Citizendia

Stanisław Antoni Szczuka, a Polish nobleman
Stanisław Antoni Szczuka, a Polish nobleman

Szlachta (['ʃlaxta] (help·info)) refers to the noble class in Kingdom of Poland, Grand Duchy of Lithuania (since 1569 semi-federal, semi-confederal part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and territories under their control (like the Ducal Prussia). Works Eciipsis Poloniae Orbi Publice Demonstrata (1709 Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Wladislaus II Jagiełło, Grand Duke of Lithuania, to The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic The Duchy of Prussia or Ducal Prussia (Herzogtum Preußen Prūsijos kunigaikštystė Prusy Książęce was a Duchy in the eastern part of Prussia from The nobility arose in the late Middle Ages and existed through the 18th century and into the 20th. Traditionally, its members were owners of landed property, often in the form of folwarks. Landed property or landed estates is a Real estate term that usually refers to a property that generates income for the owner without the owner having to Folwark (Palivarkas is a Polish word for the giant Farms (in Latin, " latifundia " that were operated in the Crown The nobility enjoyed substantial and almost unrivaled political privileges until the Partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century. A privilege &mdashetymologically "private law" or law relating to a specific individual&mdashis a special Entitlement or immunity granted by a government The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Privileges of nobility were officially abolished by Poland's 1921 March Constitution, though nobility remains widely claimed in various strata of Polish society at home and abroad. The Second Polish Republic adopted the March Constitution on 17 March 1921, after ousting the occupation of the German / Prussian forces

Contents

History

Etymology

The Polish term "szlachta" designates the formalized, hereditary noble class. In official Latin documents the old Commonwealth hereditary szlachta is referred to as "nobilitas" and is equivalent to the English nobility. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic There used to be a widespread misconception to translate "szlachta" as "gentry", because some nobles were poor. Some were even poorer than the non-noble gentry that declined with the 'second serfdom' and re-emerged after the Partitions. Gentry generally refers to people of high Social class, especially in the past The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Some would even become tenants to the gentry but still kept their constitutional superiority. But it's not wealth or lifestyle (as with the gentry) but a hereditary legal status of a nobleman that makes you one. A specific nobleman was called a "szlachcic," and a noblewoman, a "szlachcianka. "

"Szlachta" derives from the Old German word "slahta" (now "(Adels) Geschlecht," "(noble)family"), much as many other Polish words pertaining to the nobility derive from German words — e. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. g. , the Polish "rycerz" ("knight," cognate of the German "Ritter") and the Polish "herb" ("coat of arms," from the German "Erbe," "heritage"). Poles of the 17th century assumed that "szlachta" was from the German "schlachten" ("to slaughter" or "to butcher"); also suggestive is the German "Schlacht" ("battle"). Early Polish historians thought the term may have derived from the name of the legendary proto-Polish chief, Lech, mentioned in Polish and Czech writings. According to an old legend Lech Čech and Rus were Eponymous brothers who founded the three Slavic nations Poland (poetically "Szlachta" is thought by some simply to mean "Lechitians," or "Lech's people" (in modern Polish, "z Lecha"), probably denoting the ruling warrior class in Lech's tribe. Even today, some Ukrainians refer to Poles as "Lakhy" (Lechitians), while the Turks use the term "Lekh. "

"Šlėkta" is a derivative from a Polish term used in the Lithuanian language having more or less the same meaning usually with a negative nuance. Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. Lithuanian ( lietuvių kalba) is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognised as one of the official languages of the European Union.

Kindred terms that might be applied to an early Polish nobleman were "rycerz" (from German Ritter, "knight"), the Latin "nobilis" ("noble"; plural: "nobiles") and "możny" ("magnate," "oligarch"; plural: "możni"). The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Knight is the English term for a social position originating in the Middle Ages. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position Some powerful Polish nobles were referred to as "magnates" (Polish singular: "magnat", plural: "magnaci"). Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position It has to be remembered however, that not all knights were nobles.

Today the word szlachta in the Polish language denotes any noble class in the world. In broadest meaning, it can also denote some non-hereditary honorary knighthoods granted today by some European monarchs. Even some 19th century non-noble landed gentry would be called szlachta by courtesy or error as they owned manorial estates but were not noble by birth. In the narrow sense it denotes the old-Commonwealth nobility. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic

Origins

See also: History of Poland (966-1385)

"Union of Lublin" (1569). Painting by Jan Matejko, 1869, Castle Museum, Lublin.
"Union of Lublin" (1569). In the first centuries of its existence the Polish nation was led by a series of strong rulers who converted the Poles to Christendom, created a strong Central European The Union of Lublin (Liublino unija Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія Polish: Unia Painting by Jan Matejko, 1869, Castle Museum, Lublin. Jan Matejko ( (also known as Jan Mateyko; June 24 1838 Free City of Kraków; - November 1 1893 Kraków) was a Polish painter Lublin is the largest city in eastern Poland and the capital of Lublin Voivodeship with a population of 355954

