The United States has always had a special conception of its relationship with the nations of Latin America.
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19th century to World War I
The 1823 Monroe Doctrine, founder of United States isolationism, theorized the imperative for the US to break with Europe and focus on the continent of America. The Monroe Doctrine is a US doctrine which on December 2 1823 stated that European powers were no longer to colonize or interfere with The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Isolationism is a Foreign policy which combines a non-interventionist military policy and a political policy of Economic nationalism ( Protectionism The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America
US Secretary of State James G. Blaine formulated the Big brother policy in the 1880s, aiming to rally the Latin American nations behind US leadership and to open Latin American markets to U. James Gillespie Blaine ( January 31, 1830 &ndash January 27, 1893) was a U S. traders. Blaine served as United States Secretary of State in 1881 in the cabinet of President James Garfield and again from 1889 to 1892 in the cabinet of President Benjamin Harrison. The United States Secretary of State (commonly abbreviated as SecState) is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with Foreign affairs James Abram Garfield (November 19 1831 September 19 1881 was the twentieth President of the United States. Benjamin Harrison (August 20 1833 &ndash March 13 1901 was the twenty-third President of the United States, serving one term from 1889 to 1893 As part of the policy, Blaine arranged for and lead as the first president the First International Conference of American States in 1889. Began in 1889 under the initiative of US Secretary of State James G A few years later, the Spanish-American War in 1898 provoked the end of the Spanish Empire in the Caribbean and the Pacific, with the 1898 Treaty of Paris giving the US control over the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam, and control over the process of independence of Cuba, which was completed in 1902. The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries For the region see Caribbean. The Caribbean Sea (kəˈrɪbiən or /ˌkærɨˈbiːən/ is a tropical Sea in the Western Hemisphere The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions The Treaty of Paris of 1898, signed on December 10, 1898, ended the Spanish-American War. Puerto Rico (ˌpwertoˈriko officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ("Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" {{lang-en|"Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"}} The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Guam ( Chamorro: cha Guåhån) officially the Territory of Guam, is an island in the western Pacific Ocean and is an organized unincorporated The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la
The Panama Canal
- Further information: History of the Panama Canal
Theodore Roosevelt, who became president of the United States in 1901, believed that a U. Theodore Roosevelt (ˈroʊzəvɛlt October 27 1858 January 6 1919 also known as T S. -controlled canal across Central America was a vital strategic interest to the U. S. This idea gained wide impetus following the destruction of the battleship USS Maine, in Cuba, on February 15, 1898. "The Maine" redirects here For the pop punk band see The Maine (band. Events 590 - Khosrau II is crowned as king of Persia 1637 - Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor Year 1898 ( MDCCCXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The USS Oregon, a battleship stationed in San Francisco, was dispatched to take her place, but the voyage — around Cape Horn — took 67 days. Spanish-American War Leaving drydock on 16 February 1898 she received news that had blown up in Havana harbor the previous day The City and County of San Francisco is the fourth most populous city Cabo de Hornos redirects here for the Chilean commune see Cabo de Hornos Chile. Although she was in time to join in the Battle of Santiago Bay, the voyage would have taken just three weeks via Panama.
Roosevelt was able to reverse a previous decision by the Walker Commission in favour of a Nicaragua Canal, and pushed through the acquisition of the French Panama Canal effort. The Inter-Oceanic Nicaragua Canal is a proposed waterway that would connect the Caribbean Sea, and therefore the Atlantic Ocean, with the Pacific Ocean The history of the Panama Canal goes back almost to the earliest explorers of the Americas. Panama was then part of Colombia, so Roosevelt opened negotiations with the Colombians to obtain the necessary permission. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. In early 1903 the Hay-Herran Treaty was signed by both nations, but the Colombian Senate failed to ratify the treaty. The Hay-Herran Treaty was a treaty signed on January 22, 1903 between Secretary of State John M
In a controversial move, Roosevelt implied to Panamanian rebels that if they revolted, the U.S. Navy would assist their cause for independence. Panama proceeded to proclaim its independence on November 3, 1903, and the USS Nashville in local waters impeded any interference from Colombia (see gunboat diplomacy). Events 644 - Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim Caliph, is killed by a Persian slave in Medina. See also See for other ships of this name In International politics, gunboat diplomacy refers to the pursuit of Foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of Military power&mdashimplying
The victorious Panamanians returned the favor to Roosevelt by allowing the United States control of the Panama Canal Zone on February 23, 1904, for US$10 million (as provided in the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, signed on November 18, 1903). The Panama Canal Zone (Zona del Canal de Panamá was a 553 square mile (1432 km² territory inside of Panama, consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally Events 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western Book printed from Movable Year 1904 ( MCMIV) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting on The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been The Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty was signed on November 18, 1903 (two weeks after Panama 's independence from Colombia) Events 326 - The old St Peter's Basilica is consecrated 1302 - Pope Boniface VIII issues the Papal bull Year 1903 ( MCMIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar or a Common year starting
The US president then formulated the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, in 1904, which asserted the right of the United States to intervene in Latin American nations' affairs[1]. The Roosevelt Corollary was a substantial amendment to the Monroe Doctrine by U In its altered state, the Monroe Doctrine would now consider Latin America as an agency for expanding U. S. commercial interests in the region, along with its original stated purpose of keeping European hegemony from the hemisphere. In addition, the corollary proclaimed the explicit right of the United States to intervene in Latin American conflicts exercising an international police power.
The Roosevelt Corollary and the Dollar Diplomacy
When the Venezuelan government under Cipriano Castro was no longer able to placate the demands of European bankers in 1902, naval forces from Great Britain, Italy, and Germany erected a blockade along the Venezuelan coast and even fired upon coastal fortifications. José Cipriano Castro Ruiz (1858-1924 was a military and Politician venezuelan Though United States Secretary of State Elihu Root characterized Castro as a "a crazy brute," President Theodore Roosevelt was concerned with the prospects of penetration into the region by the German Empire. The United States Secretary of State (commonly abbreviated as SecState) is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with Foreign affairs Elihu Root ( February 15, 1845 &ndash February 7, 1937) was an American lawyer and statesman and the 1912 recipient of the The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by Theodore Roosevelt (ˈroʊzəvɛlt October 27 1858 January 6 1919 also known as T The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification Roosevelt threatened military action against the European powers, who retreated and later negotiated with Castro. This incident was a major stimulus behind the Roosevelt Corollary and the subsequent U. The Roosevelt Corollary was a substantial amendment to the Monroe Doctrine by U S. policy of Dollar Diplomacy in Latin America. Dollar Diplomacy is the term used to describe the efforts of the United States — particularly under President William Howard Taft — to further its foreign
During the presidency of Juan Vicente Gómez, petroleum was discovered under Lake Maracaibo. Juan Vicente Gómez ( July 24, 1857 - December 17, 1935) was a military general and the ruler of Venezuela from 1908 until his Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Lake Maracaibo is a large Brackish Lake in Venezuela at. It is connected to the Gulf of Venezuela by Tablazo Strait (55km on the northern edge Gómez managed to deflate Venezuela's staggering debt by granting concessions to foreign oil companies, which won him the support of the United States and the European powers. The growth of the domestic oil industry strengthened the economic ties between the U. S. and Venezuela.
Banana Wars
- Further information: Banana Wars
At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the US carried on several military interventions in what became known as the Banana Wars. For the 1974-1975 Banana war against US monopolies and Central American countries see Union of Banana Exporting Countries. The term arose from the connections between the interventions and the preservation of US commercial interests, starting with the United Fruit corporation, which had significant financial stakes in production of bananas, tobacco, sugar cane, and various other agricultural products throughout the Caribbean, Central America and the northern portions of South America. The United Fruit Company was a major United States Corporation that traded tropical Fruit (primarily Bananas and Pineapples grown For the fruit see Banana. For other meanings see Banana (disambiguation. Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a
North-Americans advocating imperialism in the pre-World War I era often argued that these conflicts helped central and South Americans by aiding in stability. Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Some imperialists argued that these limited interventions did not serve US interests sufficiently and argued for expanded actions in the region. Anti-imperialists argued that these actions were a first step down a slippery slope towards US colonialism in the region. See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism
Some modern observers have argued that if World War I had not lessened American enthusiasm for international activity these interventions might have led to the formation of an expanded U. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All S. colonial empire, with Central American states either annexed into Statehood like Hawaii or becoming American territories, like the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam. The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Puerto Rico (ˌpwertoˈriko officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ("Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" {{lang-en|"Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"}} Guam ( Chamorro: cha Guåhån) officially the Territory of Guam, is an island in the western Pacific Ocean and is an organized unincorporated This view is, however, heavily disputed, especially as, after a decrease in activity during and after World War I, the U. S. government intervened again in the 1920s while again stating that it was without colonial ambitions. The Banana Wars ended with the 1933 Good Neighbor Policy of President Franklin D. Roosevelt; no American colonies had been created. The "Good Neighbor" policy was the Foreign policy of the administration of United States president Franklin D
The countries involved in the Banana Wars include:
- Cuba - Sometimes not counted among the banana wars
- US Occupation of the Dominican Republic
- Haiti (see United States occupation of Haiti (1915-1934))
- United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution
- Nicaragua (see United States occupation of Nicaragua)
- Panama
Though many other countries in the region may have been influenced or dominated by American banana or other companies, there is no history of U. Cuba, the largest of the Caribbean islands was first inhabited by Indigenous peoples known as the Taíno and Ciboney. The United States occupied the Dominican Republic from 1916-1924 Haiti ( English: ˈheɪ·tiː or haɪ·ˈjiː·tiː French Haïti a·i·ti Haitian Creole: The first United States occupation of Haiti began on July 28 1915 and ended in mid-August 1934 Overview Initially the United States stayed informed about the Mexican Revolution from documents conveyed from the U Nicaragua is the largest nation in Central America, but also the least densely populated with a demographic similar in size to its smaller neighbors The United States occupied Nicaragua from 1912-1933 and intervened in the country several times before that Indigenous period Panama The earliest traces of these indigenous peoples include fluted projectile points S. military intervention during this period in those countries.
