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This article is about the Treaty of Versailles of June 28, 1919, which ended World War I. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common For other uses, see Treaty of Versailles (disambiguation) .
Left to right, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy, Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau of France, and President Woodrow Wilson of the United States of America
Left to right, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy, Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau of France, and President Woodrow Wilson of the United States of America

The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty that officially ended World War I. David Lloyd George 1st Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor OM, PC (17 January 1863 &ndash 26 March 1945 was a British Statesman and the only Vittorio Emanuele Orlando ( May 19 1860 - December 1 1952) was an Italian diplomat and Political figure. Georges Benjamin Clemenceau ( Mouilleron-en-Pareds ( Vendée) 28 September 1841 24 November 1929 was a French statesman physician and Journalist Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. A peace treaty is an agreement between two hostile parties usually countries or governments that formally ends an armed conflict World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All It was signed on June 28, 1919, exactly 5 years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, one of the events that triggered the start of the war. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The origins of World War I included many factors including the conflicts and antagonisms of the four decades leading up to the war Although the armistice signed on November 11, 1918 put an end to the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude a peace treaty. The armistice treaty between the Allies and Germany was signed in a railway carriage in Compiègne Forest on November 11, 1918 Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial provisions required Germany and its allies to accept full responsibility for causing the war and, under the terms of articles 231-248, disarm, make substantial territorial concessions and pay reparations to certain countries that had formed the Entente powers. World War I reparations refers to the payments and transfers of property and equipment that the German country was forced to make under the Treaty of Versailles (1919 following The Treaty was undermined by subsequent events starting as early as 1922 and was widely flouted by the mid-thirties. [1]

The result of these competing and sometimes incompatible goals among the victors was a compromise that nobody was satisfied with. Germany was neither pacified nor conciliated, which, in retrospect, did not bode well for the future of Germany, Europe, or the world as a whole. [2]

Contents

Aims

France's aims

France had some 1. 5 million military personnel and 400,000 (estimated) civilians dead (see World War I casualties), and much of the western front had been fought on French soil. The number of World War I casualties, both Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 the German army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining Thus, French Prime Minister, Georges Clemenceau, largely represented the people of France in that he wanted revenge upon the German nation. Georges Benjamin Clemenceau ( Mouilleron-en-Pareds ( Vendée) 28 September 1841 24 November 1929 was a French statesman physician and Journalist This idea of revenge was known later on as "revanchism". Revanchism (from French revanche " Revenge " is a term used since the 1870s to describe a political manifestation of the will to reverse territorial Clemenceau wanted to impose policies deliberately meant to cripple Germany militarily, politically, and economically.

Clemenceau's intentions were simple: Germany's military to be not only weakened for the time being, but permanently weakened so as never to be able to invade France again. Clemenceau also wanted to symbolically destroy the old, militaristic Germany. He also wanted to protect secret treaties and impose naval blockades around Germany; so that France could control trade imported to and exported goods from the defeated country. Clemenceau was the most radical member of the Big Four, and received the nickname "Le Tigre" (Tiger) for this reason.

Most Frenchmen agreed that France should be given control of many of Germany's factories. Coal from the Ruhr industrial region was transported to France by train. The Ruhr is a medium-size River in western Germany ( North Rhine-Westphalia) a right tributary (east-side of the Rhine. French military forces had taken over towns in key locations such as Gau-Algesheim, forcing homelessness upon its inhabitants. Gau-Algesheim is a town in the district Mainz-Bingen, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. German railroad workers sabotaged coal shipments to France. Around 200 German railroad workers involved in sabotage were executed by French authorities.

George Clemenceau of France wanted reparations from Germany to rebuild the war-torn country. In all, approximately 750,000 houses and 23,000 factories had been destroyed, and money was demanded to pay for reconstruction. They also wanted to drastically reduce the number of soldiers in the German army to a controllable point.

Britain's aims

Prime Minister David Lloyd George supported reparations but to a lesser extent than the French. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the political leader of the United Kingdom David Lloyd George 1st Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor OM, PC (17 January 1863 &ndash 26 March 1945 was a British Statesman and the only Lloyd George was aware that if the demands made by France were carried out, France could become the most powerful force on the continent, and a delicate balance could be unsettled. Lloyd George was also worried by Woodrow Wilson's proposal for "self-determination" and, like the French, wanted to preserve his own nation's empire. Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. Self-determination is defined as free choice of one’s own acts without external compulsion and especially as the freedom of the people of a given Territory to determine their This position was part of the competition between two of the world's greatest empires, and their battle to preserve them. Like the French, Lloyd George also supported naval blockades and secret treaties.