Polish

The Polish nobility probably derived from a Slavic warrior class, forming a distinct element within the ancient Polonic tribal groupings. According to the Random House Dictionary, the term warrior has two meanings This is uncertain, however, as there is little surviving documentation on the early history of Poland, or of the movements of the Slavonic people into what became the territory so designated. The szlachta themselves claimed descent from the Sarmatians (see paragraph 2. The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες 2 below) who came to Europe in the 5th century C. E. Around the 14th century, there was little difference between knights and the szlachta in Poland, apart from legal and economic. Members of the szlachta had the personal obligation to defend the country (pospolite ruszenie), thereby becoming the kingdom's privileged social class. Pospolite ruszenie ( Polish for "common movement" the French term Levée en masse is also used is an anachronistic

Concerning the early Polish tribes, geography contributed to long-standing traditions. The Polish tribes were internalized and organized around a unifying religious cult, governed by the wiec, an assembly of free tribesmen. Veche ( Russian: вече Polish: wiec Ukrainian: віче was a Popular assembly in Medieval Slavic countries Later, when safety required power to be consolidated, an elected prince was chosen to govern.

The tribes were ruled by clans (ród) consisting of people related by blood and descending from a common ancestor, giving the ród/clan a highly developed sense of solidarity. Rod (in Slavic languages Род) sometimes referred to simply as god ( Div, Diy in the Veda Slovena Diy or Dia is probably the most (See gens. In Ancient Rome, a gens (pl gentes) was a Clan, Caste, or group of Families, that shared a common name (the ) The starosta (or starszyna) had judicial and military power over the ród/clan, although this power was often exercised with an assembly of elders. Starost(a ( Elder Cyrillic: Старост/а is a Title for an official or unofficial position of leadership that has been used in various contexts through Strongholds called grόd were built where the religious cult was powerful, where trials were conducted, and where clans gathered in the face of danger. Grad or gorod (Cyrillic град город or gord is a Slavic word for town or city The opole was the territory occupied by a single tribe. (MANTEUFFEL 1982, p.  44).

Before going deeper into the history of Polish nobility, it is important to note use of the English word "knight," which can be misleading as it leads to inevitable comparisons with the British gentry. In comparison, the Polish nobility was a "power elite" caste, not a social class. The paramount principle of Polish nobility was it was hereditary. [1]

Mieszko I of Poland (c. Life In 965 Mieszko married Dobrawa (Dobrava Dubrawka daughter of Boleslav I, Duke of Bohemia. 935 – 25 May 992) utilized an elite knightly retinue from his army, which he depended upon for success in uniting the Lekhitic tribes and preserving the unity of his state. Lechites or Lekhites (Lechici - name for some Tribes of West Slavs whose shared quality was the usage of the Lechitic languages. Documented proof exists of Mieszko I's successors utilizing such a retinue, too.

Another class of knights were granted land by the prince, allowing them to serve the prince militarily. A Polish nobleman living at this time before the 15th century was referred to as a "rycerz" (German "ritter"), very roughly equivalent to the English "knight", the critical difference being the status of "rycerz" was strictly hereditary; the class of all such individuals was known as the "rycerstwo". Ritter is the second-lowest-ranking Title of Nobility in German-speaking areas just above an Edler, considered roughly equal to the title Representing the wealthier families of Poland and itinerant knights from abroad seeking their fortunes, this other class of rycerstwo, which became the szlachta/nobility ("szlachta" becomes the proper term for Polish nobility beginning about the 15th century), gradually formed apart from Mieszko I's and his successors' elite retinues. This rycerstwo/nobility obtained more privileges granting them favored status. They were absolved from particular burdens and obligations under ducal law, resulting in the belief only rycerstwo (those combining military prowess with high/noble birth) could serve as officials in state administration.

Select rycerstwo were distinguished above the other rycerstwo, because they descended from past tribal dynasties, or because early Piasts' endowments made them select beneficiaries. Piast dynasty is the name used since the 17th century for Polish Royal Dynasty that ruled Poland from its beginnings as Duchy ruled by Mieszko These rycerstwo of great wealth were called możni (Magnates). Socially they were not a distinct class from the rycerstwo they originated from and to which they would return were their wealth lost. (MANTEUFFEL 1982, pp.  148-149).

The Period of Division, A. D. , 1138 - A. D. , 1314, nearly 200 years of feudal fragmentation, when Bolesław III divided Poland among his sons, began the social structure allegedly separating great landowning feudal nobles (możni/Magnates, both ecclesiastical and lay) from the rycerstwo they originated from. Bolesław III Wrymouth ( Bolesław III Krzywousty) 1085 – 1138) was Duke of Poland from The prior social structure was one of Polish tribes united into the historic Polish nation under a state ruled by the Piast dynasty, this dynasty appearing circa 850 A. Piast dynasty is the name used since the 17th century for Polish Royal Dynasty that ruled Poland from its beginnings as Duchy ruled by Mieszko D.