1940s-1960s: the Cold War and the "hemispheric defense" doctrine
- Further information: Cold War (1947-1953)
Officially started in 1947 with the Truman doctrine theorizing the "containment" policy, the Cold War had important consequences in Latin America, considered by the United States to be a full part of the Western Bloc, called "free world", in contrast with the Eastern Bloc, a division born with the end of World War II and the Yalta Conference (February 1945). The Cold War (1947-1953 discusses the period within the Cold War from the establishment of the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to the Korean War in 1953 The Truman Doctrine was a proclamation by US President Harry S Containment refers to a Foreign policy of the United States in the early years of the Cold War. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the For other uses of the word see Free world (disambiguation. The Free World is a Cold War -era term often applied to or used by non- During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and Codenamed the Argonaut Conference, was the wartime meeting from 4 February It "must be the policy of the United States," Truman declared, "to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures. " Truman rallied North-Americans to spend $400 million to intervene in the civil war in Greece, while the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (created by the National Security Act of 1947) intervention in this country was its first act of birth. The Greek Civil War (ο Eμφύλιος, "the Civil War" fought from 1946 to 1949 by the Governmental forces receiving logistical support by the United Kingdom near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all The National Security Act of 1947, Pub L No 235 80 Cong 61 Stat By aiding Greece, Truman set a precedent for U. S. aid to regimes, no matter how repressive and corrupt, that request help to fight communists [2]. Washington began to sign a series of defense treaties with countries all over the world, including the North Atlantic Treaty of 1949 which created NATO, and the ANZUS in 1951 with Australia and New Zealand. The North Atlantic Treaty is the Treaty that brought NATO into existence signed in Washington DC on April 4, 1949. The North Atlantic Treaty The Australia New Zealand United States Security Treaty ( ANZUS or ANZUS Treaty) is the Military alliance which binds Australia and Moscow response to NATO and to the Marshall Plan in Europe included the creation of the COMECON economic treaty and the Warsaw Pact defense alliance, gathering Eastern Europe countries which had fallen under its sphere of influence. The Marshall Plan (from its enactment officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was the primary plan of the United States for rebuilding and creating a stronger The Warsaw Pact (see Nomenclature) was an organization of Communist states in Central and Eastern Europe. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. A sphere of influence ( SOI) is an area or region over which an organization or state exerts some kind of indirect cultural economic military or political domination After the Berlin Blockade by the Soviet Union, the Korean War (1950-53) was one of the first conflicts of the Cold War, while the US would succeed France in the counter-revolutionary war against Viet-minh in Indochina. The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 11 May 1949 was one of the first major international crises of the Cold war. The Korean War refers to a period of military conflict between North Korean and South Korean regimes with major hostilities lasting from June 25 1950 until the See also Insurgency In the context of an occupation or a Civil war, counter-insurgency (abbreviated COIN is a military term for the combat The Việt Minh (abbreviated from Việt Nam Ðộc Lập Ðồng Minh Hội, English "League for the Independence of Vietnam" was a National liberation The First Indochina War (also known as the French Indochina War, the The Anti-French War, the Franco-Vietnamese War, the Franco-Vietminh War,
In Latin America itself, the US defense treaty was the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (aka Rio Treaty or TIAR) of 1947, known as the "hemispheric defense" treaty. The Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (commonly known as the Rio Treaty, the Rio Pact, or by the Spanish-language acronym TIAR from It was the formalisation of the Act of Chapultepec, adopted at the Inter-American Conference on the Problems of War and Peace in 1945 in Mexico City. Chapultepec ( Chapoltepēc "at the grasshopper hill" in the Nahuatl language; c Mexico City (in Spanish: Ciudad de México, México DF, México or simply Méjico) is the Capital city of Mexico The US had maintained a hemispheric defense policy under the Monroe Doctrine, and during the 1930s had been alarmed by Axis overtures toward military cooperation with Latin American governments, in particular apparent strategic threats against the Panama Canal. The Monroe Doctrine is a US doctrine which on December 2 1823 stated that European powers were no longer to colonize or interfere with The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries The Panama Canal is a man-made Canal in Panama which joins the During the war Washington had been able to secure Allied support from all individual governments except Uruguay, which remained neutral, and wished to make those commitments permanent. In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose Uruguay.(official full name in República Oriental del Uruguay;, Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country located in the southeastern part of South America With the exceptions of Trinidad and Tobago (1967), Belize (1981), and the Bahamas (1982), no countries that became independent after 1947 have joined the treaty. The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (ˈtrɪnɪdæd ən təˈbeɪgoʊ is an archipelagic state in the southern Caribbean, lying northeast of the South American Belize (bəˈliːz formerly British Honduras, is a country in Central America. The Bahamas, officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an independent sovereign English -speaking country consisting of two thousand Cays and The next year, the Organization of American States was created in April 1948, during the Ninth International Conference of American States held in Bogotá and led by U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall. The Organization of American States ( OAS, or as it is known in the three other official languages OEA) is an International organization, headquartered Began in 1889 under the initiative of US Secretary of State James G Bogotá —officially named Bogotá DC (DC for " Distrito Capital " which means "Capital District" formerly called Santa Fe de Bogotá The United States Secretary of State (commonly abbreviated as SecState) is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with Foreign affairs George Catlett Marshall Jr (December 31 1880 &ndash October 16 1959 was an American military leader Chief of Staff of the Army, Secretary of Members states pledge to fight communism in the Americas. Anti-communism refers to opposition to Communism. Historically the word "communism" has been used to refer to several types of communal social organization and 21 American countries signed the Charter of the Organization of American States on 30 April 1948. The Charter of the Organization of the American States (otherwise known the Charter of the OAS) is a Pan-American treaty that sets out the creation of the Organization of Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Operation PBSUCCESS which overthrew the democratically-elected President of Guatemala, Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán in 1954 was to be one of the first in a long series of US intervention in Latin America during the Cold War. The 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état was a Covert operation organized by the United States Central Intelligence Agency to overthrow Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán The title of President of Guatemala has been the usual title of the leader of Guatemala since 1839 when that title was assumed by Mariano Rivera Paz. Colonel Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán ( September 14, 1913 &ndash January 27, 1971) was the President of Guatemala from 1951 to 1954 when It immediately followed the overthrow of Mossadegh in Iran (1953). The 1953 Iranian Coup d'état deposed the government of Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq and his cabinet, it was effected by Gen
1960s: The Cuban Revolution and the US response
The 1959 Cuban Revolution headed by Fidel Castro was one of the first defeats of the US foreign policy in Latin America. The Cuban Revolution refers to the revolution that led to the overthrow of the United States proxy ruler General Fulgencio Batista 's regime on January 1, Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13 1926 is a Cuban revolutionary leader who was prime minister of Cuba from December 1959 to December 1976 and then president until Cuba became in 1961 a member of the newly created Non-Aligned Movement, which succeeded to the 1955 Bandung Conference. The Non-Aligned Movement ( NAM) is an International organization of states considering themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc The first large-scale Asian-African or Afro-Asian Conference — also known as the Bandung Conference — was a meeting of Asian and African states most of which After the implementation of several economic reforms, including some nationalizations, by Cuba's government, US trade restrictions on Cuba increased. Nationalization, also spelled nationalisation, is the act of taking an industry or assets into the Public ownership of a national government The U. S. stopped buying Cuban sugar, on which Cuba's economy depended the most, and refused to supply its former trading partner with much needed oil, creating a devastating effect on the island's economy. In March 1960, tensions increased when the freighter La Coubre exploded in Havana harbor, killing over 75 people. freighter La Coubre (sometimes erroneously called "Le Coubre" exploded at 310 p Fidel Castro blamed the United States and compared the incident to the 1898 sinking of the Maine, which had precipated the Spanish-American War, though admitting he could provide no evidence for his accusation. "The Maine" redirects here For the pop punk band see The Maine (band. [3] That same month, President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized the CIA to organize, train, and equip Cuban refugees as a guerrilla force to overthrow Castro, which would lead to the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion. Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (October 14 1890 – March 28 1969 was President of the United States from 1953 until 1961 and a five-star general The Bay of Pigs Invasion (aka Playa Girón) was an unsuccessful attempt by a U [4][5]