It is often suggested that Lloyd George represented the middle ground between the idealistic Wilson and the vengeful Clemenceau. However, his position was a great deal more delicate than it first appears. The British public wanted to punish Germany in a similar fashion to the French for its apparent sole responsibility for the outbreak of the war, and had been promised such a treaty in the 1918 election that Lloyd George had won. There was also pressure from the Conservatives (who were part of the coalition government) demanding that Germany be punished severely in order to prevent such a war in the future as well as preserving Britain's empire. The Conservative Party (officially the Conservative and Unionist Party) is a Political party in the United Kingdom. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. However, domestic public pressure was increasingly encouraging the de-scaling of the German empire. Lloyd George did manage to increase the overall reparations payment and Britain's share by demanding compensation for the huge number of widows, orphans, and men left unable to work through injury, due to the war.

However, Lloyd George was aware of the potential trouble that could come from an embittered Germany, and he felt that a less harsh treaty that did not engender vengeance would be better at preserving peace in the long run. Another factor was that Germany was Britain's second largest trade partner, and a reduced German economy due to reparations would lower Britain's trade. Moreover, he (and Clemenceau) recognized that America's status as an economic superpower would lead to the U. S. becoming a military superpower in the future, and subsequently, Wilson's idealistic stance could not be laughed at if Britain and France were to remain on good terms with the United States. This helps to understand why the League of Nations, Wilson's main idea (along with self-determination) based on the liberal peace thesis, was apparently jumped at by Britain and France when Wilson arrived at the peace conference. Furthermore, Britain wanted to maintain the 'Balance of Power' — no country within Europe being allowed to become a great deal more powerful than the others. If France's wishes were carried out, then not only would Germany be crippled, but France would soon become the main superpower, and so disrupt the Balance of Power in two ways.

Lloyd George's aims can be summarized as follows:

  1. To defend British interests by preserving Britain's naval supremacy that had been threatened by Germany in the run up to the war, maintaining Britain's empire.
  2. To reduce Germany's future military power and to obtain reparations.
  3. To avoid an embittered Germany that would seek revenge and threaten peace in the long term future.
  4. To help Germany economically to become a strong trading partner with Britain.

United States' aims

Main article: Fourteen Points

Since there had been strong non-interventionist sentiment before and after the United States entered the war in April 1917, many Americans felt eager to extricate themselves from European affairs as rapidly as possible. The Fourteen Points were listed in a speech delivered by President Woodrow Wilson of the United States to a joint session of the United The United States took a more conciliatory view towards the issue of German reparations. American Leaders also wanted to ensure the success of future trading opportunities and favourably collect on the European debt.

Before the end of the war, President Woodrow Wilson, along with other American officials including Edward Mandell House, put forward his Fourteen Points which were less harsh than what the French or British wanted and which the German public thought that the Treaty would be based around, giving them false hope. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. Edward Mandell House (July 26 1858 &ndash March 28 1938 was an American diplomat politician and presidential advisor

Wilson also did not want any more secret diplomacy,e. g. secret alliances, treaties etc. He also demanded that Germany should have a reduction in armament, which meant that their army would be reduced to a smaller size to make another war completely out of the question. He also wanted other nations to do the same, limiting the risk of war further, as he makes clear in point IV.

These are the Fourteen Points from Woodrow Wilson's speech given during the Paris Peace Conference:

  1. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view. The Fourteen Points were listed in a speech delivered by President Woodrow Wilson of the United States to a joint session of the United
  2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.
  3. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.
  4. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety.
  5. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.
  6. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.
  7. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired.
  8. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all.
  9. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.
  10. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity of autonomous development.
  11. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into.
  12. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of an autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish
  13. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant.
  14. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

Negotiations

The Palace of Versailles, where the treaty was signed
The Palace of Versailles, where the treaty was signed

Negotiations between the Allied powers started on January 18 in the Salle de l'Horloge at the French Foreign Ministry, commonly known by its location, the Quai d'Orsay. The Palace of Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal Château in Versailles, in France 's Île-de-France region Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor Initially, 70 delegates of 26 nations participated in the negotiations. Having been defeated, Germany, Austria, and Hungary were excluded from the negotiations. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Russia was also excluded because it had negotiated a separate peace with Germany in 1917, in which Germany gained a large fraction of Russia's land and resources. Not to be confused with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (February 9 1918, a similar treaty involving Ukraine and the Central Powers.

