Ubykh or Ubyx is a language of the Northwestern Caucasian group, spoken by the Ubykh people up until the early 1990s. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them The Northwest Caucasian languages, also called Pontic, Circassian, or Abkhaz-Adyghe, are a group of languages spoken in the Caucasus region Ubykh people are a group who spoke the Northwest Caucasian Ubykh language, until other local languages displaced it and its last speaker finally died in

The word is derived from /wəbəx/, its name in the Abdzakh Adyghe (Circassian) language. Adyghe language (ady адыгaбзэ adygabze, adəgăbză) is one of the two official languages of the Republic of Adygea in the Russian Federation It is known in linguistic literature by many names: variants of Ubykh, such as Ubikh, Ubıh (Turkish) and Oubykh (French); and Pekhi (from Ubykh /tʷaχə/) and its Germanicised variant Päkhy. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages.

Major features

Ubykh is distinguished by the following features, some of which are shared with other Northwest Caucasian languages:

• It is ergative, making no syntactic distinction between the subject of an intransitive sentence and the direct object of a transitive sentence. An ergative-absolutive Language (or simply ergative language is a language that treats the argument (" subject " of an Intransitive According to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle, every sentence can be divided in two main constituents, one being the subject of the sentence and the In Grammar, an intransitive Verb does not take an object. In more technical terms an intransitive verb has only one argument (its subject An object in Grammar is a Sentence element and part of the sentence predicate. In Syntax, a transitive verb is a Verb that requires both a subject and one or more objects Some examples of sentences with transitive verbs Split ergativity plays only a small part, if at all. Split ergativity is shown by languages that have a partly ergative behaviour but employ another Syntax or morphology — usually accusative
• It is highly agglutinative, using mainly monosyllabic or bisyllabic roots, but with single morphological words sometimes reaching nine or more syllables in length: /aχʲazbatɕʾaʁawdətʷaajlafaqʾajtʾmadaχ/ if only you had not been able to make him take (it) all out from under me again for them. In Linguistics, agglutination is the morphological process ofadding Affixes to the base of a Word. Morphology is the field of Linguistics that studies the internal structure of words Affixes rarely fuse in any way. An affix is a Morpheme that is attached to a stem to form a word
• It has a simple nominal system, contrasting just four noun cases, and not always marking grammatical number in the direct case. In Grammar, the case of a Noun or Pronoun indicates its Grammatical function in a greater Phrase or Clause; such as the In linguistics grammatical number is a Grammatical category of nouns pronouns and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions (such as "one"
• Its system of verbal agreement is quite complex. In Linguistics, conjugation is the creation of derived forms of a Verb, Noun or Adjective from its Principal parts by Inflection English verbs must agree only with the subject; Ubykh verbs must agree with the subject, the direct object and the indirect object, and benefactive objects must also be marked in the verb. An object in Grammar is a Sentence element and part of the sentence predicate. The benefactive case ( abbreviated BEN) is a case used where English would use "for" "for the benefit of"
• It is phonologically complex as well, with 84 distinct consonants (four of which, however, appear only in loan words). Phonology ( Greek φωνή (phōnē voice sound + λόγος (lógos word speech subject of discussion is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning In Articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a Speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper Vocal tract, the upper vocal A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one Language from another with little or no translation According to some linguistic analyses, it only has two phonological vowels, but these vowels have a large range of allophones because the range of consonants which surround them is so large. In Phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar speech sounds ( Phones that belong to the same Phoneme.

Grammar

Phonology

See Ubykh phonology for information on the phonetics of Ubykh. Ubykh, a North-West Caucasian language has the largest consonant inventory of all documented languages which do not use clicks and also has the most disproportional ratio of

Morphosyntax

Ubykh is agglutinative and polysynthetic: /ʃəkʲʼaajəfanamət/ we shall not be able to go back, /awqʼaqʼajtʼba/ if you had said it. Polysynthetic languages are highly Synthetic languages ie languages in which words are composed of many Morphemes Definition The degree of Ubykh is often extremely concise in its word forms.

