mass units The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass [48] ## Isotopes Pie-graphs showing the relative proportions of uranium-238 (blue) and uranium-235 (red) at different levels of enrichment ### Natural concentrations Main article: Isotopes of uranium Naturally occurring uranium is composed of three major isotopes, uranium-238 (99. Uranium ( U) is a naturally occurring element with no Stable isotopes In other words all uranium is Radioactive and hence vanishing by Radioactive Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides Uranium-238 (U-238 is the most common isotope of Uranium found in nature 28% natural abundance), uranium-235 (0. In Chemistry, natural abundance (NA refers to the abundance Isotopes of a Chemical element as naturally found on a planet Uranium-235 is an isotope of uranium that differs from the element's other common isotope Uranium-238, by its ability to cause a rapidly expanding fission 71%), and uranium-234 (0. Uranium-234 is an isotope of Uranium. In Natural uranium and uranium ore 234U occurs as an indirect Decay product of 238U 0054%). All three isotopes are radioactive, creating radioisotopes, with the most abundant and stable being uranium-238 with a half-life of 4. Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. A radionuclide is an Atom with an unstable nucleus, which is a nucleus characterized by excess energy which is available to be imparted either to a newly-created Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page 51×109 years (close to the age of the Earth), uranium-235 with a half-life of 7. Modern geologists and Geophysicists consider the age of Earth to be around 4 13×108 years, and uranium-234 with a half-life of 2. 48×105 years. [50] Uranium-238 is an α emitter, decaying through the 18-member uranium natural decay series into lead-206. Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly [7] The decay series of uranium-235 (also called actino-uranium) has 15 members that ends in lead-207, protactinium-231 and actinium-227. Protactinium (ˌproʊtækˈtɪniəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Pa and Atomic number 91 Actinium (ækˈtɪniəm is a radioactive Chemical element with the symbol Ac and Atomic number 89 which was discovered in 1899, the earliest [7] The constant rates of decay in these series makes comparison of the ratios of parent to daughter elements useful in radiometric dating. Radiometric dating (often called radioactive dating) is a technique used to date materials usually based on a comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring Uranium-233 is made from thorium-232 by neutron bombardment. Thorium (ˈθɔːriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Th and Atomic number 90 This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. [5] The isotope uranium-235 is important for both nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons because it is the only isotope existing in nature to any appreciable extent that is fissile, that is, can be broken apart by thermal neutrons. This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into parts (lighter nuclei) often producing Free neutrons and other smaller nuclei which may [7] The isotope uranium-238 is also important because it absorbs neutrons to produce a radioactive isotope that subsequently decays to the isotope plutonium-239, which also is fissile. Plutonium-239 is an Isotope of Plutonium. Plutonium-239 is the primary Fissile isotope used for the production of Nuclear weapons although [17] ### Enrichment Main article: Enriched uranium Cascades of gas centrifuges are used to enrich uranium ore to concentrate its fissionable isotopes. Enriched uranium is a kind of Uranium in which the percent composition of Uranium-235 has been increased through the process of Isotope separation. A gas centrifuge is a separating machine specifically developed to separate Uranium-235 from Uranium-238. Enrichment of uranium ore through isotope separation to concentrate the fissionable uranium-235 is needed for use in nuclear weapons and most nuclear power plants with the exception of gas cooled reactors and pressurised heavy water reactors. Isotope separation is the process of concentrating specific Isotopes of a Chemical element by removing other isotopes for example separating Natural uranium A Gas Cooled Reactor (more commonly called a GCR) is a generation I Nuclear reactor that uses Graphite as a Neutron moderator and Carbon A pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR is a nuclear power reactor, commonly using unenriched Natural uranium as its fuel that uses Heavy water ( A majority of neutrons released by a fissioning atom of uranium-235 must impact other uranium-235 atoms to sustain the nuclear chain reaction needed for these applications. A nuclear chain reaction occurs when one Nuclear reaction causes an average of one or more nuclear reactions thus leading to a self-propagating number of these reactions The concentration and amount of uranium-235 needed to achieve this is called a 'critical mass. ' To be considered 'enriched', the uranium-235 fraction has to be increased to significantly greater than its concentration in naturally occurring uranium. Enriched uranium typically has a uranium-235 concentration of between 3 and 5%. [51] The process produces huge quantities of uranium that is depleted of uranium-235 and with a correspondingly increased fraction of uranium-238, called depleted uranium or 'DU'. Depleted uranium (DU is Uranium primarily composed of the Isotope Uranium-238 (U-238 To be considered 'depleted', the uranium-235 isotope concentration has to have been decreased to significantly less than its natural concentration. Typically the amount of uranium-235 left in depleted uranium is 0. 2% to 0. 3%. [52] As the price of uranium has risen since 2001, some enrichment tailings containing more than 0. 35% uranium-235 are being considered for re-enrichment, driving the price of these depleted uranium hexafluoride stores above$130 per kilogram in July, 2007 from just \$5 in 2001. [52]

