Citizendia

For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation).
Tacitus

Tacitus
Bornca. 56 AD
Diedca. 117
OccupationSenator, consul, governor, historian
GenresHistory
SubjectsHistory, biography, oratory
Literary movementSilver Age of Latin

Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca. Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. A senate is a Deliberative body, often the Upper house or chamber of a Legislature or Parliament. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the See also History An historian is an individual who studies and writes about History, and is regarded as an Authority on it A literary genre is a category of literary composition Genres may be determined by Literary technique, tone, Content, or even (as in the case of fiction History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology A biography (from the Greek words bíos (βίος meaning "life" and gráphein (γράφειν meaning "to write" is an account Oratory is the art of (public speaking In ancient Greece and Rome, oratory was studied as a component of Rhetoric (that is composition and delivery This is a list of modern literary movements: that is movements after the Renaissance. Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in what is usually regarded as "classical" Latin literature. 56 – ca. 117) was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. See also History An historian is an individual who studies and writes about History, and is regarded as an Authority on it The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those that reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors. The Annals, or in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the four Roman Emperors succeeding Histories ( Latin: Historiae) is a book by Tacitus, written c The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69 in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession These two works span the history of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus in 14 AD to (presumably) the death of emperor Domitian in 96 AD. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death There are significant lacunae in the surviving texts. A lacuna is a gap in a Manuscript, Inscription, text painting or a musical work

Other works by Tacitus discuss oratory (in dialogue format, see Dialogus de oratoribus), Germania (in De origine et situ Germanorum), and biographical notes about his father-in-law Agricola, primarily during his campaign in Britannia (see De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae). Oratory is the art of (public speaking In ancient Greece and Rome, oratory was studied as a component of Rhetoric (that is composition and delivery A dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog) is a reciprocal Conversation between two or more entities. The Dialogus de oratoribus is a short book by Tacitus, in Dialogue form on the art of Rhetoric. Germania was the Latin Exonym for The Germania ( Latin title De Origine et situ Germanorum, English for the Origin and Situation of the Germans) written by Gaius Gnaeus Julius Agricola ( June 13, 40 &ndash August 23, 93) was a Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britannia was the term originally used by the Romans to refer first to the British Isles, and later to the island of Great Britain. The Agricola (full Latin title De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae, meaning About the life and character of Julius Agricola) is a book by the

Tacitus' historiographical style in his major works is annalistic. Annalists (from Latin annus, year hence annales, sc libri, annual records is the name given to a class of writers on Roman history An author writing in the latter part of the Silver Age of Latin literature, his work is distinguished by a boldness and sharpness of wit, and a compact and sometimes unconventional use of Latin. An author is defined both as "the person who originates or gives existence to anything" and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in what is usually regarded as "classical" Latin literature. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.

Contents

Life

While Tacitus' works contain much information about his world, details regarding his personal life are scarce. What little is known comes from scattered hints throughout his work, the letters of his friend and admirer Pliny the Younger, an inscription found at Mylasa in Caria,[1] and educated guesswork. Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61/63 - ca Milas (ancient Mylasa Μύλασα) is an ancient city in southwestern Turkey. Municipalities of Caria Cramer's detailed catalog of Carian towns in Classical Greece is based entirely on ancient sources

Tacitus was born in 56 or 57 to an equestrian family;[2] like many Latin authors of the Golden and Silver Ages, he was from the provinces, probably either northern Italy, Gallia Narbonensis, or Hispania. Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in what is usually regarded as "classical" Latin literature. Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in what is usually regarded as "classical" Latin literature. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Gallia Narbonensis ( Narbonese Gaul) was a Roman province located in what is now Languedoc and Provence, in southern France. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar The exact place and date of his birth are not known, while his praenomen (first name) is similarly a mystery; in the letters of Sidonius Apollinaris his name is Gaius, but in the major surviving manuscript of his work his name is given as Publius. See Praenomen (Ancient Egypt for the pharaonic throne name In Roman naming conventions, the praenomen (literally forename For the Franco-Irish saint see Sidonius of Saint-Saëns. Gaius Sollius (Modestus Apollinaris Sidonius or Saint Sidonius Apollinaris [3] (One scholar's suggestion of Sextus has gained no traction. )[4]

Family and early life

Tacitus is thought to have come from Gallia Narbonensis.
Tacitus is thought to have come from Gallia Narbonensis. Gallia Narbonensis ( Narbonese Gaul) was a Roman province located in what is now Languedoc and Provence, in southern France.

