Part of a series on Taoism
Fundamentals
Dao (Tao) · De Wuji · Taiji Yin-Yang · Wu xing Qi · Neidan Wu wei
Texts
Daodejing (Tao Te Ching) Zhuangzi · Liezi Daozang
Deities
Three Pure Ones Guan Shengdi Eight Immortals Yellow Emperor · Xiwangmu Jade Emperor · Chang'e Other deities
People
Laozi · Zhuangzi Zhang Daoling · Zhang Jiao Ge Hong · Chen Tuan Wang Chongyang
Schools
Five Pecks of Rice Yellow Turbans Shangqing · Lingbao Quanzhen · Zhengyi Xuanxue
Sacred sites
Grotto-heavens
v • d • e

This article contains Chinese text. Tao ( 道, Pinyin Dào) is a metaphysical concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy De ( is a key concept in Chinese philosophy, usually translated "inherent character inner power integrity" in Taoism, "moral character virtue morality" Wuji (無極 is the primordial state of non-being a state of Nothingness and boundlessness or that which is without Bounds or Limits. Taiji (太極 is a state of being from Tao and Wuji. It is a state of absolute and of infinite potentiality In Chinese philosophy, the concept of yin and yang ( is used to describe how seemingly opposing forces are bound together intertwined and interdependent in the In traditional Chinese philosophy, natural phenomena can be classified into the Wu Xing ( or the Five Phases, usually translated as five elements, In traditional Chinese culture, qi (zh [[wikt氣 氣]] Pinyin qì, Wade-Giles ch'i Jyutping Neidan (内丹 a Chinese method of Internal alchemy. Part of the Chinese alchemical meditative tradition that is said to have been separated into internal and external Wu wei ( is an important tenet of Taoism that involves knowing when to act and when not to act The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic For the book with the same name see Zhuangzi (book Zhuangzi ( was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th Note This article is about the Liezi text For the author Liezi please see Lie Yukou. Daozang ( meaning "Treasury of Dao " or " Daoist Canon" consists of almost 5000 individual texts that were collected circa C The Three Pure Ones ( also translated as the Three Pure Pellucid Ones, the Three Pristine Ones, the Three Clarities, or the Three Purities Guan Yu ( Chinese: 關羽 Guān Yǔ was a general under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of The Eight Immortals ( are a group of legendary xian ("immortals transcendents fairies" in Chinese mythology. Huangdi, or the Yellow Emperor, is a Legendary Chinese sovereign and cultural hero who is considered in Chinese mythology to be the The Queen Mother of the West (西王母 Pinyin: Xīwángmǔ Japanese: Seiōbo) in Chinese mythology, is the ruler of the western Paradise The Jade Emperor ( or 玉帝 Yù Dì) is the Taoist ruler of Heaven and all realms of existence below including that of Man and Hell Chang'e, Ch'ang-O or Chang-Ngo ( also known as Heng-E or Heng-O ( 姮[[wiktionary 娥|娥]] Héng'é is the Chinese Goddess Classical Chen Po (Chen Tuan Chen Hsi I 871-989 Ge Hong 284–364 Guo Xiang (Kuo Hsiang d Laozi ( also Lao Tse, Lao-Tzu, Laotze, Lao Zi, Laocius, and other variations was a philosopher of ancient For the book with the same name see Zhuangzi (book Zhuangzi ( was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th Zhang Daoling (張道陵 Pinyin Zhāng Dàolíng, Wade-Giles Chang Tao-ling) also commonly called Zhang Ling, was an Eastern Zhang Jiao or Zhang Jue (d 184 was the leader of the Yellow Turbans during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. Ge Hong ( 284–364 Courtesy name Zhichuan (稚川 was a minor southern official during the Jìn Dynasty (263-420 best known for his interest in Chen Tuan (陳摶 (birthname Chen Tuan name as a sage Chen Hsi I Chen Xi Yi (871-989 was a legendary Taoist sage Wang Chongyang ( 11 January 1113 – 22 January 1170) calendar] 宋徽宗政和二年十二月廿二 – 金世宗大定十年正月初四] The Yellow Turban Rebellion, sometimes also translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, ( was a AD 184 peasant rebellion against Emperor Ling of Han The Shangqing School (Chinese上清 or Supreme Clarity is a Daoist movement that began during the aristocracy of the Western Jin dynasty The Lingbao School (Simplified Chinese 灵宝派 Traditional Chinese 靈寶派 pinyin Ling Bao Pai also known as the School of the Sacred Jewel or the School The Quanzhen ( School is a major sect of Taoism that originated in Northern China. Zhenyi Dao (Chinese正一道 pinyin Zheng Yi Dào or the Way of Complete Orthodoxy is a Chinese Daoist movement that emerged during the Tang Dynasty Xuanxue ( Chinese: 玄[[wikt 學|學]] or Neotaoism is a sub-discipline of Confucianism and Taoism, its main theme is to study the Grotto-heavens (Chinese洞天 Pinyin Dongtian are a type of sacred Daoist site Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. Mojibake is the happenstance of incorrect unreadable characters (garbage characters shown when Computer software fails to render a text correctly according to its associated A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese (

Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊ. ɪ. zəm/ or /ˈtaʊ. ɪ. zəm/; also spelled Daoism) refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions and concepts. In English the words Daoism and Taoism are the subject of an ongoing controversy over the preferred Romanization for naming this native Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos These traditions have influenced East Asia for over two thousand years and some have spread internationally. ^[1] The Chinese character Tao 道 (or Dao, depending on the romanisation scheme) means "path" or "way", although in Chinese religion and philosophy it has taken on more abstract meanings. A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese ( Tao ( 道, Pinyin Dào) is a metaphysical concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy In English the words Daoism and Taoism are the subject of an ongoing controversy over the preferred Romanization for naming this native Chinese philosophy is Philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility. The Three Treasures or Three Jewels ( are basic virtues in Taoism. Taoist thought focuses on wu wei (non-action), spontaneity, transformation and emptiness/omnipotence. Wu wei ( is an important tenet of Taoism that involves knowing when to act and when not to act An emphasis is placed on the link between people and nature, and that this link lessens the need for rules and order, leading one to a better understanding of the world and one's surroundings.