The boundaries between nouns and verbs in Ubykh is somewhat blurred. Any noun can be used as the root of a stative verb (/məzə/ child, /səməzəjtʼ/ I was a child), and many verb roots can become nouns simply by the use of noun affixes (/qʼa/ to say, /səqʼa/ my speech, what I say). ^[1][2]

Nouns

The noun system in Ubykh is quite simple. Ubykh has three noun cases (the oblique-ergative case may be two homophonous cases with differing function, thus presenting four cases in total):

• direct or absolutive case, marked with the bare root; this indicates the subject of an intransitive sentence and the direct object of a transitive sentence (/tət/ a man)
• oblique-ergative case, marked in -/n/; this indicates either the subject of a transitive sentence, targets of preverbs, or indirect objects which do not take any other suffixes (/məzən/ (to) a child)
• locative case, marked in -/ʁa/, which is the equivalent of English in, on or at. In Ergative-absolutive languages the absolutive ( abbreviated ABS) is the Grammatical case used to mark both the subject of an The root is the primary lexical unit of a Word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents According to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle, every sentence can be divided in two main constituents, one being the subject of the sentence and the An object in Grammar is a Sentence element and part of the sentence predicate. The ergative case is the Grammatical case that identifies the subject of a Transitive verb in Ergative-absolutive languages In such languages In Syntax, a transitive verb is a Verb that requires both a subject and one or more objects Some examples of sentences with transitive verbs Although not widely accepted in Linguistics, the term preverb is used in Caucasian (including all three families Northwest Caucasian, An object in Grammar is a Sentence element and part of the sentence predicate. Locative (also called the seventh case) is a Grammatical case which indicates a location

The instrumental (-/awn(ə)/ by means of, by using) was also treated as a case in Dumézil (1975). An instrumental is a Musical composition or recording without Lyrics or any other sort of Vocal music; all of the Music is produced by Another pair of postpositions, -/laaq/ to(wards) and -/ʁaafa/ for, have been noted as synthetic datives (/aχʲəlaaq astʷadaw/ I will send it to the prince), but their status as cases is also best discounted. In Grammar, a preposition is a Part of speech that introduces a prepositional phrase.

Nouns do not distinguish grammatical gender. In Linguistics, grammatical genders, sometimes also called Noun classes are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words every noun must belong The definite article is /a/- the: /atət/ the man. There is no indefinite article directly equivalent to the English a or an, but /za/-(root)-/gʷara/ (literally one-(root)-certain) translates French un and Turkish bir: /zanaynʃʷgʷara/ a certain young man.

Number is only marked on the noun in the ergative case, with -/na/. A number is an Abstract object, tokens of which are Symbols used in Counting and measuring. The number marking of the absolutive argument is either by suppletive verb roots (e. In Linguistics and Etymology, suppletion is traditionally understood as the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two words g. /akʷən blas/ he is in the car vs /akʷən blaʒʷa/ they are in the car) or by verb suffixes: /akʲʼan/ he goes, /akʲʼaan/ they go. Interestingly, the second person plural prefix /ɕʷ/- triggers this plural suffix regardless of whether that prefix represents the ergative, the absolutive or the oblique argument:

• /ɕʷastʷaan/ I give you all to him (abs. Grammatical person, in Linguistics, is deictic reference to a participant in an event such as the speaker the Addressee, or others Plural is a Grammatical number, typically referring to more than one of the Referent in the real world )
• /səɕʷəntʷaan/ he gives me to you all (obl. )
• /asəɕʷtʷaan/ you all give it/them to me (erg. )

Note that in this last sentence, the plurality of it (/a/-) is obscured; the meaning can be either I give it to you all or I gave them to you all.

Adjectives, in most cases, are simply suffixed to the noun: /tʃəbʒəja/ pepper with /pɬə/ red becomes /tʃəbʒəjapɬə/ red pepper. In Grammar, an adjective is a word whose main syntactic role is to modify a Noun or Pronoun, giving more information about the Adjectives do not decline. In Linguistics, declension (or declination) is the occurrence of Inflection in Nouns Pronouns and Adjectives indicating

Postpositions are rare; most locative semantic functions, as well as some non-local ones, are provided with preverbal elements: /asχʲawtxqʼa/ you wrote it for me. In Grammar, a preposition is a Part of speech that introduces a prepositional phrase. Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from Although not widely accepted in Linguistics, the term preverb is used in Caucasian (including all three families Northwest Caucasian, However, there are a few postpositions: /səʁʷa səgʲaatɕʼ/ like me; /aχʲəlaaq/ near the prince.