Each time the Cuban government nationalized American properties, the American government took countermeasures, resulting in the prohibition of all exports to Cuba on October 19, 1960. Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Consequently, Cuba began to consolidate trade relations with the Soviet Union, leading the US to break off all remaining official diplomatic relations. Later that year, U. S. diplomats Edwin L. Sweet and Wiliam G. Friedman were arrested and expelled from the island having been charged with "encouraging terrorist acts, granting asylum, financing subversive publications and smuggling weapons”. The U. S. began the formulation of new plans aimed at destabilizing the Cuban government, collectively known as the “The Cuban Project” (aka Operation Mongoose). The Cuban Project (also known as Operation Mongoose) is the general name for CIA Covert operations and plans developed during the early administration This was to be a co-ordinated program of political, psychological, and military sabotage, involving intelligence operations as well as assassination attempts on key political leaders. The Cuban project also proposed false flag attacks, known as Operation Northwoods. Operation Northwoods, or Northwoods, was a False flag Conspiracy plan proposed within the United States government in 1962 A U.S. Senate Select Intelligence Committee report later confirmed over eight attempted plots to kill Castro between 1960 and 1965, as well as additional plans against other Cuban leaders. The United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (sometimes referred to as SSCI) is [6]
Beside this aggressive policy towards Cuba, President John F. Kennedy tried to implement in 1961 the Alliance for Progress, an economic aid program which proved to be too shy. John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of The Alliance for Progress initiated by US President John F Kennedy in 1961 aimed to establish economic cooperation between North and South America In the same time, the U. S. suspended economic and/or broke off diplomatic relations with several dictatorships between 1961 and JFK's assassination in 1963, including Argentina, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Peru. But these suspensions were imposed only temporarily, for periods of only three weeks to six months. However, the US finally decided it best to train Latin American militaries in counter-insurgency tactics at the School of the Americas. See also Insurgency In the context of an occupation or a Civil war, counter-insurgency (abbreviated COIN is a military term for the combat The Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation ( WHISC or WHINSEC) formerly the School of the Americas ( SOA; Spanish: In effect, the Alliance for Progress included U. S. programs of military and police assistance to counter Communism, including Plan LASO in Colombia. " Marquetalia Republic " was a term used to unofficially refer to one of the enclaves in rural Colombia which Communist peasant guerrillas held during the aftermath
The nuclear arms race brought the two superpowers to the brink of nuclear war. The nuclear Arms race was a competition for supremacy in Nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective In 1962, President John F. Kennedy responded to the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a naval blockade—a show of force that brought the world close to nuclear war. [7] The Cuban Missile Crisis showed that neither superpower was ready to use nuclear weapons for fear of the other's retaliation, and thus of mutually assured destruction. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation between the United States, the Soviet Union, and Cuba during the Cold War. Mutual assured destruction ( MAD; sometimes written as mutually assured destruction) is a Doctrine of military Strategy in which a full-scale The aftermath of the Cuban missile crisis led to the first efforts at nuclear disarmament and improving relations. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation between the United States, the Soviet Union, and Cuba during the Cold War. (Palmowski)
By 1964, under President Johnson, the program to discriminate against dictatorial regimes ceased. In March 1964 the US approved a military coup in Brazil, overthrowing left-wing president João Goulart, and was prepared to help if called upon under Operation Brother Sam. João Belchior Marques Goulart ( March 1, 1919 The Goulart administration Congress was reluctant to give Goulart the mandate because of military João Belchior Marques Goulart ( March 1, 1919 The Goulart administration Congress was reluctant to give Goulart the mandate because of military [8] The next year, the US dispatched 24,000 troops to the Dominican Republic to stop a possible left-wing take over under Operation Power Pack.
Through the Office of Public Safety (OPS), an organization dependent of the USAID and close to the CIA, the US assisted Latin American security forces, training them in interrogation methods, riot control, and sending them equipment. For the Public Safety agency see: Department of Public Safety The Office of Public Safety (OPS was a US government agency, established in 1957 by The United States Agency for International Development (or USAID) is the United States federal government organization responsible for most non- military Dan Mitrione, in Uruguay, became unfamous for his systemic use of torture. Daniel A Mitrione ( August 4, 1920 &ndash August 10, 1970) was an Italian-born American Police officer,
1970s: the era of the juntas
Following the 1959 Cuban Revolution and the local implementation in several countries of Che Guevara's foco theory, the US waged a war in South America against the "Communists subversives," leading to support in Chile of the right-wing, which would culminate with Augusto Pinochet's coup in 1973 in Chile against democratically-elected Salvador Allende. The Cuban Revolution refers to the revolution that led to the overthrow of the United States proxy ruler General Fulgencio Batista 's regime on January 1, Ernesto "Che" Guevara (June 14 Following the Cuban revolution,Guevara reviewed The Foco theory of revolutionary guerrilla tactics was introduced by Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara (1928-1967 in his manual on Guerrilla warfare Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Subversion refers to an attempt to overthrow structures of Authority, including the State. The United States intervention in Chilean's politics started during the War of Chilean Independence. Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte (November The Chilean coup d'état of 1973 is a landmark in the History of Chile and the Russo-American Cold War. Salvador Isabelino Allende Gossens (June 26 1908 – September 11 1973 was President of Chile from November 1970 until his death during the coup d'état of In a few years, all of South America was covered by similar military dictatorships, called juntas. A military junta is a government ruled by a committee of military leaders In Paraguay, Alfredo Stroessner was in power since 1954; in Brazil, left-wing President João Goulart was overthrow by a military coup in 1964; in Bolivia, General Hugo Banzer overthrew leftist General Juan José Torres in 1971; in Uruguay, considered the "Switzerland" of South America, Juan María Bordaberry seized power in the June 27, 1973 coup. This is the history of Paraguay. See also the History of South America and the History of present-day nations and states. Alfredo Stroessner Matiauda, whose name is also spelled Strössner or Strößner (November 3 1912 Encarnación - August 16 2006 Brasília The history of Brazil begins with the arrival of the first indigenous peoples, over 8000 years ago by crossing the Bering land bridge into Alaska and then João Belchior Marques Goulart ( March 1, 1919 The Goulart administration Congress was reluctant to give Goulart the mandate because of military The 1964 Brazilian coup d'état was a Coup d'état held against President João Goulart by the Brazilian military on the night of This is the History of Bolivia.See also the History of Latin America, the History of the Americas, and the History of present-day nations Hugo Banzer Suárez ( May 10, 1926 &ndash May 5, 2002) was a politician military general and President of Bolivia. Juan José Torres González (1920— 2 June, 1976) was a Bolivian socialist politician and military leader This is about the History of Uruguay. See also the History of South America. Juan María Bordaberry Arocena is a Uruguayan statesman and Cattle rancher, who served as President from 1972 to 1976. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. A "Dirty War" was waged all over the continent, culminating with Operation Condor, an agreement between security services of the Southern Cone and other South American countries to repress and assassinate political opponents. This article refers to the Argentine Dirty War for the British film of the same name see Dirty War (film. For other uses of Operation Condor please see Operation Condor (disambiguation Operation Condor (Operación Cóndor Operação Condor was a campaign Militaries also took power in Argentina in 1976 [9], and then supported the 1980 "Cocaine Coup" of Luis García Meza Tejada in Bolivia, before training the Contras in Nicaragua where the Sandinista National Liberation Front, headed by Daniel Ortega, had taken power in 1979, as well as militaries in Guatemala and in El Salvador. This article is about the History of Argentina. See also History of South America, History of Latin America, History of the Americas, and Luis García Meza Tejada (b August 8, 1932, La Paz, Bolivia) is a former Bolivian dictator The Contras is a label given to the various rebel groups opposing Nicaragua 's FSLN (Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional Sandinista Junta of National The Sandinista National Liberation Front ( Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional) is a socialist Nicaraguan Political party. José Daniel Ortega Saavedra (xoˈse ðanjεl ɔrteγa saˈβeðra(born 11 November 1945 is the current President of Nicaragua. The Guatemalan Civil War, the longest civil war in Latin American history ran from 1960 to 1996, and had a profound impact on Guatemala. Before the Spanish conquest Before the Spanish conquest, the area that now is El Salvador was composed of three great indigenous states and several principalities In the frame of Operation Charly, supported by the US, the Argentine military imported state terror tactics to Central America, where the "dirty war" was waged until well in the 1990s, making hundreds of thousands "disappeared. Operation Charly ( Spanish: " Operación Charly " was the code-name of the Covert operation headed by the Argentine military, with the State terrorism refers to acts of Terrorism conducted by governments A forced disappearance occurs when an organization forces a person to vanish from Public view either by Murder or by simple Sequestration. "
Placing their own actions within the US doctrine of "National Security" against "internal subversion," the authoritarian regimes who had crushed left-wing opposition began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. National security is the entire scope of measures undertaken by the Governments of Nation-states in providing assurance of national Sovereignty Originally coined by its critics and opponents " neoliberalism " is a label referring to the recent reemergence of Economic liberalism or Classical liberalism Chile thus became one of the laboratory of shock therapy, under the supervision of the Chicago boys influenced by Milton Friedman's monetarism. In Economics, shock therapy refers to the sudden release of price and currency controls withdrawal of state subsidies and immediate trade liberalization within a country usually The Chicago Boys (c 1970s were a group of about 25 young Chilean economists who trained at the University of Chicago under Milton Friedman Milton Friedman (July 31 1912 November 16 2006 was an American Nobel Laureate Economist and Public intellectual. Monetarism is a school of economic thought concerning the determination of national income and monetary Economics.