Nature and ancestor spirits are common in popular Taoism. Organized Taoism distinguishes its ritual activity from that of the folk religion, which some professional Taoists (Daoshi) view as debased. This sort of shamanism is eschewed for an emphasis on internal alchemy among the "elite" Taoists. Internal alchemy, also called spiritual alchemy, (內丹術 - nèi dān shù Traditional Chinese, 內丹术 - Simplified Chinese) is a term used for different

Chinese alchemy, astrology, cuisine, several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, fengshui, and many styles of qigong breath training disciplines are intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of The Chinese Zodiac is a 12 year cycle Each year of the 12 year cycle is named after one of the original 12 animals Chinese cuisine ( Traditional Chinese: 中國菜 Simplified Chinese: 中国菜 originated from the various regions of China and has become widespread in Kung fu and wushu are popular terms that have become synonymous with Chinese Martial arts. Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Feng shui ( ˈfəŋˌʃueɪ fehng-shway in English is an ancient Chinese system of Aesthetics believed to utilize the Laws of both heaven (astronomy and earth (geography Qigong (or ch'i kung) refers to a wide variety of traditional cultivation practices that involve methods of accumulating circulating and working with Qi or energy

Categorization

There is debate over how, and whether, Taoism should be subdivided. Some scholars have divided it into the following three categories:^[2]

1. "Philosophical Taoism". (Daojia). A philosophical school based on the texts Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi;
2. "Religious Taoism". Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic For the book with the same name see Zhuangzi (book Zhuangzi ( was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th (Daojiao). A family of organized Chinese religious movements originating from the Celestial Masters movement during the late Han Dynasty and later including the "Orthodox" (Zhengyi) and "Complete Reality" (Quanzhen) sects, which trace back to Lao Zi or Zhang Daoling in the late Han Dynasty;
3. "Folk Taoism". Religion in China has been characterized by Pluralism since the beginning of Chinese history. Zhenyi Dao (Chinese正一道 pinyin Zheng Yi Dào or the Way of Complete Orthodoxy is a Chinese Daoist movement that emerged during the Tang Dynasty The Quanzhen ( School is a major sect of Taoism that originated in Northern China. Laozi ( also Lao Tse, Lao-Tzu, Laotze, Lao Zi, Laocius, and other variations was a philosopher of ancient Zhang Daoling (張道陵 Pinyin Zhāng Dàolíng, Wade-Giles Chang Tao-ling) also commonly called Zhang Ling, was an Eastern The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Chinese folk religion. Chinese folk religion is a collective label given to various folkloric beliefs that draws heavily from Chinese mythology.

This distinction is complicated by hermeneutic difficulty. Hermeneutics may be described as the development and study of Theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts The categorization of Taoist sects and movements is very controversial. ^[3] Many scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and Daojiao. ^[4] Taoism's start is traced back to Lao-Tzu (or Laozi)

Beliefs

A Taoist Temple in Taiwan. The religious practice of Jingxiang, note images of the Fu Dog and Dragon can be seen. Jingxiang (敬香 Shangxiang (上香 Baishen (拜神 is a ritual of offering joss incense accompanied by tea and or fruits The dragon is a Legendary creature of which some interpretation or depiction appears in almost every culture worldwide

Taoism has never been a unified religion, but has rather consisted of numerous teachings based on various revelations. Therefore, different branches of Taoism often have very distinct beliefs. Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that nearly all the schools share. ^[5]

Principles

Taoism theology emphasizes various themes found in the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, such as naturalness, vitality, peace, "non-action" (wu wei), emptiness (refinement), detachment, the strength of softness (or flexibility), receptiveness, spontaneity, the relativism of human ways of life, ways of speaking and guiding behavior. The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic

Tao

Main article: Tao

Tao can be roughly stated to be the flow of the universe, or the force behind the natural order. Tao ( 道, Pinyin Dào) is a metaphysical concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy ^[6] Tao is believed to be the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered. Tao is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao. ^[7] The flow of qi, as the essential energy of action and existence, is compared to the universal order of Tao. In traditional Chinese culture, qi (zh [[wikt氣 氣]] Pinyin qì, Wade-Giles ch'i Jyutping Tao is compared to what it is not, like the negative theology of Western scholars. Negative theology - also known as the Via Negativa ( Latin for "Negative Way" and Apophatic theology - is a Theology that ^[8] It is often considered to be the source of both existence and non-existence.

Tao is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Indian concepts of atman and dharma. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Ātman (आत्मन् or Atta ( Pāli) literally means "self" but is sometimes translated as " Soul " or " Ego " The Sanskrit term ( Devanāgarī: धर्म Pali transliteration dhamma) is an Indian spiritual and religious ^[9] The word "Taoism" is used to translate different Chinese terms. Daojiao/Taochiao (道教 "teachings/religion of the Dao") refers to Daoism as a religion. Daojia/Taochia (道家 "school of the Dao") refers to the studies of scholars, or "philosophical" Taoism. However, most scholars have abandoned the dichotomy of "religious" and "philosophical" Taoism. ^[10]

De

For more details on this topic, see De (Chinese). De ( is a key concept in Chinese philosophy, usually translated "inherent character inner power integrity" in Taoism, "moral character virtue morality"