Verbs

(Dumézil 1975 passim) A past-present-future distinction of verb tense exists (the suffixes -/qʼa/ and -/awt/ represent past and future) and an imperfective aspect suffix is also found (-/jtʼ/, which can combine with tense suffixes). The past tense is a Verb tense expressing action activity state or being in the past of the current moment (in an Absolute tense system or prior Present Tense is the first Sagittarius album released in 1968 by Columbia Records. In Grammar, the future tense is a verb form that marks the event described by the verb as not having happened yet but expected to happen in the future (in an Absolute tense The imperfective aspect is a Grammatical aspect. It refers to an action that is viewed from a particular viewpoint as ongoing habitual repeated or generally containing internal In Linguistics, the grammatical aspect of a Verb defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof in the described event or state Dynamic and stative verbs are contrasted, as in Arabic, and verbs have several nominal forms. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language In Linguistics, “gerund” is a term used to refer to various non-finite verb forms in various languages As applied to English, Morphological causatives are not uncommon. A causative form in Linguistics, is an expression of an agent causing or forcing a patient to perform an action (or to be in a certain condition The conjunctions and and but are usually given with verb suffixes, but there is also a free particle for each:

• -/gʲə/ and (free particle /ve/, borrowed from Turkish);
• -/gʲəla/ but, nevertheless, even so, however, although (free particle /aʁʷa/)

Pronominal benefactives are also part of the verbal complex, marked with the preverb /χʲa/-, but a benefactive cannot normally appear on a verb that has three agreement prefixes already. The benefactive case ( abbreviated BEN) is a case used where English would use "for" "for the benefit of"

Gender only appears as part of the second person paradigm, and then only at the speaker's discretion. Gender comprises a range of differences between men and women extending from the biological to the social Grammatical person, in Linguistics, is deictic reference to a participant in an event such as the speaker the Addressee, or others The feminine second person index is /χa/-, which behaves like other pronominal prefixes: /wəsχʲantʷən/ he gives (it) to you (normal; gender-neutral) for me, but compare /χasχʲantʷən/ he gives (it) to you (feminine) for me.

Adverbials

A few meanings covered in English by adverbs or auxiliary verbs are given in Ubykh by verb suffixes:

• /asfəpχa/ I need to eat it
• /asfəfan/ I can eat it
• /asfəgʲan/ I eat it all the time
• /asfəlan/ I am eating it all up
• /asfətɕʷan/ I eat it too much
• /asfaajən/ I eat it again

Questions

Questions may be marked grammatically, using verb suffixes or prefixes:

• Yes-no questions with -/ɕ/: /wana awbjaqʼaɕ/? did you see that?
• Complex questions with -/j/: /saakʲʼa wəpʼtsʼaj/? what is your name?

Other types of questions, involving the pronouns where and what, may also be marked only in the verbal complex: /maawkʲʼanəj/ where are you going?, /saawqʼaqʼajtʼəj/ what had you said?

Preverbs and determinants

Many local, prepositional, and other functions are provided by preverbal elements providing a large series of applicatives, and it is in this that Ubykh is hideously complex. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States In Linguistics, an auxiliary (also called helping verb, helper verb, auxiliary verb, or verbal auxiliary) is a Verb functioning A question may be either a linguistic expression used to make a request for Information, or else the request itself made by such an expression Although not widely accepted in Linguistics, the term preverb is used in Caucasian (including all three families Northwest Caucasian, The applicative voice is a Grammatical voice which promotes an oblique argument of a Verb to the (core patient argument and indicates the oblique Two main types of preverbal elements exist in Ubykh: determinants and preverbs. The number of preverbs is limited, and mainly show location and direction. Direction is the information contained in the relative position of one point with respect to another point without the Distance information The number of determinants is also limited, but the class is more open; some determinant prefixes include /tʃa/- with regard to a horse and /ɬa/- with regard to the foot or base of an object. In Linguistics, an open class (or open word class) is a Word class that accepts the addition of new items through such processes as compounding

For simple locations, there are a number of possibilities that can be encoded with preverbs, including (but not limited to):

• above and touching
• above and not touching
• below and touching
• below and not touching
• at the side of
• through a space
• through solid matter
• on a flat horizontal surface
• on a non-horizontal or vertical surface
• in a homogeneous mass
• towards
• in an upward direction
• in a downward direction
• into a tubular space
• into an enclosed space