With the election of President Jimmy Carter in 1977, the US moderated for a short time support to authoritarian regimes in Latin America. James Earl "Jimmy" Carter Jr (born October 1 1924 was the thirty-ninth President of the United States, serving from 1977 to 1981 and the recipient of the 2002 It was during this year that the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, an agency of the OAS, was created. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights is an autonomous judicial institution based in the city of San José, Costa Rica. At the same time, voices in North America began to denounce Pinochet's violation of human rights, in particular after the 1976 assassination of former Chilean minister Orlando Letelier in Washington DC. Marcos Orlando Letelier del Solar ( April 13, 1932 - September 21, 1976) was a Chilean economist Political figure,
1980s - 1990s: democratization and the Washington Consensus
The election of Ronald Reagan in 1981 meant for Latin America a renewed support for right-wing authoritarian regimes. In the 1980s, the situation progressively evolved in the world as in South America, despite a renewal of the Cold War from 1979 to 1985, the year during which Mikhail Gorbachev replaced Konstantin Chernenko as leader of the USSR, and began to implement the glasnost and the perestroika democratic-inspired reforms. The Cold War (1979-1985 discusses the period within the Cold War between the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 to the rise of Mikhail Gorbachev as The Cold War period of 1985 to 1991 began with the rise of Mikhail Gorbachev as Soviet leader and ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev ( Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov;; born 2 March 1931 in Privolnoye Stavropol Krai) is a Russian politician Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko (Константи́н Усти́нович Черне́нко Konstantin Ustinovič Černenko; 24 September 1911 &ndash 10 March 1985 was (Гла́сность)is literally defined as publicity and sometimes figuratively interpreted as "tipping a vase to let someone see into the vase but not the bottom of the vase" (Перестройка) is the Russian term (now used in English for the economic reforms introduced in June 1987 by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev South America saw various states returning progressively to democracy. Democratization ( British English: Democratisation) is the transition to a more democratic Political regime. This democratization of South America found a symbol in the OAS's adoption of Resolution 1080 in 1991, which requires the Secretary General to convene the Permanent Council within ten days of a coup d'état in any member country. The Permanent Council is one the two main political bodies of the Organization of American States, the other being the General Assembly. However, in the same time, Washington started to aggressively pursue the "War on Drugs", which included the invasion of Panama in 1989 to overthrow Manuel Noriega, who had been a long-time ally of the US and had even worked for the CIA before his reign as leader of the country. The War on Drugs is a prohibition campaign undertaken by the United States government with the assistance of participating countries intended to reduce the Illegal The United States invasion of Panama, codenamed Operation Just Cause, was the Invasion of Panama by the United States in December 1989 Manuel Antonio Noriega (born February 11, 1934) He was never officially the President of Panama, but held the post of "chief executive officer" The "War on Drugs" was later expanded through Plan Colombia in the late 1990s. The term Plan Colombia is most often used to refer to controversial U
Reagan's support of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher during the 1982 Falklands War against the Military Junta in Argentina also led to a change of relations between Washington and Buenos Aires which had been actively helping Reagan when the Argentine intelligence service was training and arming the Nicaraguan Contras against the Sandinista government (Operation Charly). Margaret Hilda Thatcher Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925 The Falklands War (Guerra de las Malvinas/Guerra del Atlántico Sur also called the Falklands Conflict/Crisis, was fought in 1982 between Argentina and the The National Reorganization Process (in Spanish, Proceso de Reorganización Nacional, often simply El Proceso) was the name used by its leaders For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Sistema de Inteligencia Nacional ( National Intelligence System, SIN is the official denomination of the Argentine national intelligence community The Sandinista National Liberation Front ( Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional) is a socialist Nicaraguan Political party. Operation Charly ( Spanish: " Operación Charly " was the code-name of the Covert operation headed by the Argentine military, with the The 601 Intelligence Battalion, for example, trained Contras at Lepaterique base, in Honduras, under the supervision of US ambassador John Negroponte. The Batallón de Inteligencia 601 ( 601st Intelligence Battalion) was a special military intelligence service of the Argentine Army active Lepaterique is a Municipality in the Honduran department of Francisco Morazán. Hon John Dimitri Negroponte (born July 21, 1939 in London, England, United Kingdom) (ˌnɛgroʊˈpɒnti is an American While the US were fighting against Nicaragua, leading to the 1986 Nicaragua v. United States case before the International Court of Justice, Washington DC supported authoritarian regimes in Guatemala and Salvador. The Republic of Nicaragua v The United States of America was a case heard in 1986 by the International Court of Justice which ruled in favor of Nicaragua See also International Commission of Jurists The International Court of Justice (known colloquially as the World Court or ICJ; Cour The support to General Ríos Montt during the Guatemalan Civil War and the alliance with José Napoleón Duarte during the Salvadoran Civil War were legitimized by the Reagan administration as full part of the Cold War, although other allies strongly criticized this assistance to dictatorships (i. José Efraín Ríos Montt (born June 16, 1926) is a former De facto President of Guatemala, army general The Guatemalan Civil War, the longest civil war in Latin American history ran from 1960 to 1996, and had a profound impact on Guatemala. José Napoleón Duarte Fuentes ( November 23 1925 &ndash February 23 1990) was a Salvadoran political figure who from 1980 to 1982 The Salvadoran Civil War (1980–1992 was between the Right-wing Military government of El Salvador and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation e. , the French Socialist Party's 110 Propositions). The Socialist Party ( Parti Socialiste, PS is the largest left-wing political party in France.
In fact, many Latin American countries view the 1982 conflict as a clear example of how the so called Hemispheric relations works. [10] A deep weakening of hemispheric relations occurred due to the American support given, without mediation, to the United Kingdom during the Falklands war in 1982. Some argue this definitively turned the TIAR into a dead letter. In 2001, the United States invoked the Rio Treaty after the September 11 attacks but Latin American democracies did not join the War on Terror actively. The War on Terrorism (also known as the War on Terror) is the common term for the military political and legal, and ideological conflict and specifically for U (Furthermore, Mexico withdrew from the treaty in 2001 citing the Falklands example. )
On the economic plane, hardly affected by the 1973 oil crisis, Mexico refusal in 1983 to pay the interest of its debt led to the Latin American debt crisis and subsequently to a shift from the Import substitution industrialization (ISI) policies followed by most countries to export-oriented industrialization, which was encouraged by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and the World Trade Organization (WTO). The 1973 oil crisis began on October 17 1973 when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC consisting of the Arab members of Developing countries' debt is External debt incurred by the governments of Third World countries, generally in quantities beyond the governments' political The Latin American debt crisis was a Financial crisis that occurred in the early 1980s (and for some countries starting in the 1970s often known as the "lost decade" Import Substitution Industrialization (also called ISI) is a Trade and economic Policy based on the premise that a Country should Export-Oriented Industrialisation (EOI sometimes called export substitution industrialization (ESI is a Trade and economic Policy aiming to speed-up The International Monetary Fund ( IMF) is an International organization that oversees the Global financial system by following the Macroeconomic The World Bank is an internationally supported Bank that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for development programs (e While globalization was making its effects felt in the whole world, the 1990s were dominated by the Washington Consensus, which imposed a series of neo-liberal economic reforms in Latin America. Globalization (or globalisation) in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional phenomena into global ones The term Washington Consensus was initially coined in 1989 by John Williamson to describe a set of ten specific economic policy prescriptions that he considered to constitute Originally coined by its critics and opponents " neoliberalism " is a label referring to the recent reemergence of Economic liberalism or Classical liberalism The First Summit of the Americas, held in Miami in 1994, resolved to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas (ALCA, Área de Libre Comercio de las Américas) by 2005. The Miami Summit of the Americas took place in December 1994 and was the first of a series of summits for leaders from countries of the Americas. The Free Trade Area of the Americas ( FTAA) ( Spanish: Área de Libre Comercio de las Américas (ALCA French: Zone de libre-échange des The ALCA was supposed to be the generalization of the North American Free Trade Agreement between Canada, the US and Mexico, which came into force in 1994. Opposition to both NAFTA and ALCA was symbolized during this time by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation insurrection, headed by Subcomandante Marcos, which became active on the day that NAFTA went into force (January 1st, 1994) and declared itself to be in explicit opposition to the ideology of globalization or neoliberalism, which NAFTA symbolized. The Zapatista Army of National Liberation ( Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, EZLN) is an armed Revolutionary group based in Chiapas Subcomandante Marcos, also known as Delegado Cero in matters concerning the Other Campaign, describes himself as the spokesman for the Mexican rebel
2000s: Left surge?