Tao is also associated with the complex concept of De (德) "power; virtue", which is the active expression of Tao. ^[11] De is the active living, or cultivation, of that "way". ^[12]

Wu wei

Main article: Wu wei

Wu wei (simplified Chinese: 无为; traditional Chinese: 無為; pinyin: wúwéi) is a central concept in Taoism. Wu wei ( is an important tenet of Taoism that involves knowing when to act and when not to act Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use The literal meaning of wu wei is "without action". It is often expressed by the paradox wei wu wei, meaning "action without action" or "effortless doing". ^[13] The practice and efficacy of wu wei are fundamental in Taoist thought, most prominently emphasized in Taoism. The goal of wu wei is alignment with Tao, revealing the soft and invisible power within all things. It is believed by Taoists that masters of wu wei can control this invisible potential, the innate yin-action of the Way. ^[14]

In ancient Taoist texts, wu wei is associated with water through its yielding nature. ^[15] Water is soft and weak, but it can move earth and carve stone. Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts his will against the world, he disrupts that harmony. Taoism does not identify man's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that man must place his will in harmony with the natural universe. ^[16]

Pu

Pu (simplified Chinese: 朴; traditional Chinese: 樸; pinyin: pǔ, pú; Wade-Giles: p'u; lit. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin "uncut wood") is translated "uncarved block", "unhewn log", or "simplicity". It is a metaphor for the state of wu wei (無為) and the principle of jian (儉). The Three Treasures or Three Jewels ( are basic virtues in Taoism. ^[17] It represents a passive state of receptiveness. Pu is a symbol for a state of pure potential and perception without prejudice. In this state, Taoists believe everything is seen as it is, without preconceptions or illusion. ^[18]

Pu is seen as keeping oneself in the primordial state of tao. ^[19] It is believed to be the true nature of the mind, unburdened by knowledge or experiences. ^[20] In the state of pu, there is no right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. There is only pure experience, or awareness, free from learned labels and definitions. It is this state of being that is the goal of following wu wei.

Spirituality

Taoists believe that human is a microcosm for the universe. The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy ^[21] The body ties directly into the Chinese five elements. In traditional Chinese philosophy, natural phenomena can be classified into the Wu Xing ( or the Five Phases, usually translated as five elements, The five organs correlate with the five elements, the five directions and the seasons. ^[22] Akin to the "hermetic maxim" of "as above, so below", Taoism posits that by understanding himself, man may gain knowledge of the universe, and vice versa.

In Taoism, even beyond Chinese folk religion, various rituals, exercises, and substances are said to positively affect one's physical and mental health. They are also intended to align oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, or enable ecstatic spiritual journeys. ^[23][24] These concepts seem basic to Taoism in its elite forms. Internal alchemy and various spiritual practices are used by some Taoists to extend life, even to the point of immortality. Internal alchemy, also called spiritual alchemy, (內丹術 - nèi dān shù Traditional Chinese, 內丹术 - Simplified Chinese) is a term used for different ^[25]

Ethics

For more details on this topic, see Three Jewels of the Tao. The Three Treasures or Three Jewels ( are basic virtues in Taoism.

The Three Jewels, or Three Treasures (Chinese: 三寶; pinyin: sānbǎo; Wade-Giles: san-pao), are basic virtues in Taoism. The Three Jewels are compassion, moderation and humility. They are also translated as kindness, simplicity and modesty. Arthur Waley describes them as "[t]he three rules that formed the practical, political side of the author's teaching". He correlated the Three Treasures with "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority". ^[26]

The first of the Three Jewels is ci (Chinese: 慈; pinyin: cí; Wade-Giles: tz'u; literally "compassion, love, kindness"), which the Tao Te Ching parallels with familial and brotherly love. It is compared to loving others and the world as a person loves their own existence. The second is jian (Chinese: 儉; pinyin: jiǎn; Wade-Giles: chien; literally "moderation, economy, restraint"), which the Tao Te Ching praises. Jian is connected with the Taoist metaphor pu. (樸 "uncarved wood; simplicity"). It represents perfect efficiency and simplicity of desire. The third treasure is the phrase bugan wei tianxia xian (不敢為天下先), meaning "not dare to be first in the world". It is connected to a fear of death, out of a love for life. Taoism posits that to be first is to expose oneself to the world's destructive forces. Remaining behind and embracing humility allows time for one to bear fruit.

Pantheon

Chinese glazed stoneware statue of a Taoist deity, Ming Dynasty, 16th century. Stoneware a Vitreous or semivitreous ceramic ware of fine texture made primarily from nonrefactory fire clay The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led

Further information: Category:Chinese deities

The traditional Chinese religion is polytheistic. Polytheism is belief in or worship of multiple Gods (usually assembled in a pantheon) together with associated Mythology and Rituals Its many deities are part of a heavenly hierarchy that mirrors the bureaucracy of Imperial China. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era According to their beliefs, Chinese deities may be promoted or demoted for their actions. Some deities are also simply exalted humans, such as Guan Yu, the god of honor and piety. Guan Yu ( Chinese: 關羽 Guān Yǔ was a general under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of The particular deities worshiped vary according to geographical regions and historical periods in China, though the general pattern of worship is more constant. ^[27]

There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon. ^[28] Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. The Jade Emperor ( or 玉帝 Yù Dì) is the Taoist ruler of Heaven and all realms of existence below including that of Man and Hell See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always Intellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities. Laozi ( also Lao Tse, Lao-Tzu, Laotze, Lao Zi, Laocius, and other variations was a philosopher of ancient The Three Pure Ones ( also translated as the Three Pure Pellucid Ones, the Three Pristine Ones, the Three Clarities, or the Three Purities ^[29][30]