The older aristocratic families were largely destroyed during the proscriptions at the end of the Republic, and Tacitus is clear that he owes his rank to the Flavian emperors (Hist. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations Not to be confused with prescription and other meanings of proscription. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the The Flavian dynasty was a Roman imperial Dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 AD encompassing the reigns of Vespasian (69&ndash79 1.1). The theory that he descended from a freedman finds no support apart from his statement, in an invented speech, that many senators and knights were descended from freedmen (Ann. A freedman is a former slave who has been manumitted or emancipated. 13.27), and is dismissed by prominent historians. [5]

His father may have been the Cornelius Tacitus who was procurator of Belgica and Germania; Pliny the Elder mentions that Cornelius had a son who grew and aged rapidly (N.H. 7.76), and implies an early death. Gallia Belgica was a Roman province located in what is now the southern part of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northeastern Germania was the Latin Exonym for Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder. If Cornelius was Tacitus' father and since there is no mention of Tacitus suffering such a condition in the surviving record, it would likely refer to a brother instead. [6] This connection, and the friendship between the younger Pliny and Tacitus, led many scholars to the conclusion that the two families were of similar class, means, and background: equestrians, of significant wealth, and from provincial families. Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61/63 - ca [7]

The province of his birth is unknown. His marriage to the daughter of the Narbonensian senator Gnaeus Julius Agricola may indicate that he, too, came from Gallia Narbonensis. Gnaeus Julius Agricola ( June 13, 40 &ndash August 23, 93) was a Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Tacitus' dedication to Fabius Iustus in the Dialogus may indicate a connection with Spain, while his friendship with Pliny indicates northern Italy. [8] None of this evidence is conclusive. No evidence exists that Pliny's friends from northern Italy knew Tacitus, nor do Pliny's letters ever hint that the two men had a common background. [9] Indeed, the strongest piece of evidence is in Pliny Book 9, Letter 23, which reports that when Tacitus was asked if he were Italian or provincial, upon giving an unclear answer, was further asked if he were Tacitus or Pliny. Since Pliny was from Italy, some historians infer that Tacitus was from the provinces, possibly Gallia Narbonensis. [10]

His ancestry, his skill in oratory, and his sympathetic depiction of barbarians who resisted Roman rule (e. g. , Ann. 2.9), have led some to suggest that he was a Celt; the Celts had occupied Gaul before the Romans, were famous for their skill in oratory, and had been subjugated by Rome. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts [11]

Public life, marriage, and literary career

As a young man, Tacitus studied rhetoric in Rome to prepare for a career in law and politics; like Pliny, he may have studied under Quintilian. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (ca 35 – ca 100 was a Roman Rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and [12] In 77 or 78 he married Julia Agricola, daughter of the famous general Agricola;[13] little is known of their home life, save that Tacitus loved hunting and the outdoors. Julia Agricola (born AD 64) was the daughter of Roman general Gnaeus Julius Agricola and Domitia Decidiana, a lady of illustrious birth Hunting is the practice of pursuing Animals for Food, Recreation, or Trade. [14] He started his career (probably the latus clavus, mark of the senator)[15] under Vespasian,[16] but it was in 81 or 82, under Titus, that he entered political life, as quaestor. In Ancient Roman Regalia, a laticlave, or clavus, was a broad stripe or band of purple on the fore part of the Tunic, worn by senators Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus ( December 30 39 &ndash September 13 81) was a Roman Emperor who Quaestors were originally appointed by the Consuls to investigate criminal acts and determine if the consul needed to take public action [17] He advanced steadily through the cursus honorum, becoming praetor in 88 and a quindecemvir, a member of the priest college in charge of the Sibylline Books and the Secular games. The cursus honorum ( Latin: "course of honors" or "honors race" was the sequential order of Public offices held by aspiring Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before The quindecemviri sacris faciundis were the fifteen members earlier ten ( decemviri) of a college for less clearly defined religious duties The Sibylline Books or Libri Sibyllini were a collection of oracular utterances set out in Greek Hexameters purchased from a Sibyl The Secular Games ( Latin Ludi Saeculares, originally Ludi Terentini) were a religious celebration involving Sacrifices and theatrical [18] He gained acclaim as a lawyer and an orator; his skill in public speaking gave a marked irony to his cognomen: Tacitus ("silent"). The cognomen (plural cognomina) was originally the third name of an Ancient Roman in the Roman naming convention.