There is also a separate directional preverb meaning towards the speaker: j-, which occupies a separate slot in the verbal complex. However, preverbs can have meanings that would take up entire phrases in English. The preverb /jtɕʷʼaa/- signifies on the earth or in the earth, for instance: /ʁadja ajtɕʷʼaanaaɬqʼa/ they buried his body (lit. they put his body in the earth). Even more narrowly, the preverb /faa/- signifies that an action is done out of, into or with regard to a fire: /amdʒan zatʃətʃaqʲa faastχʷən/ I take a brand out of the fire.

Lexicon

Native vocabulary

Ubykh syllables have a strong tendency to be CV, although VC and CVC also exist. A syllable ( Greek:) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds Consonant clusters are not as large as in Abzhui Abkhaz or in Georgian, rarely being larger than two terms. In Linguistics, a consonant cluster (or consonant blend) is a group of Consonants which have no intervening Vowel. Abkhaz is a Northwest Caucasian language spoken mainly in Abkhazia and Turkey by the Abkhaz people. Georgian (ka ქართული ენა kartuli ena) is the Official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus. Three-term clusters exist in two words - /ndʁa/ sun and /psta/ to swell up, but the latter is a loan from Adyghe, and the former more often pronounced /nədʁa/ when it appears alone. Compounding plays a large part in Ubykh and, indeed, in all Northwest Caucasian semantics. In Linguistics, a compound is a Lexeme (less precisely a Word) that consists of more than one stem. Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from There is no verb to love, for instance; one says I love you as /tʂʼanə wəzbjan/ I see you well.

Reduplication occurs in some roots, often those with onomatopoeic values (/χˁaχˁa/ to curry(comb) from /χˁa/ to scrape; /kʼərkʼər/, to cluck like a chicken (a loan from Adyghe); /warqwarq/, to croak like a frog). Reduplication, in Linguistics, is a morphological Process by which the root or stem of a Word, or part of it is repeated Onomatopoeia (also spelled onomatopœia, from Greek: ονοματοποιΐα is a Word or a grouping of words that imitates the sound it is describing

Roots and affixes can be as small as one phoneme. The word /wantʷaan/ they give you to him, for instance, contains six phonemes, and each is a separate morpheme:

• /w/ - 2nd singular absolutive
• /a/ - 3rd singular dative
• /n/ - 3rd ergative
• /tʷ/ - to give
• /aa/ - ergative plural
• /n/ - present tense

However, some words may be as long as seven syllables (although these are usually compounds): /ʂəqʷʼawəɕaɬaadətʃa/ staircase. A syllable ( Greek:) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds

Slang and idioms

As with all other languages, Ubykh is replete with idioms. An idiom is a Phrase whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal Definition, but refers instead to a figurative meaning that is known only The word /ntʷa/ door, for instance, is an idiom meaning either magistrate, court or government. However, idiomatic constructions are even more common in Ubykh than in most other languages; the representation of abstract ideas with series of concrete elements is a characteristic of the Northwest Caucasian family. I love you translates literally as I see you well; you please me is literally you cut my heart. The term /wərəs/ Russian, a Turkish loan, has come to be a slang term meaning infidel, non-Muslim or enemy (see section History).

Foreign loans

The majority of loanwords in Ubykh are derived from either Adyghe or Turkish, with smaller numbers from Persian, Abkhaz and the South Caucasian languages. Abkhaz is a Northwest Caucasian language spoken mainly in Abkhazia and Turkey by the Abkhaz people. The South Caucasian languages (also known as Ibero-Caucasian or Kartvelian) are spoken primarily in Georgia, with smaller groups of speakers in Turkey Towards the end of Ubykh's life, a large influx of Adyghe words was noted; Vogt (1963) notes a few hundred examples. The phonemes /g/ /k/ /kʼ/ were borrowed from Turkish and Adyghe. /ɬʼ/ also appears to be an Adyghe loan, although at a greater time depth. It is possible, too, that /ɣ/ is a loan from Adyghe, since most of the few words with this phoneme are obvious Adyghe loans: /paaɣa/ proud, /ɣa/ testis.