The gas centrifuge process, where gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF6) is separated by the difference in molecular weight between 235UF6 and 238UF6 using high-speed centrifuges, has become the cheapest and leading enrichment process (lighter UF6 concentrates in the center of the centrifuge). A gas centrifuge is a separating machine specifically developed to separate Uranium-235 from Uranium-238. Uranium hexafluoride (UF6 referred to as "hex" in the nuclear industry is a compound used in the Uranium enrichment process that produces A centrifuge is a piece of equipment generally driven by a motor that puts an object in Rotation around a fixed axis, applying a force perpendicular to the axis [16] The gaseous diffusion process was the previous leading method for enrichment and the one used in the Manhattan Project. Gaseous diffusion is a technology used to produce Enriched uranium by forcing gaseous Uranium hexafluoride, UF6 through semi-permeable membranes The World War II Manhattan Project developed the first Nuclear weapon (atomic bomb In this process, uranium hexafluoride is repeatedly diffused through a silver-zinc membrane, and the different isotopes of uranium are separated by diffusion rate (uranium 238 is heavier and thus diffuses slightly slower than uranium-235). Diffusion is the net movement of particles (typically molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration by uncoordinated random movement Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 [16] The molecular laser isotope separation method employs a laser beam of precise energy to sever the bond between uranium-235 and fluorine. Molecular laser isotope separation ( MLIS) is a method of Isotope separation, where specially tuned lasers are used to separate Isotopes of A laser is a device that emits Light ( Electromagnetic radiation) through a process called Stimulated emission. This leaves uranium-238 bonded to fluorine and allows uranium-235 metal to precipitate from the solution. [4] Another method is called liquid thermal diffusion. [6]

## Precautions

### Exposure

A person can be exposed to uranium (or its radioactive daughters such as radon) by inhaling dust in air or by ingesting contaminated water and food. Radon (ˈreɪdɒn is the Chemical element that has the symbol Rn and Atomic number 86 The amount of uranium in air is usually very small; however, people who work in factories that process phosphate fertilizers, live near government facilities that made or tested nuclear weapons, live or work near a modern battlefield where depleted uranium weapons have been used, or live or work near a coal-fired power plant, facilities that mine or process uranium ore, or enrich uranium for reactor fuel, may have increased exposure to uranium. A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant Depleted uranium (DU is Uranium primarily composed of the Isotope Uranium-238 (U-238 A weapon is a Tool used either in Hunting, or attack or defence in Combat for the purpose of subduing enemy personnel or to destroy enemy weapons [53][54] Houses or structures that are over uranium deposits (either natural or man-made slag deposits) may have an increased incidence of exposure to radon gas.