The political context evolved again in the 2000s, with the election in several South American countries of left-wing governments. This "pink tide" thus saw the successive elections of Hugo Chávez in Venezuela (1998), Lula in Brazil (2002), Néstor Kirchner in Argentina (2003), Tabaré Vázquez in Uruguay (2004), Evo Morales in Bolivia (2005), Michelle Bachelet in Chile (2006)and Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua. Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (ˈuɰo rafaˈel ˈtʃaβ̞es ˈfɾias (born July 28 1954 is the current President of Venezuela. In the December 6, 1998 Venezuelan presidential election, Hugo Chávez was elected to his first term as President of Venezuela with Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (pronounced /lu'iz i'nasju 'lulɐ da 'siwvɐ/; born October 27, 1945) known simply as Lula, is the thirty-fifth and Néstor Carlos Kirchner Ostoić (born February 25, 1950) was the President of Argentina from May 25, 2003 until December Argentina held presidential and parliamentary elections on Sunday April 27, 2003. Tabaré Ramón Vázquez Rosas ( pron taβa'ɾe ra'mon 'bahkes 'rosas (born January 17, 1940) is the current President of Uruguay. General elections to elect a President and Parliament were held in Uruguay on 31 October 2004 alongside a simultaneous constitutional referendum Juan Evo Morales Ayma (born October 26 1959 in Orinoca, Oruro) popularly known as Evo (ˈeβo is the President of Bolivia since The 2005 Bolivian presidential election was held on December 18, 2005. Verónica Michelle Bachelet Jeria beˈɾonika mɪˈʃɛl baʃˈle ˈxeɾja / --> (born September 29 1951) is a center-left politician and A presidential election took place in Chile on Sunday December 11 2005. . . Although these leaders vary in their policies and attitude towards both Washington DC and neoliberalism, while the state they govern also have different agendas and long-term historic tendencies, which can lead to rivalry and open contempt between themselves, they seem to have agreed on refusing the ALCA and on following a regional integration without the United States' overseeing the processus [11]. In particular, Chávez and Morales seem more disposed to ally together, while Kirchner and Lula, who has been criticized by the left-wing in Brazil, including by the Movimento dos Sem Terra (MST) landless peasants movement (who, however, did call to vote for him on his second term [12][13]), are seen as more centered. Brazil 's Landless Workers Movement, or in Portuguese Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra (MST is the largest Social movement in The state of Bolivia also has seen some friction with Brazil, while Chile has historically followed its own policy, distinct from other South American countries and closer to the United States. Thus, Nouriel Roubini, professor of economics at New York University, declared in a May 2006 interview:
""On one side, you have a number of administrations that are committed to moderate economic reform. Nouriel Roubini (born on March 29, 1958 in Istanbul, Turkey) is a professor of Economics at New York University. New York University ( NYU) is a private, Nonsectarian, Coeducational Research University in New York City. On the other, you've had something of a backlash against the Washington Consensus [a set of liberal economic policies that Washington-based institutions urged Latin American countries to follow, including privatization, trade liberalization and fiscal discipline] and some emergence of populist leaders. "[14]
In the same way, although a populist leader such as Chávez verbally attacks the George W. Bush administration as much as the latter attacks him, and claims to be following a "democratic socialist" "Bolivarian Revolution", the geo-political context has changed a lot since the 1970s. The Presidency of George W Bush began on his inauguration on January 20, 2001 as the 43rd and current President of the United States of America Democratic socialism is a description used by various socialist movements tendencies and organizations to emphasize the democratic character of their political orientation The “Bolivarian Revolution” refers to a mass social movement and political process in Venezuela. Geopolitics is the study that analyzes Geography, History and Social science with reference to Spatial politics and patterns at various scales Larry Birns, director of the Council on Hemispheric Affairs, thus stated:
"La Paz has found itself at the economic and political nexus of the pink tide, linked by ideology to Caracas, but economically bound to Brasilia and Buenos Aires. Larry Birns is the director of the Council on Hemispheric Affairs, a liberal not-for-profit organization monitoring Human rights and political developments in The Council on Hemispheric Affairs (COHA is a Washington DC -based Non-governmental organization (NGO founded in 1975. Nuestra Señora de La Paz is the administrative Capital of Bolivia, as well as the departmental capital of La Paz Department. Caracas (kaˈɾakas is the Capital and largest city of Venezuela. Brasília (bɾaˈziliɐ is the Capital of Brazil. The city and its District are located in the Central-West region of the country along a Plateau Buenos Aires is the Capital and largest city of Argentina. It is geographically located on the southern shore of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern One thing that Morales knew, however, was that he couldn’t repudiate his campaign pledges to the electorate or deprive Bolivia of the revenue that is so urgently needed. [11]
One sign of the US setback in the region has been the OEA 2005 Secretary General election. The Organization of American States Secretary General election was a series of special sessions of the General Assembly of the Organization of American States (OAS For the first time in the OEA's history, Washington's candidate was refused by the majority of countries, after two stale-mate between José Miguel Insulza, member of the Socialist Party of Chile (PS) and former Interior Minister of the latter country, and Luis Ernesto Derbez, member of the conservative National Action Party (PAN) and former Foreign Minister of Mexico. José Miguel Insulza Salinas (born June 2, 1943) is a Chilean politician and statesman and a member of the Socialist Party of Chile. The Socialist Party of Chile (Spanish Partido Socialista de Chile or PS is part of the ruling Coalition of Parties for Democracy coalition Luis Ernesto Derbez Bautista (born April 1 1947 in Mexico City) is a Mexican politician and current president of the Universidad de The National Action Party ( Spanish Partido Acción Nacional) known by the acronym PAN, is a conservative and Christian democratic Derbez was explicitly supported by the US, Canada, Mexico, Belize, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Bolivia (then presided by Carlos Mesa), Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua, while Chilean minister José Insulza was supported by all the Southern Cone countries, as well as Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela and the Dominican Republic. Carlos Diego Mesa Gisbert (born August 12, 1953) is a Bolivian politician historian and President of Bolivia from October 17 José Insulza was finally elected at the third turn, and took office on May 26, 2005. Events 451 - The Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sassanid Empire takes place Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Free-trade and others regional integration
While the ALCA was abandoned after the 2005 Mar del Plata Summit of the Americas, which saw protests against the venue of US President George H. W. Bush, including Argentine piqueteros, free trade agreements were not abandoned. The seaside resort of Mar del Plata, in the, about 400 km (250 Miles southeast of the capital, was the venue of the Fourth Summit of the Americas George Herbert Walker Bush (born June 12 1924 served as the forty-first President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 A piquetero is a member of a political faction whose primary modus operandi is based in the piquete See also List of free trade agreements This is article is on free international trade Regional economic integration under the sign of neoliberalism continued: under the Bush administration, the United States, which had signed two free-trade agreements with Latin American countries, signed eight further agreements, reaching a total of ten such bilateral agreements (including the United States-Chile Free Trade Agreement in 2003, the Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement in 2006, etc. The Presidency of George W Bush began on his inauguration on January 20, 2001 as the 43rd and current President of the United States of America The United States-Chile Free Trade Agreement was signed on June 6, 2003, ratified by the U ). Three others, including the Peru-United States Free Trade Agreement signed in 2006, are waiting for ratification by the US Congress [15]. The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses
The Cuzco Declaration, signed a few weeks before at the Third South American Summit, announced the foundation of the Union of South American Nations (Unasul-Unasur) grouping Mercosul countries and the Andean Community and which as the aim of eliminating tariffs for non-sensitive products by 2014 and sensitive products by 2019. The Cusco Declaration, formally titled Preamble to the Foundation Act of the South American Union, is a two-page declaration of intent signed by 12 South American The 2004 South American Summit &ndash the third of its kind after earlier events in Brasília ( September 2000) and Guayaquil ( July 2002 __FORCETOC__The Union of South American Nations (Unión de Naciones Suramericanas - UNASUR, União de Nações Sul-Americanas - UNASUL, Unie van Zuid-Amerikaanse Naties Role and potential Some South Americans see Mercosur as giving the capability to combine resources to balance the activities of other global economic powers especially the North The Andean Community ( Spanish: Comunidad Andina, CAN) is a Trade bloc comprising the South American countries of For other uses of this word see Tariff (disambiguation. A tariff is a tax imposed on goods when they are moved across a political boundary On the other hand, the CAFTA-DR free-trade agreement (Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement) was ratified by all countries except Costa Rica. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in The president of the latter country, Óscar Arias, member of the National Liberation Party and elected in February 2006, has pronounced himself in favor of the agreement. Óscar Rafael de Jesús Arias Sánchez (born 13 September 1940) is the current President of Costa Rica, and won the Nobel Peace Prize The National Liberation Party ( Spanish: Partido Liberación Nacional; commonly abbreviated as PLN) is a Political party in Costa Costa Rica held a presidential election on 5 February 2006. Óscar Arias of the National Liberation Party (Partido Liberación Canada, which also has a free-trade agreement with Costa Rica, has also been negotiating such an agreement with Central American country, named Canada Central American Free Trade Agreement. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The Canada Central American Free Trade Agreement is a proposed free trade agreement between Canada and the Central American states of Guatemala
On the other hand, Chile, which has long followed a policy differing from that of its neighbours, has signed the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (aka P4 free-trade agreement) with Brunei, New Zealand and Singapore. The Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (SEP also known as the P4 agreement is a multilateral Free trade agreement between the countries of Brunei Brunei Darussalam, (bruːˈnaɪ in English officially the State of Brunei Abode of Peace (Negara Brunei Darussalam Jawi: برني دارالسلام New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Singapore The P4 came into force in May 2006. All signatory countries are member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum.