Until March 1919, the most important role for negotiating the extremely complex and difficult terms of the peace fell to the regular meetings of the "Council of Ten" (head of government and foreign minister) composed of the five major victors (the United States, France, Great Britain, Italy, and Japan). The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku As this unusual body proved too unwieldy and formal for effective decision-making, Japan and - for most of the remaining conference - the foreign ministers left the main meetings, so that only the "Big Four" remained. [3] After Italy left the negotiations (only to return to sign in June) having its territorial claims to Fiume rejected, the final conditions were determined by the leaders of the "Big Three" nations: United States, France, and Great Britain. Rijeka (other Croatian dialects Rika and Reka, Reka Italian and Hungarian: Fiume, Sankt Veit am Pflaumb is The "Big Three"[4] that negotiated the treaty consisted of Prime Minister David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau of France, and President Woodrow Wilson of the United States of America. The Prime Minister of Italy, Vittorio Orlando, played a minor part in the discussions. In Italy, the Prime Minister of Italy (officially the President of the Council of Ministers, Italian Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri) is the country's Vittorio Emanuele Orlando ( May 19 1860 - December 1 1952) was an Italian diplomat and Political figure. Germany was not invited to discuss the treaty. At Versailles, it was difficult to decide on a common position because their aims conflicted with one another. The result was an "unhappy compromise". [5] Henry Kissinger called the treaty a "brittle compromise agreement between American utopism and European paranoia - too conditional to fulfil the dreams of the former, too tentative to alleviate the fears of the latter. Henry Alfred Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923) is a German -born American bureaucrat diplomat and 1973 "

Initial rejection of the terms by Germany

On April 29, the German delegation under the leadership of the foreign minister Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau arrived in Versailles. Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans. Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau ( May 29, 1869 – September 8, 1928) was a German Diplomat, the first Foreign Minister On May 7, the anniversary of the sinking of the RMS Lusitania, the Germans finally received the peace conditions agreed upon by the victors. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses Construction and trials Owned by the Cunard Steamship Company built by John Brown and Company Lusitania was named for the ancient Roman province of Terms imposed by the treaty on Germany included partitioning a certain amount of its own territory to a number of surrounding countries, being stripped of all of its overseas colonies, particularly those in Africa, and limiting its ability to make war again, by restrictions on the size of its military. Because Germany was not allowed to take part in the negotiations, the German government issued a protest to what it considered to be unfair demands, and soon afterwards withdrew from the proceedings.

A new German government accepts the treaty

On June 20, a new government under Chancellor Gustav Bauer was installed in Germany after Philipp Scheidemann resigned. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun. The Head of government of Germany is called Chancellor (Kanzler ( 6 January 1870 &ndash 16 September 1944) was a German Social Democratic Party leader and Chancellor of Germany Philipp Scheidemann ( 26 July 1865 &ndash 29 November 1939) was a German Social Democratic politician who proclaimed the Germany finally agreed to the conditions with 237 vs. 138 votes on June 23. Events 1180 - First Battle of Uji, starting the Genpei War in Japan 1305 - The Flemish

On June 28, 1919[6] the new German foreign minister Hermann Müller and the minister of transport Johannes Bell agreed to sign the treaty, and it was ratified by the League of Nations on January 10, 1920. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common ( May 18, 1876 &ndash March 20, 1931) born in Mannheim, was a German Social Democratic politician who served as Foreign The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war. Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar

Summary of the Treaty

Germany renounces in favor of the League of Nations, in the capacity of trustee, the government of the territory defined above. At the end of fifteen years from the coming into force of the present Treaty the inhabitants of the said territory shall be called upon to indicate the sovereignty under which they desire to be placed.

Alsace­Lorraine. The High Contracting Parties, recognizing the moral obligation to redress the wrong done by Germany in 1871 both to the rights of France and to the wishes of the population of Alsace and Lorraine, which were separated from their country in spite of the solemn protest of their representatives at the Assembly of Bordeaux, agree upon the following. . . . The territories which were ceded to Germany in accordance with the Preliminaries of Peace signed at Versailles on February 26, 1871, and the Treaty of Frankfort of May 10, 1871, are restored to French sovereignty as from the date of the Armistice of November 11, 1918. The provisions of the Treaties establishing the delimitation of the frontiers before 1871 shall be restored. Germany renounces in favor of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers all her rights and titles over her overseas possessions. Germany renounces, in favour of Japan, all her rights, title and privileges . . . which she acquired in virtue of` the Treaty concluded by her with China on March 6, 1898, and of all other arrangements relative to the Province of Shantung. The German military forces shall be demobilised and reduced as prescribed hereinafter

Treaty terms

Overview

The terms of the Treaty, which Germany had no choice but to accept, were announced on May 7, 1919. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Germany lost:

  • 13% of its national territory
  • All of its overseas colonies (including Kamerun, German East Africa, German Southwest Africa, Togoland and German New Guinea)
  • 12. Kamerun was an African colony of the German Empire from 1884 to 1916 in the region of today's Republic of Cameroon. German East Africa (Deutsch-Ostafrika was a German Colony in East Africa, including what is now Burundi, Rwanda and Tanganyika German South West Africa ( German: Deutsch-Südwestafrika, DSWA) was a Colony of Germany from 1884 until 1915 when it was taken Togoland was a German Protectorate in West Africa from 1884 to 1914 German New Guinea ( Ger Deutsch-Neuguinea) was a former German Protectorate from 1884 to 1914 consisting of the northeastern part of 5% of its population (mitigated subsequently by major demographic shifts)
  • 16% of its coalfields, and 48% of its iron and steel industry.