Many loanwords have Ubykh equivalents, but were dwindling in usage under the influence of Turkish, Circassian and Russian equivalents:

• /bərwə/ to make a hole in, to perforate (Turkish) = /pɕaatχʷ/
• /tʃaaj/ tea (Turkish) = /bzəpʂə/
• /wərəs/ enemy (Turkish) = /bˁaqˁʼa/

Some words, usually much older ones, are borrowed from less influential stock: Colarusso (1994) sees /χˁʷa/ pig as a borrowing from a proto-Semitic *huka, and /agʲarə/ slave from an Iranian root. The Semitic languages are a Language family whose living representatives are spoken by more than 467 million people across much of the Middle East, The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian.

Evolution

In the scheme of Northwest Caucasian evolution, despite its parallels with Abkhaz, Ubykh forms a separate third branch of the family. It has fossilised palatal class markers where all other Northwest Caucasian languages preserve traces of an original labial class: the Ubykh word for heart, /gʲə/, corresponds to the reflex /gʷə/ in Abkhaz, Abaza, Kabardian and Adyghe. Ubykh also possesses groups of pharyngealised consonants otherwise found in the Northwest Caucasian family only in some dialects of Abkhaz and Abaza. All other NWC languages possess true pharyngeal consonants, but Ubykh is the only language to use pharyngealisation as a feature of secondary articulation.

With regard to the other languages of the family, Ubykh is closer to Abkhaz than to any other member, but shares many features with Adyghe due to geographic and cultural influence; many Ubykh speakers were bilingual in Ubykh and Adyghe.

Dialects

While not many dialects of Ubykh existed, one divergent dialect of Ubykh has been noted (in Dumézil 1965:266-269). A dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος dialektos) is a variety of a Language that is characteristic of a particular group of Grammatically, it is similar to standard Ubykh, but has a very different sound system, which had collapsed into just 62-odd phonemes:

• /dʷ/ /tʷ/ /tʷʼ/ have collapsed into /b/ /p/ /pʼ/.
• /ɕʷ/ /ʑʷ/ are indistinguishable from /ʃʷ/ /ʒʷ/.
• /ɣ/ seems to have disappeared.
• Pharyngealisation is no longer distinctive, having been replaced in many cases by geminate consonants. In Phonetics, gemination happens when a spoken Consonant is pronounced for an audibly longer period of time than a short Consonant.
• Palatalisation of the uvular consonants is no longer phonemic.

History

Ubykh was spoken in the eastern coast of the Black Sea around Sochi until 1864, when the Ubykhs were driven out of the region by the Russians. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey Sochi (Сочи ˈsotɕɪ is a Russian Resort city, situated in Krasnodar Krai just north of the southern Russian border Year 1864 ( MDCCCLXIV) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending They eventually came to settle in Turkey, founding the villages of Hacı Osman, Kırkpınar, Masukiye and Hacı Yakup. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Hacı Osman köyü is a small village in Manyas district of Balıkesir Province, Turkey. Turkish and Circassian eventually became the preferred languages for everyday communication, and many words from these languages entered Ubykh in that period. Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages.

Tevfik Esenç at age 82

The Ubykh language died out on October 7, 1992, when its last fluent speaker (Tevfik Esenç) died in his sleep. According to some definitions an extinct language is a Language which no longer has any speakers, whereas a dead language is a language which is no longer spoken Events 3761 BC - The epoch (origin of the modern Hebrew calendar ( Proleptic Julian calendar) Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) Tevfik Esenç (1904 &ndash October 7, 1992) was a Circassian exile in Turkey and the last known speaker of the Ubykh language. Fortunately, before that time thousands of pages of material and many audio recordings had been collected and collated by a number of linguists, including Georges Charachidzé, Georges Dumézil, Hans Vogt and George Hewitt, with the help of some of its last speakers, particularly Tevfik Esenç and Huseyin Kozan. Georges Dumézil ( March 4, 1898 – October 11, 1986) was a French comparative Philologist best known for his analysis of Sovereignty Hans Vogt ( June 1, 1903 – September 25, 1986) was a Norwegian linguist specialized in the Caucasian languages, especially Ubykh was never written by its speech community, but a few phrases were transcribed by Evliya Celebi in his Seyahatname, and a substantial portion of the oral literature, along with some cycles of the Nart saga, was transcribed. A written language is the representation of a Language by means of a Writing system. Evliya Çelebi (اوليا چلبي the son of the imperial goldsmith Derviş Mehmed Zılli ( March 25 (? 1611 &ndash 1682 was the most famous Ottoman Seyâhatnâme (سياحت نامه is a Persian term also used in Ottoman Turkish, which means Book of travels, denoting a literary form and tradition Nart Podlaskie VoivodeshipThe Nart sagas are a series of tales originating from the North Caucasus. Tevfik Esenç also eventually learned to write Ubykh in the transcription that Dumézil devised.