He served in the provinces from ca. 89 to ca. 93 either in command of a legion or in a civilian post. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," [19] His person and property survived Domitian's reign of terror (93–96), but the experience left him jaded and grim (perhaps ashamed at his own complicity), and gave him the hatred of tyranny evident in his works. In modern usage a tyrant is a single ruler holding absolute power over a State or within an Organization. [20] The Agricola, chs. 44–45, is illustrative:

Agricola was spared those later years during which Domitian, leaving now no interval or breathing space of time, but, as it were, with one continuous blow, drained the life-blood of the Commonwealth. . . It was not long before our hands dragged Helvidius to prison, before we gazed on the dying looks of Manricus and Rusticus, before we were steeped in Senecio's innocent blood. See also Helvidius Priscus Helvidius was the author of a work written before 383 against the belief in the perpetual virginity of Mary. Even Nero turned his eyes away, and did not gaze upon the atrocities which he ordered; with Domitian it was the chief part of our miseries to see and to be seen, to know that our sighs were being recorded. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called . .

From his seat in the Senate he became suffect consul in 97 during the reign of Nerva, being the first of his family to do so. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Marcus Cocceius Nerva was also the name of a Roman emperor NERVA is an acronym for Nuclear Engine for Rocket Novus homo (or homo novus, Latin for "new man" plural novi homines) was the term in Ancient Rome for a During his tenure he reached the height of his fame as an orator when he delivered the funeral oration for the famous veteran soldier Lucius Verginius Rufus. Lucius Verginius Rufus (14 - 97 was a Roman commander of upper Germany during the late 1st century most notable for his refusal of the imperial purple in 69 [21]

In the following year he wrote and published the Agricola and Germania, announcing the beginnings of the literary endeavors that would occupy him until his death. [22] Afterwards he absented from public life, but returned during Trajan's reign. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who In 100, he, along with his friend Pliny the Younger, prosecuted Marius Priscus (proconsul of Africa) for corruption. Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61/63 - ca Ancient Rome In the Roman Republic, a proconsul was a Promagistrate (like a Propraetor) who after serving as Consul, spent a year Priscus was found guilty and sent into exile; Pliny wrote a few days later that Tacitus had spoken "with all the majesty which characterizes his usual style of oratory". [23]

A lengthy absence from politics and law followed while he wrote his two major works: the Histories and the Annals. In 112 or 113 he held the highest civilian governorship, that of the Roman province of Asia in Western Anatolia, recorded in an inscription found at Mylasa (mentioned above). The Roman province of Asia, also called Phrygia was an administrative unit added to the late Republic. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black A passage in the Annals fixes 116 as the terminus post quem of his death, which may have been as late as 125. Terminus post quem and the related terminus ante quem are terms used to give an approximate date for a text [24] It is unknown whether he had any children, though the Augustan History reports that the emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus claimed him for an ancestor and provided for the preservation of his works—but like so much of the Augustan History, this story is probably fraudulent. The Augustan History ( Lat Historia Augusta) is a late Roman collection of biographies in Latin of the Roman Emperors their junior Marcus Claudius Tacitus (ca 200 - June 276 was a Roman Emperor from September 25, 275, to June 276 [25]

Works

The title page of Justus Lipsius's 1598 edition of the complete works of Tacitus, bearing the stamps of the Bibliotheca Comunale in Empoli, Italy.
The title page of Justus Lipsius's 1598 edition of the complete works of Tacitus, bearing the stamps of the Bibliotheca Comunale in Empoli, Italy. Justus Lipsius, Joost Lips or Josse Lips ( 18 October 1547 — 23 March 1606) was a Flemish Philologist Empoli is a town in Tuscany, Italy, about 30 km southwest of Florence. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest

Five works ascribed to Tacitus have survived (albeit with some lacunae), the largest of which are the Annals and the Histories. The dates are approximate:

Major works

The Annals and the Histories, originally published separately, were meant to form a single edition of thirty books. The Agricola (full Latin title De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae, meaning About the life and character of Julius Agricola) is a book by the The Germania ( Latin title De Origine et situ Germanorum, English for the Origin and Situation of the Germans) written by Gaius The Dialogus de oratoribus is a short book by Tacitus, in Dialogue form on the art of Rhetoric. Histories ( Latin: Historiae) is a book by Tacitus, written c The Annals, or in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the four Roman Emperors succeeding The Annals, or in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the four Roman Emperors succeeding Histories ( Latin: Historiae) is a book by Tacitus, written c [26] Although Tacitus wrote the Histories before the Annals, the events in the Annals precede the Histories; together they form a continuous narrative from the death of Augustus (14) to the death of Domitian (96). Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death Though parts have been lost, what remains is an invaluable record of the era.