Bilateral investment treaties
- Further information: Bilateral investment treaties
Apart of binational free-trade agreements, the US have also signed a number of bilateral investment treaties (BIT) with Latin American countries, establishing the conditions of foreign direct investment. A Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT is an agreement establishing the terms and conditions for private Investment by nationals and companies of one State in the state A Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT is an agreement establishing the terms and conditions for private Investment by nationals and companies of one State in the state Foreign direct investment ( FDI) in its classic definition is defined as a company from one country making a physical investment into building a factory in another country These treaties include "fair and equitable treatment", protection from expropriation, free transfer of means and full protection and security. Expropriation refers to Confiscation of Private property with the stated purpose of establishing social equality.
In case of a disagreement between a multinational firm and a state over some kind of investment made in a Latin American country, the firm may depose a lawsuit before the ICSID (International Center for the Resolution of Investment Disputes), which is an international court depending of the World Bank. The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes ( ICSID) an institution of the World Bank group based in Washington D The World Bank is an internationally supported Bank that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for development programs (e Such a lawsuit was deposed by the US-based multinational firm Bechtel following its expulsion from Bolivia during the Cochabamba protests of 2000. Bechtel Corporation ( Bechtel Group) is the largest Engineering company in the United States, ranking as the 9th-largest privately owned company in the The Cochabamba protests of 2000, also known as "The Cochabamba Water Wars" were a series of protests that took place in Cochabamba, Bolivia 's third largest Local population had demonstrated against the privatization of the water company, requested by the World Bank, after poor management of the water by Bechtel. Thereafter, Bechtel requested $50 millions from the Bolivian state in reparation. However, the firm finally decided to drop the case in 2006 after an international protest campaign [16].
Such BIT were passed between the US and numerous countries (the given date is not of signature but of entrance in force of the treaty): Argentina (1994), Bolivia (2001), Ecuador (1997), Grenada (1989), Honduras (2001), Jamaica (1997), Panama (1991, amended in 2001), Trinidad and Tobago (1996). Others where signed but not ratified: El Salvador (1999), Haiti (1983 - one of the earliest, preceded by Panama), Nicaragua (1995).
The ALBA
In reply to the ALCA, Chavez initiated the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas (ALBA). The Bolivarian Alternative for the People of Our America ( Spanish: Alternativa Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América or ALBA - which also means 'dawn' in The Bolivarian Alternative for the People of Our America ( Spanish: Alternativa Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América or ALBA - which also means 'dawn' in Venezuela, Cuba and Bolivia signed the TCP (or People's Trade Agreement), while Venezuela, a main productor of natural gas and of petroleum (it is member of the OPEC) has signed treaties with Argentina, Brazil and Nicaragua, where Daniel Ortega, former leader of the Sandinistas, was elected in 2006 — Ortega, however, cut down his anti-imperialist and socialist discourse, and is hotly controversed both on the right-wing and on the left-wing. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC) is a Cartel of thirteen countries made up of Algeria, Angola, Ecuador José Daniel Ortega Saavedra (xoˈse ðanjεl ɔrteγa saˈβeðra(born 11 November 1945 is the current President of Nicaragua. Nicaragua held a general election on 5 November 2006. The country's voters went to the polls to elect a new President of the Republic and Chávez also implemented the Petrocaribe alliance, signed by 12 of the 15 members of the Caribbean Community in 2005. Petrocaribe S A is a Caribbean oil alliance with Venezuela to purchase Oil on conditions of preferential payment The Caribbean Community ( CARICOM) is an organization of Caribbean nations and dependencies When Hurricane Katrina ravaged Florida and Louisana, Chávez, who called the "North American Empire" a "paper tiger", even ironically proposed to provide "oil-for-the-poor" to North-Americans after Hurricane Katrina the same year, through Citgo, a subsidiary of PDVSA the state-owned Venezuelan petroleum company, which has 14,000 gas stations and owns eight oil refineries in the US [17][18]. Hurricane Katrina of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest hurricane, as well as one of the five deadliest in the history of the United States American Empire is a term referring to the political economic military and cultural influence of the United States. Paper tiger is a literal English translation of the Chinese phrase zhǐ lǎohǔ ( meaning something which seems as threatening as a Hurricane Katrina of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest hurricane, as well as one of the five deadliest in the history of the United States Citgo Petroleum Corporation (or Citgo) is a United States -incorporated Venezuela -owned refiner and marketer of Gasoline, lubricants Petrochemicals Petróleos de Venezuela SA ( PDVSA) is the Venezuelan state-owned Petroleum company
The US military coalition in Iraq
In June 2003, some 1,200 troops from Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua joined forces along with Spaniard forces (1,300 troops) to form the Plus Ultra Brigade in Iraq. The Dominican Republic ( Spanish: República Dominicana;) is a nation located in the Caribbean region and shares the island of Hispaniola with El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. Honduras in Spanish, República de Honduras) is a democratic republic in Central America. Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America The Plus Ultra Brigade, or Brigada Hispanoamericana, was a military contingent of mixed personnel from Spain For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The Brigade was dissolved on April 2004 following the retirement of Spain from Iraq, and all Latin American nations, but El Salvador, withdrew their troops. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.
In September 2005, it was revealed that Triple Canopy, Inc., a private military company present in Iraq, was training Latin American mercenaries in Lepaterique in Honduras [19]. Triple Canopy Inc is not related to the game production company Triple Canopy Productions. A private military company ( PMC) provides specialized expertise or services of a military nature sometimes called or classified as Mercenary ("soldiers for hire" Lepaterique is a Municipality in the Honduran department of Francisco Morazán. Lepaterique was a former training base for the Contras. The Contras is a label given to the various rebel groups opposing Nicaragua 's FSLN (Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional Sandinista Junta of National 105 Chilean mercenaries were deported from the country. Deportation, not to be confused with Extradition, generally means the expulsion of someone from a place or Country. According to La Tribuna Honduran newspaper, in one day in November, Your Solutions shipped 108 Hondurans, 88 Chileans and 16 Nicaraguans to Iraq [20]. Approximatively 700 Peruvians, 250 Chileans and 320 Hondurans work in Baghdad’s Green Zone for Triple Canopy, paid half price in comparison to North-American employees. The Green Zone (the common name for the International Zone of Iraq is a 10 km² (4 mile² area in central Baghdad that was the center of the Coalition Provisional The news also attracted attention in Chile, when it became known that retired military Marina Óscar Aspe worked for Triple Canopy. The latter had taken part to the assassination of Marcelo Barrios Andrade, a 21 years-old member of the FPMR, who is on the list of victims of the Rettig Report — while Marina Óscar Aspe is on the list of the 2001 Comisión Ética contra la Tortura (2001 Ethical Commission Against Torture). The Manuel Rodríguez Patriotic Front (Frente Patriótico Manuel Rodríguez (FPMR is a communist organization in Chile, named for a figure in Chile's independence The Rettig Report, officially The National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation Report, is a report by a commission designated by then President Patricio Aylwin Triple Canopy also has a subsidiary in Peru [19]. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America.
In July 2007, salvadoran president Antonio Saca reduced the number of deployed troops in Iraq from 380, to 280 soldiers. Elías Antonio Saca González (born in Usulután, 9 March 1965) is a Salvadoran politician and the current President of El Salvador For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Four salvadoran soldiers have died in different situations since deployment in 2003, but on the bright side, more than 200 projects aimed to rebuild Iraq have been completed[21]. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. .