While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi, and to a lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching, these have generally not become the objects of worship. For the book with the same name see Zhuangzi (book Zhuangzi ( was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic Traditional conceptions of Tao are not to be confused with the Western concepts of theism and monotheism. Theism, in its most inclusive usage is the belief in at least one Deity. For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] Being one with the Tao does not indicate a union with an eternal spirit in the Hindu sense, but rather living in accordance with nature. ^[31][32]

Scripture

Taoist Priest in Macau, February 2006

Tao Te Ching

See also: Tao Te Ching

The Tao Te Ching, or Daodejing, is widely considered to be the most influential Taoist text. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Macau topics. The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic ^[33] It is a foundational scripture of central importance in Taoism. It has been used as a ritual text throughout the history of religious Taoism. ^[34] However, the precise date that it was written is the subject of debate: there are those who put it anywhere from the 6th century BC to the 3rd century BC. ^[35]

Taoist commentators have deeply considered the opening lines of the Tao Te Ching. They are widely discussed in both academic and mainstream literature. A common interpretation is similar to Korzybski's observation that "the map is not the territory". Alfred Habdank Skarbek Korzybski (kɔ'ʐɨpski ( July 3, 1879 &ndash March 1, 1950) was a Polish-American Philosopher The map is not the territory is a remark by Alfred Korzybski, encapsulating his view that an abstraction derived from something or a reaction to it is not the thing itself ^[36] The opening lines, with literal and common translation, are:

道可道，非常道。 (Tao (way or path) can be said, not usual way)
"The Way that can be described is not the true Way. "
名可名，非常名。 (names can be named, not usual names)
"The Name that can be named is not the constant Name. "

Tao literally means "path" or "way"(and also means "say" or "be said"), and can figuratively mean "essential nature", "destiny", "principle", or "true path". The philosophical and religious "Tao" is infinite, without limitation. One view states that the paradoxical opening is intended to prepare the reader for teachings about the unteachable Tao. ^[37] Tao is believed to be transcendent, indistinct and without form. Hence, it cannot be named or categorized. Even the word "Tao" can be considered a dangerous temptation to make Tao a limiting "name". ^[38]

The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference. ^[39] The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be unnameable and accomplishing great things through small means. ^[40] There is significant debate regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferred, and which particular translation methodology is best. Discussions and disputes about various translations of the Tao Te Ching can become acrimonious, involving deeply entrenched views. ^[41]

Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. The Heshang Gong commentary was most likely written in the second century AD, and as perhaps the oldest commentary, contains the edition of the Tao Te Ching that was transmitted to the present day. ^[42] Other important commentaries include the Xiang'er, one of the most important texts from the Celestial Master movement, and Wang Bi's commentary. The Xiang’er (Simplified Chinese 想尔 Traditional Chinese 想爾 is a commentary to the Dao De Jing that is best known for being one of the earliest surviving texts from Wang Bi (226–249 Courtesy name Fu Si (辅嗣 was a Chinese neotaoist Philosopher. ^[43]

Daozang

The Daozang (道藏, Treasury of Tao) is sometimes referred to as the Taoist canon. Daozang ( meaning "Treasury of Dao " or " Daoist Canon" consists of almost 5000 individual texts that were collected circa C It was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The version surviving today was published during the Ming dynasty. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led ^[44][45] The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts. ^[46] Following the example of the Buddhist Tripitaka, it is divided into three dong (洞, "caves", "grottoes"). The Tripiṭaka ( Sanskrit; Devanagari: त्रिपिटक lit They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":^[47][48]

1. The Zhen ("real" or "truth"真) grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts. The Shangqing School (Chinese上清 or Supreme Clarity is a Daoist movement that began during the aristocracy of the Western Jin dynasty
2. The Xuan ("mystery"玄) grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures. Lingbao may refer to Lingbao School, a branch of Taoism Lingbao Henan, a city in Henan Province of China
3. The Shen ("divine"神) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan （茅山）revelations.

Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student. ^[49]

The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that reciting certain texts often enough will be rewarded with immortality. ^[50] In Taiwan, one often finds Buddhist texts being chanted in Taoist temples.

Other texts

While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are other important texts in traditional Taoism. Taishang Ganying Pian ("Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and ethics, and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries. ^[51] It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendents, will suffer and have shortened lives. ^[52] Both the Taipingjing ("Scripture on Great Peace") and the Baopuzi ("Book of the Master Who Keeps to Simplicity") contain early alchemical formulas that early Taoists believed could lead to immortality. ^[53][54] A book titled "The Wisdom Of Laotse" offers a translation of "The Book of Tao" while comparing Laotse's philosophies against Kǒng Fūzǐ's (Confucius)^[55]

Zhuangzi

The Zhuangzi (莊子) was named after its author, who also appears as a character in the book's narrative. For the book with the same name see Zhuangzi (book Zhuangzi ( was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th An author is defined both as "the person who originates or gives existence to anything" and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created It is more in the form of a collection of stories than the short aphorisms and maxims of the Tao Te Ching. Also among the cast of characters in the Zhuangzi's stories is Laozi of the Tao Te Ching, as well as Confucius.