Almost all uranium that is ingested is excreted during digestion, but up to 5% is absorbed by the body when the soluble uranyl ion is ingested while only 0. Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed The uranyl ion is the dipositive Cation 2+, which forms salts with acids 5% is absorbed when insoluble forms of uranium, such as its oxide, are ingested. [12] However, soluble uranium compounds tend to quickly pass through the body whereas insoluble uranium compounds, especially when ingested via dust into the lungs, pose a more serious exposure hazard. lung is the essential Respiration organ in air-breathing Animals including most Tetrapods a few Fish and a few Snails The most primitive After entering the bloodstream, the absorbed uranium tends to bioaccumulate and stay for many years in bone tissue because of uranium's affinity for phosphates. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at ftudruinsubstance is lost Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce [12] Uranium is not absorbed through the skin, and alpha particles released by uranium cannot penetrate the skin. Alpha particles (named after and denoted by the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α consist of two Protons and two Neutrons bound together into a

### Effects

One health risk from large intakes of uranium is toxic damage to the kidneys, because, in addition to being weakly radioactive, uranium is a toxic metal. Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism The kidneys are complicated organs that have numerous biological roles Toxic metals are Metals that form Poisonous soluble compounds and have no biological role i [55][56][12] Uranium is also a reproductive toxicant. [57][58] Radiological effects are generally local because this is the nature of alpha radiation, the primary form from U-238 decay. Uranyl (UO2+) ions, such as from uranium trioxide or uranyl nitrate and other hexavalent uranium compounds, have been shown to cause birth defects and immune system damage in laboratory animals. Uranium trioxide (UO3, also called Uranyl oxide, uranium(VI oxide, and uranic oxide, is the hexavalent Oxide of [59] No human cancer has been seen as a result of exposure to natural or depleted uranium,[60] but exposure to some of its decay products, especially radon, does pose a significant health threat. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Radon (ˈreɪdɒn is the Chemical element that has the symbol Rn and Atomic number 86 [9] Exposure to strontium-90, iodine-131, and other fission products is unrelated to uranium exposure, but may result from medical procedures or exposure to spent reactor fuel or fallout from nuclear weapons. Strontium-90 (90Sr is a Radioactive Isotope of Strontium, with a Half life of 28 Iodine-131 (131I, also called radioiodine, is a Radioisotope of Iodine which has medical and pharmaceutical uses [61] Although accidental inhalation exposure to a high concentration of uranium hexafluoride has resulted in human fatalities, those deaths were not associated with uranium itself. Uranium hexafluoride (UF6 referred to as "hex" in the nuclear industry is a compound used in the Uranium enrichment process that produces [62] Finely divided uranium metal presents a fire hazard because uranium is pyrophoric, so small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature. A pyrophoric substance will ignite spontaneously that is its Autoignition temperature is below Room temperature. [5]