Territorial restrictions on Germany

  • Alsace-Lorraine yielded to France. Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871
  • Saar coal fields placed under French control for 15 years.
  • Annexation of Austria was prohibited. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich
  • Annexation of Czechoslovakia prohibited. Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
  • Annexation of Poland and Danzig prohibited. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland
  • Loss of all overseas colonies.
  • Part of Upper Silesia ceded to Poland. Upper Silesia (Horní Slezsko Oberschlesien Latin: Silesia Superior; Górny Śląsk Silesian: Gůrny Ślůnsk) is the southeastern part

Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia became independent states (acquired by Germany from Russia at Brest-Litovsk). Not to be confused with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (February 9 1918, a similar treaty involving Ukraine and the Central Powers.

Military restrictions on Germany

  • The Rhineland to be a demilitarized zone. The Rhineland ( Rheinland in German) is the general name for the land on both sides of the river Rhine in the west of Germany.
  • The German armed forces cannot number more than 100,000 troops and no conscription.
  • Enlisted men to be retained for at least 12 years; officers to be retained for at least 25 years. An enlisted rank in the Military of the United States is any rank below a commissioned officer. An officer is a member of an armed force who holds a position of authority
  • Manufacturing of weapons is prohibited.
  • Import and export of weapons is prohibited.
  • Manufacture or stockpiling of poison gas is prohibited.
  • Tanks are prohibited.
  • Naval forces limited to 15,000 men, 6 battleships (no more than 10,000 tons displacement each), 6 cruisers (no more than 6,000 tons displacement each), 12 destroyers (no more than 800 tons displacement each) and 12 torpedo boats (no more than 200 tons displacement each).
  • Submarines are prohibited.
  • Military aircraft are prohibited.
  • Artillery is prohibited.
  • Blockades on ports are prohibited.

Legal restrictions on Germany

  • Article 231: forced to accept sole responsibility of war and had to promise to make good all the damage done to civilian population of the allies. Also known as the "War Guilt Clause".
  • Article 227: former German emperor, Wilhelm II was charged with supreme offence against international morality. He was to be tried as a war criminal.
  • Article 228-230: many were tried as war criminals. Some could not be tried as they were hiding.

Territorial losses

Germany after Versailles      Annexed by neighbouring countries      Administered by the League of Nations      Weimar Germany
Germany after Versailles
     Annexed by neighbouring countries      Administered by the League of Nations      Weimar Germany

On its eastern frontier Germany was forced to cede to the newly independent Poland the province of West Prussia, thereby granting Poland access to the Baltic Sea, while the province of East Prussia became an enclave being separated from mainland Germany. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 West Prussia ( Prusy Zachodnie was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773&ndash1824 and 1878&ndash1918 which was created out of the earlier Polish The Second Polish Republic or interwar Poland is the Republic of Poland between World War I and World War II. The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. East Prussia (Ostpreußen; Rytų Prūsija or Rytprūsiai; Prusy Wschodnie Восточная Пруссия or Vostochnaya Prussiya) refers to the main part Danzig was declared a free city under the permanent governance of the League of Nations. Much of the province of Posen, which, like West Prussia, had been acquired by Prussia in the late 18th-century partitions of Poland, was likewise granted to the restored Polish state. A significant portion of coal-rich and industrially developed Upper Silesia was also transferred from Germany to Poland, as the result of a later plebiscite (The disinterest of the officials conducting those and other plebiscites in postwar Germany is questionable).

Germany was also compelled to yield control of its colonies. Although these colonies had proven to be economic liabilities, they had also been symbols of the world-power status that Germany had gained in the 1880s and '90s. Article 156 of the treaty transferred German concessions in Shandong, China to Japan rather than returning sovereign authority to China. ( is a coastal province of eastern People's Republic of China. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Chinese outrage over this provision led to demonstrations and a cultural movement known as the May Fourth Movement and influenced China not to sign the treaty. The May Fourth Movement ( was an anti- imperialist, cultural and political movement in early modern China. China declared the end of its war against Germany in September 1919 and signed a separate treaty with Germany in 1921.

Besides the loss of the German colonial empire the territories Germany lost were:

Reparations

Main article: World War I reparations

Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles assigned blame for the war to Germany; much of the rest of the Treaty set out the reparations that Germany would pay to the Allies. World War I reparations refers to the payments and transfers of property and equipment that the German country was forced to make under the Treaty of Versailles (1919 following

The total sum due was decided by an Inter-Allied Reparations Commission. The war reparations that Entente demanded from Germany was 226 billion Reichsmarks in gold (around £11. 3 billion), then reduced to 132 billion Reichsmarks. In 1921, this number was officially put at £4,990,000,000, or 132 billion marks.