History

Main article: History of Taoism

White Cloud Monastery, Beijing

Taoism's origins may be traced to prehistoric Chinese religions in China. The history of Taoism stretches throughout Chinese history Originating in prehistoric China it has exerted a powerful influence over Chinese culture throughout the ages They are found in the composition of the Tao Te Ching (3rd or 4th century BC). The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid second century AD. Laozi ( also Lao Tse, Lao-Tzu, Laotze, Lao Zi, Laocius, and other variations was a philosopher of ancient ^[56] Taoism gained official status in China during the Tang Dynasty, whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative. ^[57] Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang. Emperor Huizong ( November 2, 1082 – June 4, 1135) was the eighth and one of the most famous emperors of the Song Dynasty of ^[58] Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes. Neo-Confucianism (/( is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li ^[59] The Qing Dynasty, however, much favored Confucian classics and rejected Taoist works. During the eighteenth century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books. ^[60] By the beginning of the twentieth century, Taoism had fallen so much from favor, that only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing. ^[61] Taoism is one of five religions recognised by the PRC, which insists on controlling its activities through a state bureaucracy (the China Taoist Association). ^[62]

Adherents

The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, partly for definitional reasons (who counts as a Taoist?), and partly for practical ones (it is illegal for private parties to conduct surveys in China). The number of people practicing some aspect of the Chinese folk religion might number in the hundreds of millions. (Adherents.com estimates "Traditional Chinese religion" at nearly four hundred million^[63]). The number of people patronising Daoshi (Taoist priests or masters) would be smaller by several orders of magnitude, while the number of literary Daojia would be smaller yet. At the same time, most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist tradition. Most estimates for the amount of Taoists (either worldwide or simply outside of mainland China) are 20–30 million. ^{[64][65][66] [67][68][69][70]}

Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, and various Chinese diaspora communities. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan and Vietnam, and these countries' folk religions have many common elements. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a non-Chinese following until modern times. In Taiwan, there is 4. 5^[71]–7. 5 million people (33% of the population)^[72] are Taoists. In Singapore, 8. 5% of the population is Taoist. ^[73][74] There are also small numbers of Taoists in the Western world, and Japan, Vietnam and Korea are culturally influenced by Taoism even though the organized religion has mostly died out.

Practices

Detail of circa 1700 painting of a Taoist ritual for the dead, illustrating a scene from The Plum in the Golden Vase. Jin Ping Mei or The Plum in the Golden Vase ( (also The Golden Lotus) is a Chinese naturalistic Novel composed Note the plaques at the back of the altar of the Three Purities, and the various ritual implements including incense burner and ritual sword on the right. (According to the novel the sword is engraved with the seven stars of the big dipper. ) Bowls hold food offerings for the deceased woman, Li Ping'er.

Taoist priests at Beijing's White Cloud Monastery

Chinese Taoist priests celebrating a ritual at the Wudangshan monastery

At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the gods and/or spirits of the departed. The Wudang Mountains ( also known as Wu Tang Shan or simply Wudang, are a small Mountain range in the Hubei province of China, just Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" (See, for example, Qingming Festival. The Qingming Festival ( Vietnamese language: Tết Thanh Minh meaning Clear and Bright Festival, is a traditional Chinese festival on the 104th day after ) This may include slaughtered pigs and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Joss paper or Hell Bank Notes, on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, and be available for the departed spirit to use. Hell bank notes are a special and more modern form of Joss paper, an Afterlife monetary paper offering used in traditional

Secular Activities

Also at certain dates, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. Street parades may also include lion dances and dragon dances; human-occupied puppets (often of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"); jitong (乩童 male "Mediums") who mutilate their skin with knives; Bajiajiang, which are gongfu-practicing honor guards in demonic makeup; and palanquins carrying god-images. Lion dance ( is a form of traditional Dance in Chinese culture, in which performers mimic a lion's movements in a lion costume Dragon dance ( is a form of traditional Dance and performance in Chinese culture. Kung fu and wushu are popular terms that have become synonymous with Chinese Martial arts. The litter is a class of Wheelless Vehicles a type of Human-powered transport, for the transport of persons The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the god in question. ^[75]

Fortune-telling—including astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divination—has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Fortune-telling is the practice of predicting the future usually of an individual through mystical or supernatural means and often for commercial gain Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems The I Ching ( Wade-Giles) or “Yì Jīng” ( Pinyin) also called “Classic of Changes” or “Book of Changes” is one of the oldest of the Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining ^[76] Mediumship is also widely encountered. Mediumship is a practice in religious beliefs such as Spiritualism, Spiritism, Espiritismo, Candomblé, Louisiana Voodoo, and We may distinguish between martial forms of mediumship (like the aforementioned jitong) and X spirit-writing, typically through the practice of fuji (planchette writing). Fuji ( is a method of " Planchette writing spirit writing Automatic writing " using either a sieve or a stick to write Chinese characters in ^[77]

Taoist charm from Tien Hau Temple in San Francisco. Tin Hau redirects here For other meanings of Tin Hau see Tin Hau (disambiguation Mazu ( also spelt Matsu, is the Taoist

Many Taoists also participated in the reading and writing of books. Taoists of this type tend to be civil servants, elderly retirees, or in modern times, university faculty. While there is considerable overlap with religious Taoism, there are often important divergences in interpretation. Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on the Laozi (and Yijing) was in fact a Confucian. The I Ching ( Wade-Giles) or “Yì Jīng” ( Pinyin) also called “Classic of Changes” or “Book of Changes” is one of the oldest of the ^[78]

For many educated Chinese people (the Literati), life was divided into a social aspect, where Confucian doctrine prevailed, and a private aspect, with Taoist aspirations. Night-time, exile, or retirement provided the opportunity to cultivate Taoism and reread Laozi and Zhuangzi. The Literati often dedicated this period of life to arts such as calligraphy, painting, and poetry, or personal researches into antiquities, medicine, folklore, and so on.

A number of martial arts traditions, particularly T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Bagua Zhang, Won Yuen Yat Hey Jueng, Bak Mei Pai, Bok Fou Pai, Yaw Gong Moon and Xing Yi Quan, embody Taoist principles to a greater or lesser extent, and some practitioners consider their art to be a means of practicing Taoism. Tai chi chuan (is an internal Chinese martial art often practiced for Health reasons Bāguàzhǎng is one of the major " internal " (aka Nèijiā) Chinese martial arts. Xingyiquan ( is one of the major "internal" ( Nèijiā) Chinese martial arts. ^[79] The accuracy of these claims varies greatly depending on the particular art and/or practitioner.