## Notes

1. ^ The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements: Third Edition by L. Nuclear engineering is the application of the breakdown of atomic nuclei and/or other sub-atomic physics based on the principles of Nuclear physics. The nuclear fuel cycle, also called nuclear fuel chain, is the progression of Nuclear fuel through a series of differing stages Nuclear physics is the field of Physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of Atomic nuclei. K-65 residues are the very Radioactive mill residues resulting from a uniquely concentrated Uranium Ore discovered before WW II in Katanga Uranium mining is presently carried out in more than 25 countries around the world Uranium ( U) is a naturally occurring element with no Stable isotopes In other words all uranium is Radioactive and hence vanishing by Radioactive The table below is based mostly on European Nuclear Society data R. Morss, N. M. Edelstein, J. Fuger, eds. (Netherlands: Springer, 2006. )
2. ^ Health Concerns about Military Use of Depleted Uranium.
3. ^ WWW Table of Radioactive Isotopes.
4. ^ a b c d e Emsley, Nature's Building Blocks (2001), page 479
5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Uranium. Los Alamos National Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-01-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
6. ^ a b c d e f "Uranium". The McGraw-Hill Science and Technology Encyclopedia (5th edition). The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. .
7. ^ a b c d e f g "uranium". Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (6th Edition). Columbia University Press.
8. ^ a b c d e "uranium". Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security. The Gale Group, Inc. .
9. ^ a b c d e f g Emsley, Nature's Building Blocks (2001), page 480
10. ^ Nuclear Weapon Design. Federation of American Scientists (1998). Retrieved on 2007-02-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum
11. ^ Emsley, Nature's Building Blocks (2001), page 482
12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Emsley, Nature's Building Blocks (2001), page 477
13. ^ M. H. Klaproth (1789). Martin Heinrich Klaproth ( 1 December 1743 – 1 January 1817) was a German Chemist. "Chemische Untersuchung des Uranits, einer neuentdeckten metallischen Substanz". Chemische Annalen 2: 387–403.
14. ^ "Uranium". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th edition). Houghton Mifflin Company.
15. ^ E. -M. Péligot (1842). "Recherches Sur L'Uranium". Annales de chimie et de physique 5 (5): 5–47.
16. ^ a b c d Emsley, Nature's Building Blocks (2001), page 478
17. ^ a b c d e f Seaborg, Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements (1968), page 773
18. ^ Fermi, E. ; Artifical radioactivity produced by neutron bombardment, Nobel prize address, 12 December 1938
19. ^ De Gregorio, A. A Historical Note About How the Property was Discovered that Hydrogenated Substances Increase the Radioactivity Induced by Neutrons (2003)
20. ^ Nigro, M,; Hahn, Meitner e la teoria della fissione (2004)
21. ^ Peter van der Krogt, Elementymology & Elements Multidict
22. ^ L. Meitner, O. Frisch (1939). Lise Meitner (7 or 17 November 1878 &ndash 27 October 1968 was an Austrian born later Swedish physicist who studied Radioactivity and Otto Robert Frisch ( 1 October 1904 &ndash 22 September 1979) Austrian British Physicist. "Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction". Nature 143: 239–240. doi:10.1038/224466a0. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
23. ^ History and Success of Argonne National Laboratory: Part 1. U. S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory (1998). Retrieved on 2007-01-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted
24. ^ 1956:Queen switches on nuclear power. BBC news. Retrieved on June 28, 2006. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
25. ^ a b Oklo: Natural Nuclear Reactors. Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management. Retrieved on June 28, 2006. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
26. ^ Glaser, Alexander and von Hippel, Frank N. "Thwarting Nuclear Terrorism" Scientific American Magazine, February 2006
27. ^ T. Warneke, I. W. Croudace, P. E. Warwick, R. N. Taylor (2002). "A new ground-level fallout record of uranium and plutonium isotopes for northern temperate latitudes". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 203 (3–4): 1047–1057. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00930-5. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
28. ^ WorldBook@NASA: Supernova. NASA. Retrieved on 2007-02-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum
29. ^ Biever, Celeste (27 July 2005). "First measurements of Earth's core radioactivity". New Scientist.
30. ^ Potassium-40 heats up Earth's core. physicsweb (7 May 2003). Retrieved on 2007-01-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
31. ^ Emsley, Nature's Building Blocks (2001), pages 476 and 482
32. ^ L. E. Macaskie, R. M. Empson, A. K. Cheetham, C. P. Grey, A. J. Skarnulis (1992). "Uranium bioaccumulation by a Citrobacter sp. as a result of enzymically mediated growth of polycrystalline HUO2PO4". Science 257: 782–784. doi:10.1126/science.1496397. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
33. ^ Seaborg, Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements (1968), page 774
34. ^ [1]