The Versailles reparation impositions were partly a reply to the reparations placed upon France by Germany through the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt signed after the Franco-Prussian War. The Treaty of Frankfurt (Le traité de Francfort Friede von Frankfurt was a Peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1871, at the end of The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 Note however that the amount of the reparations demanded in the treaty of Versailles were comparatively larger (5B Francs vs. 132B Reichsmark). Indemnities of the Treaty of Frankfurt were in turn calculated, on the basis of population, as the precise equivalent of the indemnities imposed by Napoleon I on Prussia in 1807. [7] The Versailles Reparations came in a variety of forms, including coal, steel, intellectual property (eg. the patent for Aspirin) and agricultural products, in no small part because currency reparations of that order of magnitude would lead to hyperinflation, as actually occurred in postwar Germany (see 1920s German inflation). Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid (ASA (əˌsɛtɨlsælɨˌsɪlɨk ˈæsɨd is a Salicylate drug, often used as an Analgesic to relieve Certain figures in this article use Scientific notation for readability The inflation in the Weimar Republic was a period of Hyperinflation in Germany (the Weimar Republic) during 1921-1923 While the economic ruination this would inflict on Germany did not significantly distress the French government, the subsequent devaluation of their own reparations did.

The standard view is that the reparations, particularly forcing Germany to accept the entire blame and lose some of their land, were the cause of Germany's economic woes and the concomitant rise of Nazism to power.

League of Nations

The treaty provided for the creation of the League of Nations, a major goal of U. A Treaty is an agreement under International law entered into by actors in international law namely States and International organizations. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 S. President Woodrow Wilson. The League of Nations was intended to arbitrate international disputes and thereby avoid future wars. Only three of Wilson's Fourteen Points were realized, since Wilson was compelled to compromise with Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Orlando on some points in exchange for retaining approval of Wilson's "fourteenth point", the League of Nations. The Fourteen Points were listed in a speech delivered by President Woodrow Wilson of the United States to a joint session of the United Vittorio Emanuele Orlando ( May 19 1860 - December 1 1952) was an Italian diplomat and Political figure.

Reaction to the treaty

Reaction of the Allies

In the eyes of the French people, Clemenceau failed to achieve all of their demands through the Treaty of Versailles. As a result, he was voted out of office in the elections of January 1920. Upon hearing the terms of the treaty, Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch, correctly predicted that "This is not Peace. Ferdinand Foch OM GCB (2 October 1851 – 20 March 1929 was a French soldier military theorist and writer credited with possessing "the most original It is an Armistice for twenty years. ". The next World War would start a mere 65 days after the 20 years Foch predicted. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including


Britain as a whole was at first content, because it succeeded in securing more favourable German eastern frontiers, e. g. plebiscites on areas previously assigned to Poland (Masuria, southern Warmia, Upper Silesia) and creation of the Free City of Danzig. Warmia (Warmia Latin: Varmia) or Erm(eland ( is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland Upper Silesia (Horní Slezsko Oberschlesien Latin: Silesia Superior; Górny Śląsk Silesian: Gůrny Ślůnsk) is the southeastern part The Free City of Danzig ( German: Freie Stadt Danzig; Polish: Wolne Miasto Gdańsk) was an autonomous Baltic Sea port and Even then Britain felt that the Treaty was too harsh to Germany, causing dissatisfaction that might potentially lead to trouble in the future. In the United States, it was seen as Europe's problem, but it was also widely believed that the Treaty was too harsh.

United States Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, who opposed ratification of the Treaty of Versailles
United States Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, who opposed ratification of the Treaty of Versailles

The United States Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, making it invalid in the United States and effectively hamstringing the nascent League of Nations envisioned by Wilson. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the This article is about Henry Cabot Lodge (1850-1924 a US politician in the early twentieth century The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 The largest obstacle faced in the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles was the opposition of Henry Cabot Lodge. This article is about Henry Cabot Lodge (1850-1924 a US politician in the early twentieth century It has also been said that Wilson himself was the second-largest obstacle, primarily because he refused to support the treaty with any of the alterations proposed by the United States Senate. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives As a result, the United States did not join the League of Nations, despite Wilson claiming that he could

". . . predict with absolute certainty that within another generation there will be another world war if the nations of the world do not concert the method by which to prevent it. "[8]

Those who were present at negotiations were also not convinced with the Treaty, as Edward Mandell House wrote in his diary on 29 June 1919