It should be noted that while many Japanese and Korean martial and cultural traditions (i. e. judo, kendo, cha-do, kyu-do, shinto, Hapkido, Taekwondo, Tangsudo) have developed a distinctly zen character over the years, the "do" or "to" is in fact one of the Japanese / Korean pronunciations of the Chinese "tao" (alternatedly rendered as "dao" by some translators), and it is written with the same character. Again, the extent to which these practices reflect taoist principles varies depending on the specific school and practitioner.

Taoist symbols and images

Taijitu

There are many symbols and images that are associated with Taoism. Like the "cross" in Christianity, and the "wheel" in Buddhism, Taoism has Laozi, actual Chinese characters, and many other symbols that are often represented or associated with it. The Christian cross is the best-known Religious symbol of Christianity. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The Dharmachakra ( Sanskrit) or Dhammachakka ( Pāli) Tibetan chos kyi 'khor lo, Chinese fălún 法輪 Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices

The Taijitu ("yin and yang") symbol 太極圖 as well as the Bagua 八卦 ("Eight Trigrams") are associated with Taoist symbolism. In Chinese philosophy, the concept of yin and yang ( is used to describe how seemingly opposing forces are bound together intertwined and interdependent in the The Bagua ( are eight diagrams used in Taoist Cosmology to represent a range of interrelated concepts ^[80] While almost all Taoist organizations make use of the yin and yang symbol, one could also call it Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. In Chinese philosophy, the concept of yin and yang ( is used to describe how seemingly opposing forces are bound together intertwined and interdependent in the The yin and yang make a backwards "S" shape, with yin (black or red) on bottom. One is likely to see this symbol as decorations on Taoist organization flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to Song Dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century. ^[81] Previously, yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and dragon. ^[82] (This is one of the places where the surface Dao and the hidden dao is shown. On the surface the picture of the Dao with a Tiger and a dragon is no more than just a picture. But beneath is the one of the way to immortality called "The White Tigress and The Jade Dragon" and it is the pure Female-male energy. )

The two major way that is used to day is White on top / black at bottom or Reverse Black on top / White at bottom. When it is White on top, it is called Early Heaven and symbolyse going back to the basic or keeping the mind and the body Young like a child. When it is black on top, it is called Later Heaven and is the way the world normally moves and normally means going to the grave.

The five directions as conceived by the ancient Chinese (east, south, west, north, center) each have their own attributes, as follows in the chart below. ^[83]

Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. In traditional Chinese philosophy, natural phenomena can be classified into the Wu Xing ( or the Five Phases, usually translated as five elements, The Four Symbols ( are four mythological creatures in the Chinese constellations They also appear in Korean mythology The Azure Dragon (青龍 青竜 青龙 is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations It is sometimes called the Azure Dragon of the East The Vermilion Bird (朱雀 is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations According to Wu Xing, the Taoist five-elemental The White Tiger (白虎 is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations It is sometimes called the White Tiger of the West (西方白虎 Huang Long (黄竜 or 黄龙 Yellow Dragon Japanse:Kōryū or Ōryū Korean:Hwang-Ryong is a hornless dragon who once emerged from the River Luo and presented They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc. ^[84] Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves. ^[85]

Paper lanterns outside of Taoist Benevolence Temple (Cíhuì Gōng) in Banqiao, Taipei. Taipei ( Taiwanese Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tâi-pak-chhī Jhuyin Fuhao: ㄊㄞˊ ㄅㄟˇ ㄕˋ Hakka: Thòi-pet-sṳ has been the capital of

One sometimes sees a zigzag with seven stars, representing the Big Dipper (or the "Bushel", the Chinese equivalent). This article is about the asterism; for other uses see Big Dipper (disambiguation. In the Shang dynasty the Big Dipper was considered a deity, while during the Han dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi. The Shang Dynasty ( Chinese: 商[[wiktionary 朝|朝]] or Yin Dynasty ( 殷[[wiktionary 代|代]] was according to traditional sources the The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. ^[86]

Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature Chinese dragons and phoenixes made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. The Chinese Dragon or Oriental dragon is a mythical creature in East Asian culture with a Chinese origin Fenghuang are mythological Chinese birds that reign over all other birds They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master. ^[87] But in general, Chinese Taoist architecture has no universal features that distinguish it particularly from other structures. ^[88]

Relations with other religions and philosophies

Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, Song Dynasty. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

The origins of Taoism and other philosophical schools are intimately related. The authorship of the Daodejing is assigned to Laozi, traditionally thought to be a teacher of Confucius, yet appears to be reacting against Confucian doctrine (suggesting the text comes after Confucianism). Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu), the other defining philosopher of Taoism, reacted both to the Confucian-Mohist ethical disputes and to related developments in theory of names (language). There is little evidence of a link between Laozi and Zhuangzi—whose most frequent interactions are with Hui Shi (of the school of names). However, the chapters of the Zhuangzi written after his death include dialogues between Laozi and Confucius that mimic (or inspire?) the style of the Daodejing, suggesting the first association of the two texts dates from around that time. The "history of thought" contained in the Zhuangzi cites Laozi as a prior step (and demotes Hui Shi to a postscript). It includes the Mohists by name and the Confucians by implication and a cluster of other less well known thinkers.