Julius von Mészáros, a Hungarian linguist, visited Turkey in 1930 and took down some notes on Ubykh. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. His work Die Päkhy-Sprache was extensive and accurate to the extent allowed by his transcription system (which could not represent all the phonemes of Ubykh), and marked the foundation of Ubykh linguistics. Die Päkhy-Sprache is the title of a treatise on the Ubykh language, written by Gyula Mészáros and published in 1934 by the University of Chicago

The Frenchman Georges Dumézil also visited Turkey in 1930 to record some Ubykh, and would eventually become the most celebrated Ubykh linguist of all time. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Georges Dumézil ( March 4, 1898 – October 11, 1986) was a French comparative Philologist best known for his analysis of Sovereignty He published a collection of Ubykh folktales in the late 1950s, and the language soon attracted the attention of linguists for its small number (two) of phonemic vowels. The 1950s Decade refers to the years of 1950 to 1959 inclusive Hans Vogt, a Norwegian, produced a monumental dictionary that, in spite of its many errors (later corrected by Dumézil), is still one of the masterpieces and essential tools of Ubykh linguistics. Hans Vogt ( June 1, 1903 – September 25, 1986) was a Norwegian linguist specialized in the Caucasian languages, especially Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional A dictionary is a book of alphabetically listed Words in a specific language with definitions etymologies pronunciations and other information or a book of alphabetically

Later in the 1960s and into the early 1970s, Dumézil published a series of papers on Ubykh etymology in particular and Northwest Caucasian etymology in general. The 1960s decade refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969 This article is about the Decade 1970-1979 For the Year 1970 see 1970. Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time Dumézil's book Le Verbe Oubykh (1975), a comprehensive account of the verbal and nominal morphology of the language, is another cornerstone of Ubykh linguistics. Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

Since the 1980s, Ubykh linguistics has slowed drastically. Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields No other major treatises have been published; however, the Dutch linguist Rieks Smeets is currently trying to compile a new Ubykh dictionary based on Vogt's 1963 book, and a similar project is also underway in Australia. Year 1963 ( MCMLXIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Ubykh themselves have shown interest in relearning their language.

People who have published literature on Ubykh include

• Brian George Hewitt
• Catherine Paris
• Christine Leroy
• Georg Bossong
• Georges Dumézil
• Hans Vogt
• John Colarusso
• Julius von Mészáros
• Rieks Smeets
• Tevfik Esenç
• Wim Lucassen

Trivia

• Ubykh has been cited in the Guinness Book of Records (1996 ed. ) as the language with the most consonants, although it may have been overtaken by some of the Khoisan languages. The Khoisan languages (also Khoesaan languages) are the indigenous languages of southern and eastern Africa; in southern Africa their speakers are the Khoi
• Ubykh has 20 uvular and 27 pure fricative phonemes, more than any other known language. Uvulars are Consonants articulated with the back of the Tongue against or near the uvula, that is further back in the mouth than Velar consonants Fricatives are Consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together
• Ubykh may be related to Hattic, a language spoken in Anatolia before 2000 BC and written in a cuneiform script. Hattic was a language spoken by the Hattians in Asia Minor between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BC Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The 20th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2000 BC to 1901 BC

Samples of Ubykh

All examples from Dumézil 1968. See external link below for audio.

/faaχʲa tʼqʷʼa. kʷabʒa kʲʼaʁə. n a. za. χʲa. ʃə. na. n a. mʁʲa. n gʲə. kʲa. qʼa. n. /
once two. man friend. ADV they. In Grammar an adverbial is a word (an Adverb) or a group of words (an adverbial Phrase or an adverbial Clause) that modifies or tells us something each-other. BEN. The benefactive case ( abbreviated BEN) is a case used where English would use "for" "for the benefit of" become. PL. Plural is a Grammatical number, typically referring to more than one of the Referent in the real world ADV the. road. OBL on. An oblique case (casus generalis in Linguistics is a Noun case of Synthetic languages that is used generally when a Noun is the object enter(PL). past. PL
Once, two men set out together on the road.