"I am leaving Paris, after eight fateful months, with conflicting emotions. Edward Mandell House (July 26 1858 &ndash March 28 1938 was an American diplomat politician and presidential advisor Events 512 - A Solar eclipse is recorded by a monastic chronicler in Ireland. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Looking at the conference in retrospect, there is much to approve and yet much to regret. It is easy to say what should have been done, but more difficult to have found a way of doing it. To those who are saying that the treaty is bad and should never have been made and that it will involve Europe in infinite difficulties in its enforcement, I feel like admitting it. But I would also say in reply that empires cannot be shattered, and new states raised upon their ruins without disturbance. To create new boundaries is to create new troubles. The one follows the other. While I should have preferred a different peace, I doubt very much whether it could have been made, for the ingredients required for such a peace as I would have were lacking at Paris. "[9]

Reaction in Germany

See also: Dolchstosslegende

The Treaty evoked an angry and hostile reception in Germany from the moment its contents were made public. The stab-in-the-back legend ( German:, literally "Dagger stab legend" refers to a social Myth theory popular in Germany in the period after The Germans were outraged and horrified at the result - since Wilson's idealistic fourteen points had painted the picture of a different outcome. They did not feel that they were responsible for starting the war nor did they feel as though they had lost. The origins of World War I included many factors including the conflicts and antagonisms of the four decades leading up to the war The German people had understood the negotiations at Versailles to be a peace conference and not a surrender. At first, the new government refused to sign the agreement, and the German navy sank its own ships in protest of the treaty. The sinking hardened Allied attitudes and the Allies demanded, by ultimatum, that Germany sign the treaty within twenty-four hours. An ultimatum (the last one is a Demand whose fulfillment is requested in a specified period of time and which is backed up by a threat to be followed through in case The alternative was understood to be a resumption of hostilities, with the fighting now on German soil.

Faced with this crisis, the German provisional government in Weimar was thrown into upheaval. Weimar (ˈvaɪmaʁ is a City in Germany. It is located in the Bundesland of Thuringia (Thüringen north of the Thüringer Wald, “What hand would not wither that binds itself and us in these fetters?” asked Chancellor Philipp Scheidemann who then resigned rather than agree to the Treaty. Philipp Scheidemann ( 26 July 1865 &ndash 29 November 1939) was a German Social Democratic politician who proclaimed the Army chief Paul von Hindenburg did the same, after declaring the army unable to defend Germany against Western attack. Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( known universally as Paul von Hindenburg ( ( October 2, 1847 &ndash August 2 With four hours to go German President Friedrich Ebert agreed to the terms. Friedrich Ebert ( February 4, 1871 February 28, 1925) was a German Politician ( SPD) who served as The German delegation to Paris signed the treaty on June 28, 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Franz Ferdinand ( December 18, 1863 &ndash June 28, 1914) was an Archduke of Austria-Este, Prince Imperial of

Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders began to speak critically about the peace and Weimar politicians, socialists, communists, and Jews were viewed with suspicion due to their supposed extra-national loyalties. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ It was rumoured that they had not supported the war and had played a role in selling out Germany to its enemies. These November Criminals, or those who seemed to benefit from the newly formed Weimar Republic, were seen to have "stabbed them in the back" on the home front, by either criticizing German nationalism, instigating unrest and strikes in the critical military industries or profiteering. Home front is the informal term commonly used to describe the Civilian populace of the Nation at War as an active support The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation In essence the accusation was that the accused committed treason against the "benevolent and righteous" common cause. In Law, treason is the Crime that covers some of the more serious acts of disloyalty to one's sovereign or Nation.

These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still in French and Belgian territory. Not only had the German Army been in enemy territory the entire time on the Western Front, but on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won the war against Russia, concluded with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 the German army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining The Eastern Front was a theatre of war during World War I in Central and primarily Eastern Europe. Not to be confused with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (February 9 1918, a similar treaty involving Ukraine and the Central Powers. In the West, Germany had seemed to come close to winning the war with the Spring Offensive. The 1918 Spring Offensive or Kaiserschlacht ( Kaiser's Battle) and also known as the Ludendorff Offensive was a series of German attacks along the Contributing to the Dolchstoßlegende, its failure was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment of the offensive, leaving soldiers with an inadequate supply of material. The stab-in-the-back legend ( German:, literally "Dagger stab legend" refers to a social Myth theory popular in Germany in the period after Materials are physical Substances used as inputs to production or Manufacturing. The strikes were seen to be instigated by treasonous elements, with the Jews taking most of the blame. This overlooked Germany's strategic position and ignored how the efforts of individuals were somewhat marginalized on the front, since the belligerents were engaged in a new kind of war. The industrialization of war had dehumanized the process, and made possible a new kind of defeat which the Germans suffered as a total war emerged. War economy is the term used to describe the contingencies undertaken by the modern State to mobilise its Economy for War production. Total war is a conflict of unlimited scope in which a Belligerent engages in a total mobilization of all available resources at his disposal