Bolivia's nationalization of natural resources
- Further information: History of Bolivia
The struggle for natural resources and the US defense of its commercial interests has not ceased a single instant since the zenith period of the Banana Republics supported by the US. Banana Republic is a chain of mainly United States based clothing stores founded by Mel and Patricia Ziegler in 1978 as a travel-themed But the general context has changed a lot, and each country's approach has much evolved. Thus, the Bolivian Gas War in 2003-04 was sparked after projects by the Pacific LNG consortium to export natural gas — Bolivia possessing the second largest natural gas reserves in South America after Venezuela — to California (Baja California and US California) via Chile, resented in Bolivia since the War of the Pacific (1879-1884) which deprived it of an access to the Pacific Ocean. The Bolivian gas conflict was a social confrontation in Bolivia centering on the exploitation of the country's vast Natural gas reserves Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Baja California (pronounced ˈbɑːhɑː kælɨˈfɔrnjə in English is the northernmost state of Mexico. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. The War of the Pacific, sometimes called the Saltpeter War in reference to its original cause was fought between Chile and the joint forces of Bolivia The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions The ALCA was also opposed during the demonstrations, headed by the Bolivian Workers' Center and Felipe Quispe's Indigenous Pachakuti Movement (MIP). The Bolivian Workers' Center ( Spanish: Central Obrera Boliviana, COB is the chief trade union federation in Bolivia. Felipe Quispe Huanca "El Mallku " ( Aymara language: " Prince " is a Bolivian political leader The Indigenous Pachakuti Movement ( Movimiento Indígena Pachakuti) is a left-wing indigenist party in Bolivia. The US also opposed Chávez, quickly recognizing the government of Pedro Carmona during the 2002 coup attempt which briefly overthrew him. Pedro Francisco Carmona Estanga (born 1941 in Barquisimeto, Lara, Venezuela) is a former Venezuelan trade organization leader who was briefly declared The Venezuelan coup attempt of 2002 was a failed Coup d'état on April 11, 2002 that lasted only 47 hours whereby the head of state President
A proof of the new geopolitical context can be seen in Evo Morales' announcement, in concordance with his electoral promises, of the nationalization of gas reserves, the second highest in South America after Venezuela. Juan Evo Morales Ayma (born October 26 1959 in Orinoca, Oruro) popularly known as Evo (ˈeβo is the President of Bolivia since Nationalization, also spelled nationalisation, is the act of taking an industry or assets into the Public ownership of a national government First of all, he carefully warned that they would not take the form of expropriations or confiscations, maybe fearing a violent response. Expropriation refers to Confiscation of Private property with the stated purpose of establishing social equality. Confiscation, from the Latin confiscatio 'joining to the fiscus i The nationalizations, which, according to Vice President Álvaro García are supposed to make the government's energy-related revenue jump to $780 million in the following year, expanding nearly sixfold from 2002 [23], led to criticisms from Brazil, which Petrobras company is one of the largest foreign investors in Bolivia, controlling 14% of the country's gas reserves [24]. Álvaro García may refer to Álvaro García Linera, Bolivian politician Álvaro García (Uruguayan politician Petrobras ( Bovespa: PETR3 / PETR4 ( NYSE: PBR / PBRA( Latibex: XPBR / XPBRA short for Petróleo Brasileiro S Bolivia is one of the poorest country in South America, and was heavily affected by protests in the 1980s-90s, largely due to the shock therapy enforced by previous governments [11], and also by ressentment concerning the coca eradication program — coca is a traditional plant for the Aymara people, who use it for therapeutical (against altitude sickness) and cultural purposes. Coca eradication is a controversial strategy strongly promoted by the United States government as part of its " War on Drugs " to eliminate the Not to be confused with Cocoa. Coca is a Plant in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to north-western South America The Aymara are a native Ethnic group in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America; about 1 Altitude sickness, also known as acute mountain sickness ( AMS) altitude illness, or soroche, is a pathological condition that is caused by acute Thus, Brazil's Energy Minister, Silas Rondeau, reacted to Morales' announcement by condemning the move as "unfriendly. Silas Rondeau is a Brazilian politician and a member of Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB " [25] According to Reuters, "Bolivia's actions echo what Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, possibly Morales' biggest ally, did in the world's fifth-largest oil exporter with forced contract migrations and retroactive tax hikes – conditions that major oil companies largely agreed to accept. This article is primarily about Reuters prior to its 2008 merger with Thomson Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (ˈuɰo rafaˈel ˈtʃaβ̞es ˈfɾias (born July 28 1954 is the current President of Venezuela. " The Bolivian gas company YPFB, privatized by former President Gonzalo Sanchez de Losada, was to pay foreign companies for their services, offering about 50 percent of the value of production, although the decree indicated that companies exploiting the country's two largest gas fields would get just 18 percent. Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos ( YPFB) is the state-owned petrol company of Bolivia. Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada Sánchez Bustamante (born July 1, 1930, La Paz) familiarly known as "Goni" is a Bolivian politician After initially hostile reactions, Repsol "expressed its willingness to cooperate with the Bolivian government, while Petrobras retreated its call to cancel new investment in Boliva [11]. Repsol YPF SA, ( is an integrated Spanish oil and gas company with operations in 29 countries Petrobras ( Bovespa: PETR3 / PETR4 ( NYSE: PBR / PBRA( Latibex: XPBR / XPBRA short for Petróleo Brasileiro S However, still according to Larry Birns, "The nationalization’s high media profile could force the [US] State Department to take a tough approach to the region, even to the point of mobilizing the CIA and the U. Larry Birns is the director of the Council on Hemispheric Affairs, a liberal not-for-profit organization monitoring Human rights and political developments in S. military, but it is more likely to work its way by undermining the all-important chink in the armor – the Latin American armed forces. " [11]
US presence in the Triple Frontier
The Argentine film called Sed, Invasión Gota a Gota ("Thirst, Invasion Drop by Drop"), directed by Mausi Martínez, portrays the military of the United States as slowly but steadily increasing its presence in the Triple Frontera (Triple Frontier, the area around the common borders of Paraguay, Argentina and Brazil). The United States Armed Forces are the overall unified military forces of the United States The Triple Frontier should not be confused with Tres Fronteras, at the common border among Brazil Peru and Colombia The overt reason for the increasing presence of U. S. troops and joint exercises, mainly with Paraguay, is to monitor the large Arab population which resides in the area. However, Martínez alleges that it is the water of the Guarani Aquifer which brings the Americans to the area, and she fears a subtle takeover before the local governments even realize what is going on. The Guaraní Aquifer, located beneath the surface of the original four Mercosur countries ( Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay
Similar concerns were lifted following both the signature of a military training agreement with Paraguay, which accorded immunity to U. S. soldiers from prosecution by the International Criminal Court (ICC) and was indefinitely renewable (something which had never been done before, while Donald Rumsfeld himself visited Paraguay and, for the first time ever, Paraguayan president Nicanor Duarte Frutos went to the White House), and the construction of a U. The International Criminal Court ( ICC or ICCt) was established in 2002 as a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for Genocide, crimes against Donald Henry Rumsfeld (born July 9 1932 is a United States Businessman, Politician, the 13th Secretary of Defense under President Óscar Nicanor Duarte Frutos (born 11 October 1956 is a Paraguayan politician who served as President of Paraguay from 2003 to 2008 See also Executive Office of the President of the United States The White House, formerly known as the Executive Mansion, is the Official residence S. military base near the airport of Mariscal Estigarribia, within 200 km of Argentina and Bolivia and 300 km of Brazil. Mariscal Estigarribia is a town in the Boquerón Department, Paraguay. The airport can receive large planes (B-52, C-130 Hercules, etc. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout ) which the Paraguayan Air Force does not possess. The armed forces of Paraguay consist of the Paraguayan Army, Navy (including Naval aviation and Marine corps) and Air force [26] [27]. The governments of Paraguay and the United States subsequently ostensibly declared that the use of an airport (Dr Luís María Argaña International)[2] was one point of transfer for few soldiers in Paraguay at the same time. According to the Argentine newspaper Clarín, the U. Clarín is a major Newspaper in Argentina, founded by Roberto Noble on August 28 1945. S. military base is strategic because of its location near the Triple Frontier, its proximity to the Guaraní Aquifer, and its closeness to Bolivia (less than 200 km) at the same "moment that Washington's magnifying glass goes on the Altiplano [Bolivia] and points toward Venezuelan [president] Hugo Chávez — the regional devil according to the Bush administration — as the instigator of the instability in the region" (El Clarín [27]). The Altiplano ( Spanish for high plain) where the Andes are at their widest is the most extensive area of High plateau on earth outside Venezuela (ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə) officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is a country on the Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (ˈuɰo rafaˈel ˈtʃaβ̞es ˈfɾias (born July 28 1954 is the current President of Venezuela. The Presidency of George W Bush began on his inauguration on January 20, 2001 as the 43rd and current President of the United States of America In October 2006, US President George W. Bush was reported to be negotiating for purchase of a 400 km² ranch near Marriscal Estigarribia [28][29]. October 2006 was a month that began on a Sunday The month was marked by a nuclear test by North Korea that prompted that passing of Resolution 1718 George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States.