The Histories

Main article: Histories (Tacitus)

In an early chapter of the Agricola, Tacitus said he wished to speak about the years of Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan. Histories ( Latin: Historiae) is a book by Tacitus, written c Marcus Cocceius Nerva was also the name of a Roman emperor NERVA is an acronym for Nuclear Engine for Rocket Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who In the Histories the scope has changed; Tacitus says that he will deal with the age of Nerva and Trajan at a later time. Instead, he will cover the period from the civil wars of the Year of Four Emperors and end with the despotism of the Flavians. The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69 in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession The Flavian dynasty was a Roman imperial Dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 AD encompassing the reigns of Vespasian (69&ndash79 Only the first four books and twenty-six chapters of the fifth book survive, covering the year 69 and the first part of 70. The work is believed to have continued up to the death of Domitian on September 18, 96. Events 96 - Nerva is proclaimed Roman Emperor after Domitian is assassinated Year 96 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The fifth book contains—as a prelude to the account of Titus's suppression of the Great Jewish Revolt—a short ethnographic survey of the ancient Jews and is an invaluable record of the educated Romans' attitude towards that people. Ethnography ( Greek ethnos = people and graphein = writing is a genre of writing that uses Fieldwork to provide a descriptive PLEASE TAKE NOTE************

The Annals

Main article: Annals (Tacitus)

The Annals was Tacitus' final work, covering the period from the death of Augustus Caesar in 14 AD. The Annals, or in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the four Roman Emperors succeeding Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was He wrote at least sixteen books, but books 7–10 and parts of books 5, 6, 11 and 16 are missing. Book 6 ends with the death of Tiberius and books 7–12 presumably covered the reigns of Caligula and Claudius. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to The remaining books cover the reign of Nero, perhaps until his death in June 68 or until the end of that year, to connect with the Histories. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called The second half of book 16 is missing (ending with the events of 66). We do not know whether Tacitus completed the work or whether he finished the other works that he had planned to write; he died before he could complete his planned histories of Nerva and Trajan, and no record survives of the work on Augustus Caesar and the beginnings of the Empire with which he had planned to finish his work. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was The Annals is also among the first-known secular-historic records to mention Jesus (see Tacitus on Christ). Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) This article is part of the Jesus and history series of articles In connection with Nero's persecution of the Christians, Tacitus states (Ann. 15.44), "Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judæa, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth "

Minor works

Tacitus wrote three minor works on various subjects: the Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola; the Germania, a monograph on the lands and tribes of barbarian Germania; and the Dialogus, a dialogue on the art of rhetoric. Gnaeus Julius Agricola ( June 13, 40 &ndash August 23, 93) was a Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice

Germania

Main article: Germania (book)

The Germania (Latin title: De Origine et situ Germanorum) is an ethnographic work on the diverse set of people Tacitus believed to be Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire. The Germania ( Latin title De Origine et situ Germanorum, English for the Origin and Situation of the Germans) written by Gaius Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Ethnography had a long and distinguished heritage in classical literature, and the Germania fits squarely within the tradition established by authors from Herodotus to Julius Caesar. Ethnography ( Greek ethnos = people and graphein = writing is a genre of writing that uses Fieldwork to provide a descriptive "Classical literature" redirects here For literature in Classical languages outside the Graeco-Roman sphere see Ancient literature. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash Tacitus had written a similar, albeit shorter, piece in his Agricola (chapters 10–13). The book begins with a description of the lands, laws, and customs of the tribes (chapters 1–27); it then segues into descriptions of individual tribes, beginning with those dwelling closest to Roman lands and ending on the uttermost shores of the Baltic Sea, with a description of the primitive and savage Fenni and the unknown tribes beyond them. The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. Fenni were a people living in Fennoscandia in the 1st century mentioned by Cornelius Tacitus in Germania in 97 A