/a. f. awtə. nə mʁʲawəf a. χʷad(a). awtə. n a. kʲa. na. n, a. za. n fatɕʼ. aala ɕʷəbˁ(a). aala χʷada. qʼa,/
they. eat. FUT. In Grammar, the future tense is a verb form that marks the event described by the verb as not having happened yet but expected to happen in the future (in an Absolute tense ADV provisions they. buy. FUT. ADV they. enter(PL). PL. ADV the. one. ERG cheese. The ergative case is the Grammatical case that identifies the subject of a Transitive verb in Ergative-absolutive languages In such languages and bread. and buy. PAST
They went to buy some provisions for the journey; the one bought cheese and bread,

/ajdə. χə. n. gʲə ɕʷəbˁ(a). aala ps(a). aala χʷada. n a. j. nə. w. qʼa. /
other. of. ERG. and bread. and fish. and buy. ADV it. hither. he. bring. past
and the other bought bread and fish.

/a. mʁʲa. n gʲə. kʲa. na. gʲə,/
the. road. OBL on. enter(PL). PL. GER
While they were on the road,

/wa. In Linguistics, “gerund” is a term used to refer to various non-finite verb forms in various languages As applied to English, fatɕʼ. də. χʷada. qʼajtʼ. ə ʁa. kʲʼaʁ. ʁaafa "ɕʷəʁʷaɬa psa jada ɕʷ. f. aa. n;"/
that. cheese. REL. A relative clause is a Subordinate clause that modifies a Noun. buy. PLUP. The pluperfect tense (from Latin plus quam perfectum more than perfect also called past perfect in English, is a Perfective GER his. friend. towards you-all fish much you-all. eat. PL. PRES
the one who had bought the cheese asked the other, "You people eat a lot of fish;"

/"saaba wana. Present Tense is the first Sagittarius album released in 1968 by Columbia Records. n. gʲaafə psa ɕʷ. f. aa. nə. j?" qʼa. n ʁ(a). aa. dzʁa. qʼa. /
why that. OBL. as-much-as fish you-all. eat. PL. PRES. QU say. A question may be either a linguistic expression used to make a request for Information, or else the request itself made by such an expression ADV him. to. ask. past
"why do you eat fish as much as that?"

/"psa wə. fə. ba wə. tɕʼa jada ʃ. awt,"/
fish you. eat. if your. knowledge much become. FUT
"If you eat fish, you get smarter,"

/"wana. ʁaafa ʃəʁʷaɬa psa jada ʃ. fə. n," qʼa. qʼa. /
that. for we fish much we. eat. PRES say. PAST
"so we eat a lot of fish," he answered.

See also

• Caucasian languages

References

• Colarusso, J. 1994 Proto-Northwest Caucasian, or, How to Crack a Very Hard Nut. Journal of Indo-European Studies 22: 1-17.
• Dumézil, G. 1961 Etudes oubykhs. Georges Dumézil ( March 4, 1898 – October 11, 1986) was a French comparative Philologist best known for his analysis of Sovereignty Librairie A. Maisonneuve: Paris.
• Dumézil, G. 1965 Documents anatoliens sur les langues et les traditions du Caucase, III: Nouvelles études oubykhs. Librairie A. Maisonneuve: Paris.
• Dumézil, G. 1968 Eating fish makes you clever. Annotated recording available via [1].
• Dumézil, G. 1975 Le verbe oubykh: études descriptives et comparatives. Imprimerie Nationale: Paris.
• Hewitt, B. G. 2005 North-West Caucasian. Lingua 115: 91-145.
• Mészáros, J. von. 1930 Die Päkhy-Sprache. University of Chicago Press: Chicago.
• Vogt, H. 1963 Dictionnaire de la langue oubykh. Universitetsforlaget: Oslo.

External links

• Two proposals for a practical orthography for Ubykh
• YouTube: Tevfik Esenç narrating the story of the two travellers and the fish in Ubykh
• A number of narrations by Tevfik Esenç, WAV format