These early Taoist texts reject numerous basic assumptions of Confucianism, embracing instead values based on nature, perspectivalism, and spontaneity. They express skepticism of conventional moralities and Mozi's Utilitarian or Mencius' benevolence based revisions. Since politics was conceived by these traditional schools as a scheme for unifying all "under the sky" in their favored dao, Taoists tend toward anarchism, mistrustful of hierarchical social structures and particularly, governments. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i (Zhuangzi argues that the proponents of benevolence and morality are usually found at the gates of feudal lords who have stolen their kingdoms. ) Although philosophical Taoist appear to be anarchist, it is clearly an over statement. Mitigated Anarchism or libertarianism would better categorise the philosophical Taoists, they tend to believe in the idea that the government should act in a 'non acting' or 'wu wei' manner. Libertarianism is a term used by a broad spectrum of political philosophies which prioritize individual Liberty and seek to minimize or even abolish the This means that they should only act when necessary and their actions should not be felt directly by the people, nor should they be visible to the people. Chapters 57-81 of the Dao De Ching all deal with government, ruling, and appeasing the people.

Taoist thought partly inspired Legalist philosophers, whose theories were used by Qin Shi Huang, founder of the Chinese Empire. In Chinese history, Legalism ( was one of the four main philosophic schools during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (the other Qin Shi Huang ( (259 BC – September 10 210 BC personal name Yíng Zhèng, was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 247 BCE to 221 BCE (during the The junction point can be found in the work of Hanfeizi, a prominent Legalist thinker who commented on the Tao Te Ching. Han Fei (also Han Feizi) ( (ca 280&ndash233 BC was a Philosopher who along with Li Si, developed Xun Zi 's mutualism into the doctrine embodied Hanfeizi used some chapters of the book to justify a structured society based on law and punishment and on the undiscussed power of the Emperor.

The entry of Buddhism into China was via its dialectic with later Taoism which transformed them both. Over the centuries of Chinese interactions, Buddhism gradually found itself transformed from a competitor of Taoism, to a fellow inhabitant of the Chinese cultural ecosystem. ^[89] Originally seen as a kind of foreign Taoism, its scriptures were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary. Chan Buddhism in particular is inspired by crucial elements of philosophical Taoism, ranging from distrust of scripture, text and language to its more positive view of "this life", practice, skill and the absorption in "every-moment". Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. In the Tang period some Taoist schools incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the celibacy of the clergy, the doctrine of emptiness, and the amassing of a vast collection of scripture into tripartite organisation. ^[90] However, there are some who argue that Taoism had vegetarianism first. Some Buddhist schools incorporated it later.

Ideological and political rivals in ancient times, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism have inevitably deeply influenced one another, and eventually achieved a kind of modus vivendi in which each has its own particular ecological niche within Chinese society. Modus vivendi is a Latin phrase which means an agreement between those who agree to differ ( Agree to disagree) With time, most Chinese people likewise came to identify to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously. This became institutionalised by the time of the Song Dynasty, when aspects of the three schools were consciously synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes. The word orthodox, from Greek orthodoxos "having the right opinion" from orthos ("right true straight" + doxa ("opinion

The Vinegar Tasters (sometimes called Three Vinegar Tasters) is a popular painting (usually in scroll format) that explained Taoist ideals in relation to the Neo-Confucian school which began in the 10th century and gained prominence in the 12th century. The Vinegar Tasters （嘗醋翁 vinegar tasting old-men 嘗醋圖 尝醋图 vinegar tasting picture is an allegorical image representing Confucianism The image depicts Laozi together with The Buddha, and Confucius. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder Confucius ( lit " Master Kung " September 28, 551 BC - 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher In these paintings the three are gathered around a vat of vinegar and the motto associated with the grouping is "the three teachings are one. " (However, see The Vinegar Tasters for an alternate interpretation. The Vinegar Tasters （嘗醋翁 vinegar tasting old-men 嘗醋圖 尝醋图 vinegar tasting picture is an allegorical image representing Confucianism )

Taoism does not fall strictly under an umbrella or a definition of an organized religion like the Abrahamic traditions, nor could it be studied as the originator or variants of Chinese folk religion, for the simple reason that these were not the tenets or core teachings of Taoism or those in Tao te Ching. Chinese folk religion is a collective label given to various folkloric beliefs that draws heavily from Chinese mythology. The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic ^[91] Robinet further and rightly asserted the nature of Taoism can be better understood as a psyche, and a way of life rather than a religion,^[92] as the adherents do not view Taoism in the manner analysed by historians who were neither Taoist and who did not understand the subject. ^[93]

Many scholarly works conclude that Taoism is a school of thought with a quest for Immortality. Immortality (or eternal life) is the concept of living in physical or spiritual form for an Infinite length of Time. ^[94][95] Viewed in this light,Taoism is disimilar to most other religions who, though they may involve immortality of the soul such as in Hinduism where one's soul joins Brahman, or the spiritual immortality of an Enlightened Buddhist, but physical immortality is present only in Taoism and Christianity. In the latter, when God resurrects the dead, everyone judged to have had faith will live eternally.

Tao in the West

The west has recently embraced aspects of Taoism: the name and concept of Tao, the names and concepts of yin and yang; an appreciation for Laozi and Zhuangzi, and a respect for other aspects of Chinese tradition such as qigong. At the same time, Western appropriations differ in subtle (or not so subtle) ways from their Asian sources. For example, the word Tao is used in numerous book titles which are connected to Chinese culture only tangentially. Examples would include Fritjof Capra's The Tao of Physics, or Benjamin Hoff's The Tao of Pooh. Fritjof Capra (born February 1, 1939) is an Austrian born American Physicist. The Tao of Physics (full title The Tao of Physics An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism) was a 1975 book by Benjamin Hoff (born 1946 is an author based in the United States. The Tao of Pooh is a book written by Benjamin Hoff. The book is an introduction to Taoism, using the Fictional character of Winnie the Pooh

Taoism has also been a resource for those in environmental philosophy, who see the non-anthropocentric nature of Taoism as a guide for new ways of thinking about nature and environmental ethics. Some consider Taoism to fit naturally with the radical environmental philosophy of deep ecology. Deep ecology is a recent branch of ecological Philosophy ( Ecosophy) that considers Humankind an integral part of its environment. Taoism and Ecology: Ways Within A Cosmic Landscape edited by N. J. Girardot, James Miller, and Liu Xiaogan is currently the most thorough introduction to studies done on concepts of nature and ecology within Taoism.