Agricola (De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae)

Main article: Agricola (book)

The Agricola (written ca. The Agricola (full Latin title De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae, meaning About the life and character of Julius Agricola) is a book by the 98) recounts the life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, an eminent Roman general and Tacitus' father-in-law; it also covers, briefly, the geography and ethnography of ancient Britain. Gnaeus Julius Agricola ( June 13, 40 &ndash August 23, 93) was a Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Ethnography ( Greek ethnos = people and graphein = writing is a genre of writing that uses Fieldwork to provide a descriptive Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 As in the Germania, Tacitus favorably contrasts the liberty of the native Britons with the corruption and tyranny of the Empire; the book also contains eloquent and vicious polemics against the rapacity and greed of Rome, in one of which Tacitus says is by Calgacus and it ends Auferre trucidare rapere falsis nominibus imperium, atque ubi solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant. Calgacus (sometimes Calgacos or Galgacus) was the leader of the Caledonian Confederacy who fought the Roman army of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (To ravage, to slaughter, to usurp under false titles, they call empire; and where they make a desert, they call it peace. — Oxford Revised Translation).

Dialogus

The style of the Dialogus follows Cicero's models for Latin rhetoric.
The style of the Dialogus follows Cicero's models for Latin rhetoric.
Main article: Dialogus

There is uncertainty about when Tacitus wrote Dialogus de oratoribus , but it was probably after the Agricola and the Germania. The Dialogus de oratoribus is a short book by Tacitus, in Dialogue form on the art of Rhetoric. Many characteristics set it apart from the other works of Tacitus, so that its authenticity has been questioned, although it is still grouped with the Agricola and the Germania in the manuscript tradition. The way of speaking in the Dialogus seems closer to Cicero's proceedings, refined but not prolix, which inspired the teaching of Quintilian; it lacks the incongruities that are typical of Tacitus' major historical works. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (ca 35 – ca 100 was a Roman Rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and It may have been written when Tacitus was young; its dedication to Fabius Iustus would thus give the date of publication, but not the date of writing. More probably, the unusually classical style may be explained by the fact that the Dialogus is a work dealing with rhetoric. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice For works in the rhetoric genre, the structure, the language, and the style of Cicero were the usual models.

The sources of Tacitus

Tacitus used the official sources of the Roman state: the acta senatus (the minutes of the session of the Senate) and the acta diurna populi Romani (a collection of the acts of the government and news of the court and capital). Acta Senatus, or Commentarii Senatus, are Minutes of the discussions and decisions of the Roman Senate. Acta Diurna (lat Daily Acts sometimes translated as Daily Public Records) were daily Roman Official notices seen as the first Gazette He read collections of emperors' speeches, such as Tiberius and Claudius. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Generally, Tacitus was a scrupulous historian who paid careful attention to his historical works. The minor inaccuracies in the Annals may be due to Tacitus dying before finishing (and therefore final proofreading) of this work. He used a variety of historical and literary sources; he used them freely and he chose from sources of varied opinions.

Tacitus cites some of his sources directly, among them Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Pliny the Elder, who had written Bella Germaniae and a historical work which was the continuation of that of Aufidius Bassus. Cluvius Rufus was a Roman senator governor and historian who was mentioned on several occasions by Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Plutarch Fabius Rusticus was a Roman historian who was quoted on several occasions by Tacitus. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Aufidius Bassus was a Roman Historian who lived in the reign of Tiberius. Tacitus used some collections of letters (epistolarium) and various notes. He also took information from exitus illustrium virorum. These were a collection of books by those who were antithetical to the emperors. They tell of the sacrifice of the martyr to freedom, especially the men who committed suicide, following the theory of the Stoics. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC While he placed no value on the Stoic theory of suicide, Tacitus used accounts of famous suicides to give a dramatic tone to his stories. These suicides seemed, to him, ostentatious and politically useless; however, he gives prominence to the speeches of some of those about to commit suicide, for example Cremutius Cordus' speech in Ann. Aulus Cremutius Cordus (d 25 AD was a Roman historian. There are very few remaining fragments of his work that covered the civil war and the reign of Augustus IV, 34-35.

Literary style

Tacitus' writings are known for their deep-cutting and dense prose, seldom glossy, in contrast to the more placable style of some of his contemporaries, like Plutarch. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Describing a near defeat of the Roman army in Ann. I, 63 Tacitus does apply gloss, but does so by the brevity with which he describes the end of the hostilities, than by embellishing phrases.