Nevertheless, this myth of domestic betrayal resonated among its audience, and its claims would codify the basis for public support for the emerging Nazi Party, under a racialist-based form of nationalism. The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 Racialism is an emphasis on race or racial considerations Racialism entails a belief in the existence and significance of racial categories but not necessarily in a The anti-Semitism was intensified by the Bavarian Soviet Republic, a Communist government which ruled the city of Munich for two weeks before being crushed by the Freikorps militia. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility The Bavarian Soviet Republic, also known as the Munich Soviet Republic ( German: Bayerische Räterepublik or Münchner Räterepublik) was Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. The designation of Freikorps ( German for "Free Corps " was originally applied to voluntary armies formed in German lands from the middle of 18th century The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service Many of the Bavarian Soviet Republic's leaders were Jewish, a fact that allowed anti-Semitic propagandists to make the connection with "Communist treason". Jewish Bolshevism, Judeo-Bolshevism, Judeo-Communism, or in Polish Żydokomuna, is a Pejorative Antisemitic expression

Technical consequences

Since neither rockets nor glider aircraft were mentioned in the Versailles treaty, Germany spent money on these technologies, including Wernher von Braun's rocket experiments, which in no doubt helped the development of the future space industry. A rocket or rocket vehicle is a Missile, Aircraft or other Vehicle which obtains Thrust by the reaction of the Terminology A "glider" is an unpowered Aircraft. The most common types of glider are today used for sporting purposes Wernher Magnus Maximilian Freiherr von Braun (March 23 1912 &ndash June 16 1977 a German rocket physicist and astronautics engineer became one of the leading figures in Large glider aircraft designs led to the design of the large Me-321 during World War II which later was motorized and became the Me-323, the largest land-based plane at the time. The Messerschmitt Me 321 Gigant was a large German cargo Glider aircraft developed during the Second World War. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout

Treaty violations

The German economy was so weak that only a small percentage of reparations was paid in money. However, even the payment of this small percentage of the original reparations (219 billion Gold Reichsmarks) still placed a significant burden on the German economy, accounting for as much as one third of post-treaty hyperinflation. Furthermore, the provisions forcing the uncompensated removal of resources and industrial equipment sowed further resentment

Some significant violations (or avoidances) of the provisions of the Treaty were:

Historical assessments

A common view is that France's Clemenceau was the most vigorous in his pursuit of revenge against Germany, the Western Front of the war having been fought chiefly on French soil. This treaty was felt to be unreasonable at the time because it was a peace dictated by the victors that put the full blame for the war on Germany.

Henry Kissinger called the treaty a "brittle compromise agreement between American utopianism and European paranoia — too conditional to fulfil the dreams of the former, too tentative to alleviate the fears of the latter. Henry Alfred Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923) is a German -born American bureaucrat diplomat and 1973 "

In his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, Keynes referred to the Treaty of Versailles as a "Carthaginian peace". The Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919 is a book published by John Maynard Keynes. John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas Carthaginian Peace refers to a Peace brought about through the total destruction of the enemy [10] That analysis was disputed by French Resistance economist Étienne Mantoux. The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces Étienne Mantoux (5 February 1913 &ndash 29 April 1945 was a French economist and son of Paul Mantoux. During the 1940s, Mantoux wrote a book entitled The Carthaginian Peace, or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes in an attempt to rebut Keynes' claims; it was published after his death.

More recently it has been argued (for instance by historian Gerhard Weinberg in his book A World At Arms[11]) that the treaty was in fact quite advantageous to Germany. Gerhard Ludwig Weinberg (born January 1, 1928) is a German -born American diplomatic and military historian noted for his The Bismarckian Reich was maintained as a political unit instead of being broken up, and Germany largely escaped post-war military occupation (in contrast to the situation following World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including )

The Treaty encouraged the creation of a large number of new states from the ashes of the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman and Russian Empires. Among these are Poland, the Baltics, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and the unifications of Romania and Bulgaria. However, centuries of recurrent military incursions and of being part of empires have resulted with a lot of ethnic diversity in most of these new countries, most notably Czechoslovakia, Poland and Romania. The latter three countries have large minorities of aproximately 25-33%, usually German, East Slavic or Hungarian. In short, the Treaty did not create a clear-cut border between the new states and the numerous nationalities within them.