See also

• Anarchism
• Eastern philosophy
• List of Taoists
• Mitigated Anarchism
• Tao Yin
• Taoic religion
• Taoism in Vietnam
• Taoist diet
• Taoist sexual practices
• Western interpretations of Taoism
• Yingtan

Notes

References

• Anatole, Alex. The Truth of Tao (Center of Traditional Taoist Studies, 2005). ISBN 0-9742529-0-5
• Barrett, Rick. Taijiquan: Through the Western Gate (Blue Snake Books, 2006). ISBN 1583941398.
• Cane, Eulalio Paul. Harmony: Radical Taoism Gently Applied (Trafford Publishing, 2002). ISBN 1412247780.
• Carr, David T. & Zhang, Canhui. Space, Time, and Culture (Springer, 2004). ISBN 1402028237.
• Chang, Stephen T. The Great Tao (Tao Longevity LLC, 1985). ISBN 0-942196-01-5.
• Dean, Kenneth. Taoist Ritual and Popular Cults of Southeast China (Princeton: Princeton University, 1993).
• Eliade, Mircea. A History of Religious Ideas, Volume 2. Translated by Willard R. Trask. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
• Fasching, Darrell J. & deChant, Dell. Comparative Religious Ethics: a narrative approach (Blackwell Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0631201254.
• Graham, A. C. Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China (Open Court, 1993). ISBN 0-8126-9087-7
• Graham, A. C. (translator). Chuang-tzu: The Inner Chapters (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2001). ISBN 0-87220-581-9
• Jones, Richard H. Mysticism and Morality: a new look at old questions (Lexington Books, 2004). ISBN 0739107844.
• Jordan, David K. Gods, Ghosts, and Ancestors: The Folk Religion of a Taiwanese Village (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972).
• Kaltenmark, Max. Lao Tzu and Taoism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969 [original French 1965]).
• Keller, Catherine. The Face of the Deep: A Theology of Becoming (Routledge, 2003). ISBN 0415256488.
• Kim, Ha Poong. Reading Lao Tzu: A Companion to the Tao Te Ching With a New Translation (Xlibris Corporation, 2003). ISBN 1401083161.
• Kirkland, Russel. Taoism: The Enduring Tradition (Routledge, 2004). ISBN 0415263220.
• Knauer, Elfried R. "The Queen Mother of the West: A Study of the Influence of Western Prototypes on the Iconography of the Taoist Deity. " In Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press. 2006 Pp. 62-115. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4; ISBN 0-8248-2884-4
• Kohn, Livia. The Taoist Experience: An Anthology (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993).
• Kohn, Livia, ed. Daoism Handbook (Leiden: Brill, 2000).
• Kohn, Livia. The Daoist Monastic Manual: A Translation of the Fengdao Kejie (New York: Oxford University Press 2004)
• Kohn, Livia & LaFargue, Michael, ed. Lao-Tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching (SUNY Press, 1998). ISBN 0791435997.
• Kraemer, Kenneth. World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions (Paulist Press, 1986). ISBN 0809127814.
• LaFargue, Michael. Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching (SUNY Press. 1994) ISBN 0791416011.
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• Little, Stephen and Shawn Eichman, et al. Taoism and the Arts of China (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 2000). ISBN 0-520-22784-0
• Liu Zhongyu, (Lü Pengzhi, trans. ). "Daoist Folk Customs: Burning Incense and Worshiping Spirits. " (Taoist Culture and Information Centre http://www.eng.taoism.org.hk/religious-activities&rituals/daoist-folk-customs/pg4-8-1.asp) (visited 3/23/2007).
• Mair, Victor H. The Columbia History of Chinese Literature (Columbia University Press, 2001). ISBN 0231109849
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• Ni, Hua-Ching. Tao: The Subtle Universal Law and the Integral Way of Life (SevenStar Communications, 1998). ISBN 0-937064-65-3
• Robinet. Isabelle. Taoist Meditation: The Mao-shan Tradition of Great Purity (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993 [original French 1989]).
• Robinet, Isabelle. Taoism: Growth of a Religion (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997 [original French 1992]). ISBN 0-8047-2839-9
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• Sivin, Nathan. Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1968).
• Slingerland, Edward Gilman. Effortless Action: Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China (Oxford University Press, 2003). ISBN 0195138996.
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• Van Voorst, Robert E. Anthology of World Scriptures (Thomson Wadsworth, 2005). ISBN 0534520995.
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Further reading

• Welch, H. and Seidel, A. , Facets of Taoism (Yale University Press, 1979)

External links

Organizations

• Chinese Taoist Association
• Chinese Taoist Organization
• Taiwanese Taoist Association
• Hongkonger Taoist Association
• United Hongkonger Taoist Association
• Belgian Taoist Association
• Brazilian Taoist Association
• British Taoist Association
• French Taoist Association
• Spanish Taoist Association
• ATAOS - Swiss Taoist Association
• Sanyuan Taoist Association
• Singaporean Taoist Mission
• Reform Taoist Congregation
• Daoist Foundation

Wudang Tradition

• Wudang Chinese Taoist Association
• Wudang Taoist Cultural Center
• Wudang Dao Association

Study centers

• Center of Traditional Taoist Studies
• Center for Taoist Studies
• Taoist Studies Institute
• Vermont Taoist Center
• Taoist Studies

Miscellaneous

• Taoist Culture and Information Center
• Wudang Tao: Enter the Mountain
• Divine Tao
• Digital Resources in Daoist Studies