In most of his writings he keeps to a chronological ordering of his narration, with only seldom an outline of the "bigger picture", and leaves the reader to construct that picture for himself. Nonetheless, when he does sketch the bigger picture, for example, in the opening paragraphs of the Annals - summarizing the situation at the end of the reign of Augustus - he uses a few condensed phrases to take the reader to the heart of the story.

Approach to history

Tacitus' historical style combines various approaches to history into a method of his own (owing some debt to Sallust): seamlessly blending straightforward descriptions of events, pointed moral lessons, and tightly-focused dramatic accounts, his historiography contains deep, and often pessimistic, insights into the workings of the human mind and the nature of power. For the philosopher see Sallustius; for other uses see Sallust (disambiguation.

Tacitus' own declaration regarding his approach to history is famous (Ann. I,1):

inde consilium mihi . The Annals, or in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the four Roman Emperors succeeding . . tradere . . . sine ira et studio, quorum causas procul habeo.  Hence my purpose is to relate . . . without either anger or zeal, from any motives to which I am far removed.

There has been much scholarly discussion about Tacitus' "neutrality" (or "partiality" to others, which would make the quote above no more than a figure of speech). A figure of speech, sometimes

Throughout his writing, Tacitus is concerned with the balance of power between the Senate and the Emperors, corruption and the growing tyranny among the governing classes of Rome as they adjust to the new imperial régime. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Political corruption is the use of governmental powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain In modern usage a tyrant is a single ruler holding absolute power over a State or within an Organization. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. In Tacitus' view, they squandered their cultural traditions of free speech and independence to placate the often bemused (and rarely benign) emperor. Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation.

Tacitus explored the emperors' increasing dependence on the goodwill of the armies to secure the principes. The internecine murders of the Julio-Claudians eventually gave way to opportunist generals. These generals, backed by the legions they commanded, followed Julius Caesar's example (and that of Sulla and Pompey) in realising that military might could secure them the political power in Rome. Tacitus believed this realisation came with the death of Nero, (Hist. 1.4)

Welcome as the death of Nero had been in the first burst of joy, yet it had not only roused various emotions in Rome, among the Senators, the people, or the soldiery of the capital, it had also excited all the legions and their generals; for now had been divulged that secret of the empire, that emperors could be made elsewhere than at Rome.

Tacitus' political career was largely spent under the emperor Domitian; his experience of the tyranny, corruption, and decadence prevalent in the era (81–96) may explain his bitter and ironic political analysis. Decadence can refer to a personal trait or to the state of a society (or segment of it He warned against the dangers of unaccountable power, against the love of power untempered by principle, and against the popular apathy and corruption, engendered by the wealth of the empire, which allowed such evils to flourish. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The experience of Domitian's tyrannical reign is generally also seen as the cause of the sometimes unfairly bitter and ironic cast to his portrayal of the Julio-Claudian emperors. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and

Nonetheless the image he builds of Tiberius throughout the first six books of the Annals is neither exclusively bleak nor approving: most scholars analyse the image of Tiberius as predominantly positive in the first books, becoming predominantly negative in the following books relating the intrigues of Sejanus. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Lucius Aelius Seianus (20 BC &ndash October 18 31 AD commonly known as Sejanus, was an ambitious soldier friend and confidant of the Roman Emperor Tiberius Even then, the entrance of Tiberius in the first chapters of the first book is a crimson tale dominated by hypocrisy by and around the new emperor coming to power; and in the later books some kind of respect for the wisdom and cleverness of the old emperor, keeping out of Rome to secure his position, is often transparent. Hypocrisy (or the state of being a hypocrite) is the act of preaching a certain belief religion or way of life but not in fact holding these same virtues oneself

In general Tacitus does not fear to give words of praise and words of rejection to the same person, often explaining openly which he thinks the commendable and which the despicable properties. Not conclusively taking sides for or against the persons he describes is his hallmark, and led thinkers in later times to interpret his works as well as a defense of an imperial system, as a rejection of the same (see Tacitean studies, Black vs. Tacitus is remembered first and foremost on his place as Rome 's greatest historian the equal&mdashif not the superior&mdashof Thucydides, the ancient Greeks' foremost Red Tacitists). A better illustration of Tacitus' "sine ira et studio" is scarcely imaginable.