The British military historian Correlli Barnett claimed that the Treaty of Versailles was "extremely lenient in comparison with the peace terms Germany herself, when she was expecting to win the war, had had in mind to impose on the Allies". Correlli Douglas Barnett CBE (born June 28 1927) is an English Military historian, who has also written extensively on the United Kingdom Furthermore, he claimed, it was "hardly a slap on the wrist" when contrasted with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that Germany had imposed on a defeated Russia in March 1918, which had taken away a third of Russia's population, one half of Russia's industrial undertakings and nine-tenths of Russia's coal mines, coupled with an indemnity of six billion marks. [12]

Barnett also claims that, in strategic terms, Germany was in fact in a superior position following the Treaty than she had been in 1914. Then, Germany's eastern frontiers faced Russia and Austria, who had both in the past balanced German power. But the Austrian empire fractured after the war into smaller, weaker states and Russia was wracked by revolution and civil war. The newly restored Poland was no match for even the defeated Germany.

In the West, Germany was balanced only by France and Belgium, both of which were smaller in population and less economically vibrant than Germany. Barnett concludes by saying that instead of weakening Germany, the Treaty "much enhanced" German power. [13] Britain and France should have (according to Barnett) "divided and permanently weakened" Germany by undoing Bismarck's work and partitioning Germany into smaller, weaker states so it could never disrupt the peace of Europe again. [14] By failing to do this and therefore not solving the problem of German power and restoring the equilibrium of Europe, Britain "had failed in her main purpose in taking part in the Great War". [15]

Regardless of modern strategic or economic analysis, resentment caused by the treaty sowed fertile psychological ground for the eventual rise of the Nazi party. Indeed, on Nazi Germany's rise to power, Adolf Hitler resolved to overturn the remaining military and territorial provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Military build-up began almost immediately, in direct defiance of the Treaty, which, by then, had been destroyed by Hitler in front of a cheering crowd. "It was this treaty which caused a chain reaction leading to World War II" claimed historian Dan Rowling (1951). World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Various references of the treaty is found throughout many of Hitler's speeches and in pre-war German propaganda. (See also: Nazi propaganda)

Alternative viewpoints

The interpretation that Germany was seriously weakened and humiliated by the Versailles Treaty has been disputed by some historians. Nazi propaganda is the term that describes the psychologically powerful Propaganda within Nazi Germany, much of which was centered around Jews consistently [16] Some arguments include:

It should also be realized that, if Germany had won the war, it intended to impose a treaty of similar severity on its foes. [17] Its terms would have included

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Viault, Birdsall S. The fighting in World War I ended when an Armistice took effect at 1100 am GMT on November 11 1918 The culmination of events that led to World War II are generally understood to be the 1939 invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and of the Republic The International Opium Convention, signed at The Hague on January 23, 1912, was the first international drug control treaty The Dawes Plan (as proposed by the Dawes Committee chaired by Charles G Minority Treaties refer to the treaties regarding the protection of ethnic minorities signed during or shortly after the Paris Peace Conference between The Neutrality Acts were a series of laws that were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia Little Treaty of Versailles or the Polish Minority Treaty was one of the Bilateral Minority Treaties signed between minor powers and the League of (1990). Schaum's Outline of Modern European History. McGraw-Hill Professional, 471.  
  2. ^ The Economic Consequences of the Peace by John Maynard Keynes, available at Project Gutenberg. John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works
  3. ^ Alan Sharp, "The Versailles Settlement: Peacemaking in Paris, 1919", 1991
  4. ^ Some refer to the "Big Three" and some refer to the "Big Four", including Vittorio Orlando, the prime minister of Italy
  5. ^ Harold Nicolson, Diaries and Letters, 1930-39,250; quoted in Derek Drinkwater: Sir Harold Nicolson and International Relations: The Practitioner as Theorist, P. In Italy, the Prime Minister of Italy (officially the President of the Council of Ministers, Italian Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri) is the country's Sir Harold George Nicolson KCVO CMG ( November 21 1886 &ndash May 1 1968) was an English Diplomat 139
  6. ^ DER GROSSE PLOETZ, KOMET Verlag GmbH, Cologne, 34th Edition, 2005 p. 733-735
  7. ^ A. J. P. Taylor, Bismarck The Man and the Statesman. New York: Vintage Books. 1967, p. 133
  8. ^ WOODROW WILSON: Appeal for Support of the League of Nations
  9. ^ Bibliographical Introduction
  10. ^ The Economic Consequences of the Peace by John Maynard Keynes, available at Project Gutenberg. John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works
  11. ^ Reynolds, David. (February 20, 1994). Events 1472 - Orkney and Shetland are left by Norway to Scotland, due to a Dowry payment Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) "Over There, and There, and There." Review of: A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II, by Gerhard L. Weinberg. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  12. ^ Correlli Barnett, The Collapse of British Power (London: Pan, 2002), p. 392.
  13. ^ Barnett, p. 316.
  14. ^ Barnett, p. 318.
  15. ^ Barnett, p. 319.
  16. ^ Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World at Arms: A global history of World War II. Cambridge University Press, (2nd edition), pp 15-16. ISBN 0521853168
  17. ^ Bethmann Hollweg, Germany's War Aims

References

External links

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