But Paraguay decided in October 2006 not to renew the immunity granted to US soldiers. The other members of the Mercosur trade bloc (Argentina, which is a Major non-NATO ally, Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay and Venezuela, which is in the process of entering it) have so far refused to grant immunity to U. Role and potential Some South Americans see Mercosur as giving the capability to combine resources to balance the activities of other global economic powers especially the North Major non-NATO ally ( MNNA) is a designation given by the United States government to exceptionally close allies who have close strategic working relationships S. troops [30].
References
- ^ Glickman, Robert Jay. Norteamérica vis-à-vis Hispanoamérica: ¿oposición o asociación? Toronto: Canadian Academy of the Arts, 2005.
- ^ LaFeber, Walter. Walter LaFeber (born 1933 in Walkerton, Indiana) was a Marie Underhill Noll Professor and a Steven Weisse Presidential Teaching Fellow of History in the America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1992 7th ed. (1993)
- ^ Fursenko and Naftali, The Cuban Missile Crisis. p40-47
- ^ Bay of Pigs Global Security.org
- ^ Castro marks Bay of Pigs victory BBC News
- ^ Interim Report: Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders Original document
- ^ "Cold War," Dictionary of the Social Sciences. GlobalSecurityorg, launched in 2000 is a Public policy organization whose mission is to be a reliable source of background information and developing News stories Craig Calhoun, ed. Oxford University Press. 2002.
- ^ Bell, P M H (2001). The World Since 1945. Oxford University Press. 0340662360.
- ^ According to the National Security Archive, the Argentine junta led by Jorge Rafael Videla believed it had United States' approval for its all-out assault on the left in the name of "national security doctrine". The National Security Archive is a 501(c(3 non-governmental non-profit research and archival institution located within The George Washington University in The National Reorganization Process (in Spanish, Proceso de Reorganización Nacional, often simply El Proceso) was the name used by its leaders Jorge Rafael Videla Redondo (born August 21, 1925 in Mercedes Buenos Aires) was the dictator and President of Argentina from 1976 to 1981 The U. S. Embassy in Buenos Aires complained to Washington that the Argentine officers were "euphoric" over signals from high-ranking U. S. officials, including Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. Henry Alfred Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923) is a German -born American bureaucrat diplomat and 1973 See ARGENTINE MILITARY BELIEVED U.S. GAVE GO-AHEAD FOR DIRTY WAR, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. The National Security Archive is a 501(c(3 non-governmental non-profit research and archival institution located within The George Washington University in 73 - Part II, CIA classified documents released in 2002
- ^ [1]
- ^ a b c d e The Aftermath of Bolivia’s Gas Golpe, Larry Birns and Michael Lettieri, Political Affairs Magazine, July 5, 2006
- ^ Interview with Geraldo Fontes of the MST, In Motion Magazine, March 26, 2005 (English)
- ^ MST calls for Congress-Brazilian people alliance, Radiobras, 23/06/2005 (English)
- ^ Bolivia's Nationalization of Oil and Gas, US Council on Foreign Relations, May 12, 2006
- ^ Le Figaro, 8 March 2007, George Bush défie Hugo Chavez sur son terrain (French)
- ^ Bechtel vs Bolivia, The Democracy Center, URL accessed on 14 March 2007
- ^ Chavez offers oil to Europe's poor, The Observer, May 14, 2006
- ^ Chavez' Surprise for Bush, New York Daily News, September 18, 2005, mirrored by Common Dreams
- ^ a b Capítulos desconocidos de los mercenarios chilenos en Honduras camino de Iraq, La Nación, September 25, 2005 - URL accessed on February 14, 2007 (Spanish)
- ^ Latin American mercenaries guarding Baghdad’s Green Zone, December 28, 2005
- ^ (Spanish) Contingente IX con menos soldados a Iraq, La Prensa Grafica, July 15, 2007
- ^ The U.S. Department of State issued a statement on October 13 declaring its support for Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, calling for "Bolivia's political leaders [to] publicly express their support for democratic and constitutional order. Larry Birns is the director of the Council on Hemispheric Affairs, a liberal not-for-profit organization monitoring Human rights and political developments in Political Affairs Magazine is a monthly Marxist publication It aims to provide an analysis of events from a Working class point of view Radiobras or Agência Brasil or ABr is the national broadcaster and a Public agency of Brazil. The Council on Foreign Relations ( CFR) is an American Nonpartisan foreign policy membership organization founded in 1921 and based at 58 East 68th Street (at Le Figaro is one of the leading French morning daily Newspapers Its editorial line is conservative and has generally been supportive of The Observer is a British Newspaper published on Sundays In about the same place on the political spectrum as its daily sister paper The The Daily News of New York City is the fifth most-widely circulated daily Newspaper in the United States with a daily circulation of 703137 Common Dreams NewsCenter, often referred to simply as Common Dreams is a popular U La Nación is a Chilean Newspaper created in 1917 by Eliodoro Yáñez and presided until 1927 by Carlos Dávila. La Prensa Gráfica commonly known as La Prensa is a daily Newspaper published in El Salvador by Grupo Dutriz Events 54 - Nero ascends to the Roman throne 409 - Vandals and Alans crossed the Pyrenees Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada Sánchez Bustamante (born July 1, 1930, La Paz) familiarly known as "Goni" is a Bolivian politician The international community and the United States will not tolerate any interruption of constitutional order and will not support any regime that results from undemocratic means. " This statement followed the death of 60 Bolivians during the police and army repression, in particular in El Alto, the Aymara suburb of La Paz "Call for Respect for Constitutional Order in Bolivia", US State Department, October 13, 2003. The city of El Alto ( Spanish for The Height) is a suburb of La Paz, Bolivia, located on the Altiplano highlands - while La Paz Nuestra Señora de La Paz is the administrative Capital of Bolivia, as well as the departmental capital of La Paz Department. Retrieved on April 2006. Stories without links will be removed'. News stories must be in English
- ^ "Bolivia's military takes control of gas fields", Reuters, May 2, 2006. This article is primarily about Reuters prior to its 2008 merger with Thomson Retrieved on 2006-05-02. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
- ^ "Bolivia gas under state control", BBC News, May 2, 2006. Retrieved on 2006-05-02. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
- ^ (Portuguese) "Ministro de Minas e Energia classifica decreto boliviano de "inamistoso"", Folha de Sao Paulo, May 2, 2006. Folha de SPaulo is a Portuguese language Newspaper published in São Paulo. Retrieved on 2006-05-02. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
- ^ "U.S. Military Moves in Paraguay Rattle Regional Relations", International Relations Center, December 14, 2005. The International Relations Center (IRC formerly Interhemispheric Resource Center is an American " Policy studies institute" based in Silver City Retrieved on April 2006. Stories without links will be removed'. News stories must be in English
- ^ a b US Marines put a foot in Paraguay, El Clarín, September 9, 2005 (Spanish)
- ^ "Pres. Bush buys 100,000 acre ranch in Paraguay", SF Bay Area Independent Media Center, October 19, 2006. Clarín is a major Newspaper in Argentina, founded by Roberto Noble on August 28 1945. Events 1000 - Battle of Svolder, Viking Age. 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on October 2006. October 2006 was a month that began on a Sunday The month was marked by a nuclear test by North Korea that prompted that passing of Resolution 1718
- ^ "Gobernador admite que hay versiones de que Bush compró tierras en el Chaco", Neike Periodismo Independiente, 11 October 2006. Retrieved on October 2006. October 2006 was a month that began on a Sunday The month was marked by a nuclear test by North Korea that prompted that passing of Resolution 1718
- ^ Paraguay Hardens U.S. Military Stance, The Washington Post, October 3, 2006
See also
- American Empire
- Foreign relations of the United States
- List of United States military bases
- List of free trade agreements
- OEA
- Mellander, Gustavo A. The Washington Post is the largest and most circulated Newspaper in Washington D American Empire is a term referring to the political economic military and cultural influence of the United States. The foreign policy of the United States is highly influential on the world stage as it is a Superpower. This is a list of United States military bases currently located around the world This is list of Free trade agreements and Free trade areas between one or more countries and/or Trade blocs For a list of blocs see Trade bloc. The Organization of American States ( OAS, or as it is known in the three other official languages OEA) is an International organization, headquartered ; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1563281554. OCLC 42970390.
- Mellander, Gustavo A. (1971). The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Danville, Ill. : Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568.
Binational relationships
- Brazilian-American relations
- Cuba-United States relations
- Ecuador-United States relations
- Venezuela-United States relations
- U.S.-Colombia military relations
- United States-Mexico relations
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