Prose style

Tacitus' skill with written Latin is unsurpassed; no other author is considered his equal, except perhaps for Cicero. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman His style differs both from the prevalent style of the Silver Age and from that of the Golden Age; though it has a calculated grandeur and eloquence (largely thanks to Tacitus' education in rhetoric), it is extremely concise, even epigrammatic—the sentences are rarely flowing or beautiful, but their point is always clear. Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in what is usually regarded as "classical" Latin literature. Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in what is usually regarded as "classical" Latin literature. An epigram is a short Poem, often with a clever twist at the end or a concise and witty statement The same style has been both derided as "harsh, unpleasant, and thorny" and praised as "grave, concise, and pithily eloquent".

His historical works focus on the psyches and inner motivations of the characters, often with penetrating insight—though it is questionable how much of his insight is correct, and how much is convincing only because of his rhetorical skill. In Psychoanalysis, the psyche (ˈsaɪki refers to the forces in an individual that influence thought, Behavior and Personality. He is at his best when exposing hypocrisy and dissimulation; for example, he follows a narrative recounting Tiberius' refusal of the title pater patriae by recalling the institution of a law forbidding any "treasonous" speech or writings—and the frivolous prosecutions which resulted (Annals, 1. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman 72). Elsewhere (Annals 4. 64–66) he compares Tiberius' public distribution of fire relief to his failure to stop the perversions and abuses of justice which he had begun. Though this kind of insight has earned him praise, he has also been criticized for ignoring the larger context of the events which he describes.

Tacitus owes the most, both in language and in method, to Sallust; Ammianus Marcellinus is the later historian whose work most closely approaches him in style. For the philosopher see Sallustius; for other uses see Sallust (disambiguation. Amiricanus Gambilinus (325/330-after 391 was a fourth-century Roman historian.

Studies and reception history

Main article: Tacitean studies

From Pliny the Younger's 7th Letter (to Tacitus), §33:

Auguror nec me fallit augurium, historias tuas immortales futuras. Tacitus is remembered first and foremost on his place as Rome 's greatest historian the equal&mdashif not the superior&mdashof Thucydides, the ancient Greeks' foremost Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61/63 - ca  I predict, and my predictions do not fail me, that your histories will be immortal.

Tacitus is remembered first and foremost as Rome's greatest historian, the equal—if not the superior—of Thucydides, the ancient Greeks' foremost historian; the Encyclopædia Britannica opined that he "ranks beyond dispute in the highest place among men of letters of all ages". Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica His influence extends far beyond the field of history. His work has been read for its moral instruction, its gripping and dramatic narrative, and its inimitable prose style; it is as a political theorist, though, that he has been, and remains, most influential outside the field of history. [27] The political lessons taken from his work fall roughly into two camps, as identified by Giuseppe Toffanin: the "red Tacitists", who used him to support republican ideals, and the "black Tacitists", those who read him as a lesson in Machiavellian realpolitik. Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty Machiavellianism is the term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain Realpolitik ( German: de real “realistic” “practical” or “actual” and de Politik “politics” refers to politics or diplomacy based primarily [28]

Though his work is the most reliable source for the history of his era, its factual accuracy is occasionally questioned: the Annals are based in part on secondary sources of unknown reliability, and there are some obvious minor mistakes, for instance confusing the two daughters of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, both named Antonia). Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Octavia Minor (69 - 11 BC also known as Octavia the Younger or simply Octavia, was the sister of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus (known also The Histories, written from primary documents and intimate knowledge of the Flavian period, is thought to be more accurate, though Tacitus' hatred of Domitian seemingly colored its tone and interpretations. Primary source is a term used in a number of disciplines In Historiography, a primary source (also called original source) is a Document, Recording