35. ^ http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/ENF_Exploration_drives_uranium_resources_up_17_0206082.html
36. ^ a b c Global Uranium Resources to Meet Projected Demand. International Atomic Energy Agency (2006). Retrieved on 2007-03-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King
37. ^ Uranium recovery from Seawater. Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (1999-08-23). Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire Retrieved on 2007-03-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King
38. ^ How long will nuclear energy last? (1996-02-12). Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) Events 1429 - English Forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orleans from attack by the Retrieved on 2007-03-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King
39. ^ The World Today - NT Opposition in favour of uranium enrichment
40. ^ Uranium Mining and Processing in South Australia. South Australian Chamber of Mines and Energy (2002). Retrieved on 2007-01-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
41. ^ World Uranium Production. UxC Consulting Company, LLC. Retrieved on 2007-02-11. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 660 BC - Traditional founding date of Japan by Emperor Jimmu.
42. ^ Lack of fuel may limit U.S. nuclear power expansion. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved on 2007-03-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King
43. ^ Kenneth S. Deffeyes and Ian D. MacGregor (1980-01). World Uranium Resources (English). Scientific American. Retrieved on 2008-04-21. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date)
44. ^ Seaborg, Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements (1968), page 779
45. ^ a b c Chemical Forms of Uranium. Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-02-18. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy
46. ^ a b Seaborg, Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements (1968), page 778
47. ^ a b c d Ignasi Puigdomenech, Hydra/Medusa Chemical Equilibrium Database and Plotting Software (2004) KTH Royal Institute of Technology, freely downloadable software at [2]
48. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Seaborg, Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements (1968), page 782
49. ^ a b Seaborg, Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements (1968), page 780
50. ^ Seaborg, Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements (1968), page 777
51. ^ Uranium Enrichment. Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-02-11. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 660 BC - Traditional founding date of Japan by Emperor Jimmu.
52. ^ a b Lawmakers back plan for Paducah plant work. Louisville Courier-Journal. Retrieved on 2007-07-23. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1632 - Three hundred colonists bound for New France depart from Dieppe France.
53. ^ Radiation Information for Uranium. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved on 2007-02-18. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy
54. ^ ToxFAQ for Uranium. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (September 1999). Retrieved on 2007-02-18. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy
55. ^ E. S. Craft, A. W. Abu-Qare, M. M. Flaherty, M. C. Garofolo, H. L. Rincavage, M. B. Abou-Donia (2004). "Depleted and natural uranium: chemistry and toxicological effects". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews 7 (4): 297–317. doi:10.1080/10937400490452714. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
56. ^ Toxicological Profile for Uranium. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR).
57. ^ Hindin, et. al. (2005) "Teratogenicity of depleted uranium aerosols: A review from an epidemiological perspective," Environ Health, vol. 4, pp. 17
58. ^ Arfsten, D. P. ; K. R. Still; G. D. Ritchie (2001) "A review of the effects of uranium and depleted uranium exposure on reproduction and fetal development,"] Toxicology and Industrial Health, vol. 17, pp. 180–91
59. ^ Domingo, J. (2001) "Reproductive and developmental toxicity of natural and depleted uranium: a review," Reproductive Toxicology, vol. 15, pp. 603–609, doi: 10. 1016/S0890-6238(01)00181-2 PMID 2711400
60. ^ Public Health Statement for Uranium. CDC. Retrieved on 2007-02-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 590 - Khosrau II is crowned as king of Persia 1637 - Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor
61. ^ Chart of the Nuclides, US Atomic Energy Commission 1968
62. ^ Kathren and Moore 1986; Moore and Kathren 1985; USNRC 1986

## References

Full reference information for multi-page works cited

• John Emsley (2001). "Uranium", Nature's Building Blocks: An A to Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 476–82. Oxford is currently bidding for the 2010 Wikimania Conference Oxford () is a city, and the County town of Oxfordshire, ISBN 0-19-850340-7.
• Glenn T. Seaborg (1968). Glenn Theodore Seaborg ( Glenn Teodor Sjöberg) ( April 19, 1912 &ndash February 25, 1999) won the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "Uranium", The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. Skokie, Illinois: Reinhold Book Corporation, 773–86. Skokie (formerly Niles Center is a Village in Cook County, Illinois, United States. LCCCN 68-29938.