See also

Notes

  1. ^ OGIS 487, first brought to light in Bulletin de correspondance hellénique, 1890, pp. 621–623
  2. ^ Since he was appointed to the quaestorship during Titus's short rule (see note below) and twenty-five was the minimum age for the position, the date of his birth can be fixed with some accuracy
  3. ^ See Oliver, 1951, for an analysis of the manuscript from which the name Publius is taken; see also Oliver, 1977, which examines the evidence for each suggested praenomen (the well-known Gaius and Publius, the lesser-known suggestions of Sextus and Quintus) before settling on Publius as the most likely.
  4. ^ Oliver, 1977, cites an article by Harold Mattingly in Rivista storica dell'Antichità, 2 (1972) 169–185
  5. ^ Syme, 1958, pp. 612–613; Gordon, 1936, pp. 145–146
  6. ^ Syme, 1958, p. 60, 613; Gordon, 1936, p. 149; Martin, 1981, p. 26
  7. ^ Syme, 1958, p. 63
  8. ^ Syme, 1958, pp. 614–616
  9. ^ Syme, 1958, pp. 616–619
  10. ^ Syme, 1958, p. 619; Gordon, 1936, p. 145
  11. ^ Gordon, 1936, pp. 150–151; Syme, 1958, pp. 621–624
  12. ^ That he studied rhetoric and law is known from the Dialogus, ch. 2; see also Martin, 1981, p. 26; Syme, 1958, pp. 114–115
  13. ^ Agricola, 9
  14. ^ Pliny, Letters 1. 6, 9. 10; Benario, 1975, pp. 15, 17; Syme, 1958, pp. 541–542
  15. ^ Syme, 1958, p. 63; Martin, 1981, pp. 26–27
  16. ^ (1.1)
  17. ^ His debt to Titus is stated in the Histories (1.1); since Titus's rule was short, these are the only years possible.
  18. ^ In the Annals (11.11) he mentions that, as praetor, he assisted in the Secular Games held by Domitian, which are dated precisely to 88. See Syme, 1958, p. 65; Martin, 1981, p. 27
  19. ^ The Agricola (45.5) indicates that Tacitus and his wife were absent at the time of Julius Agricola's death in 93. For his occupation during this time see Syme, 1958, p. 68; Benario, 1975, p. 13; Dudley, 1968, pp. 15–16; Martin, 1981, p. 28; Mellor, 1993, p. 8
  20. ^ For the effects on Tacitus's ideology see Dudley, 1968, p. 14; Mellor, 1993, pp. 8–9
  21. ^ Pliny, Letters, 2.1 (English)
  22. ^ In the Agricola (3) he announces what must be the beginning of his first great project: the Histories. See Dudley, 1968, p. 16
  23. ^ Pliny, Letters 2.11
  24. ^ Annals, 2.61, says that the Roman Empire "now extends to the Red Sea". The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. If by mare rubrum he means the Persian Gulf, as is possible, then the passage must have been written after Trajan's eastern conquests in 116, but before Hadrian abandoned the new territories in 117. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after This may indicate only the date of publication for the first books of the Annals; Tacitus himself could have lived well into Hadrian's reign, and there is no reason to suppose that he did not. See Dudley, 1968, p. 17; Mellor, 1993, p. 9; Mendell, 1957, p. 7; Syme, 1958, p. 473; against this traditional interpretation, e. g. , Goodyear, 1981, pp. 387-393.
  25. ^ Augustan History, Tacitus X. Scholarly opinion on this story is divided as to whether it is "a confused and worthless rumor" (Mendell, 1957, p. 4) or "pure fiction" (Syme, 1958, p. 796). Sidonius Apollinaris reports (Letters, 4. For the Franco-Irish saint see Sidonius of Saint-Saëns. Gaius Sollius (Modestus Apollinaris Sidonius or Saint Sidonius Apollinaris 14; cited in Syme, 1958, p. 796) that Polemius, a 5th century Gallo-Roman aristocrat, descended from Tacitus—but this too, says Syme (ibid. This article covers the culture of Romanized areas of Gaul. For the political history of the brief "Gallic Empire" of the 3rd century see Gallic Empire ) is of little use.
  26. ^ Jerome's commentary on the Book of Zechariah (14. Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος The Book of Zechariah is a book of the Bible Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh attributed to the Prophet Zechariah. 1, 2; quoted in Mendell, 1957, p. 228) says that Tacitus's history was extant triginta voluminibus, 'in thirty volumes'.
  27. ^ Mellor, 1995, p. xvii
  28. ^ Burke, 1969, pp. 162–163

References

External links

Works by Tacitus

Other material

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Dictionary

Tacitus

-proper noun

  1. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (c.56-117), an historian of ancient Rome.
  2. Marcus Claudius Tacitus (c.200-275), a Roman emperor.
  3. A lunar impact crater.
  4. A male given name of classical Latin derivation.
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