Some możni (Magnates) descending from past tribal dynasties regarded themselves as co-proprietors of Piast realms, even though the Piasts attempted to deprive them of their independence. [2] These możni (Magnates) constantly sought to undermine princely authority. In Gall Anonim's chronicle, there is noted the nobility's alarm when the Palatine Sieciech "elevated those of a lower class over those who were noble born" entrusting them with state offices. Gallus Anonymus (Gall Anonim – "the Anonymous Gaul " 11th-[[ 2th century|12th centuries]] was the author of Cronicae et gesta This article gives details on the history of the Count Palatine in Mediaeval European Palatinate regions and social structure [3]

Lithuanian

Main article: Lithuanian nobility

In Lithuania Propria, Samogitia and Prussia before the creation of the Lithuanian state by Mindaugas nobles were called 'bajorai' and higher nobility 'kunigai' or 'kunigaikščiai' (Dukes). The Lithuanian nobility was historically a legally privileged class in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania consisting of Lithuanian (from historical Lithuania proper (Lithuania propria Lietuva siaurąją prasme tikroji Lietuva, literally "Lithuania in a narrow sense" "Genuine Lithuania " Samogitia ( Samogitian: Žemaitėjė, Žemaitija literally lowlands) is one of the five Ethnographic Regions of Lithuania. Prussia is a historical region in Central Europe extending from the south-eastern coast of the Baltic Sea to the Masurian Lake District. Mindaugas (ˈmındoʊgʌs ca 1203 – 12 September 1263) was the first known Grand Duke of Lithuania, a title he gained ca They were established local leaders, leading war operations. At the process of establishment of the state they gradually became subordinates to Higher Dukes, and later to the King of Lithuania and eventually Grand Duke of Lithuania. King of Lithuania, the title of rulers of Lithuanian state recognised by the Pope. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje

After the Union of Horodło Lithuanian nobility acquired equal rights with Polish szlachta, and during centuries began to gravitate towards Polish language, although they did preserve its national awareness of Grand Duchy, and in most cases recognition of their Lithuanian family roots. The Pact of Horodlo or Union of Horodło was a set of acts introduced in the town of Horodło in 1413. A nation is a Human Cultural and Social Community. In as much as most members never meet each other yet feel a common bond it may be considered In the 16th century new established theory amongst Lithuanian nobility was popular, claiming that Lithuanian nobility was of Roman extraction, and the Lithuanian language was just a morphed Latin language. Lithuanian ( lietuvių kalba) is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognised as one of the official languages of the European Union. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.

Process of self polonisation took part, although it lasted quite a long time. Polonization (polonizacja is the acquisition or imposition At first only magnates families were affected, although gradually it evolved into a wider group of population. The major effects on the lesser Lithuanian nobility took its place after Russian Empire sanctions removing Lithuania[4] few years after after Nogvember Uprising from names of Gubernya's. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya After January Uprising the sanctions went further, and emperial officials announced that "Lithuanians are Russians seduced by Poles and Chrisitianty" and started Program of Restoration of Russian Beginnings, while banning the print of books in Lithuanian language. The January Uprising ( Polish: powstanie styczniowe, Lithuanian: 1863 m The Lithuanian press ban (spaudos draudimas was a ban on all Lithuanian language publications printed in the Latin alphabet within the Russian Empire,

Ruthenian

In Ruthenia the nobility gradually gravitated its loyalty towards the multicultural and multilingual Grand Duchy of Lithuania after the principalities of Halych and Volhynia became a part of it. Ruthenia is a geographic and culturo-ethnic name applied to the parts of Eastern Europe populated by Eastern Slavic peoples, as well as to the past various The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje Halych (Галич Гáлич Halicz Halyčas is a historic city on the Dniester River in western Ukraine. Many noble Ruthenian families intermarried with Lithuanian ones.

The Orthodox nobles' rights were nominally equal to those enjoyed by Polish and Lithuanian nobility, but there was a cultural pressure to convert to Catholicism, that was greatly eased in 1596 by the Union of Brest. Union of Brest ( Belarusian: Берасьцейская унія, Ukrainian: Берестейська унія, Unia brzeska refers to the See for example careers of Senator Adam Kisiel and Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki. Adam Świętołdycz Kisiel (1600-1653 was a Voivode of Kijów or Bracław Voivodship (sources vary (1649-1653 and castellan or voivode of Czernichów Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki (1640– February 19, 1694) of the Sas coat of arms was a member of Polish Szlachta of Ukrainian

Szlachta rise to power

See also Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth#State organisation and politics

Nobles were born into a noble family, adopted by a noble family (this was abolished in 1633) or ennobled by a king or Sejm for various reasons (bravery in combat, service to the state, etc. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime Ennoblement is the conferring of Nobility —the induction of an individual into the noble class. - yet this was the rarest means of gaining noble status). Many nobles were, in actuality, really usurpers, being commoners, who moved into another part of the country and falsely pretended to noble status. Hundreds of such false nobles were denounced by Walerian Nekanda Trepka in his Liber generationis plebeanorium (or Liber chamorum) in the first half of 16th century. The law forbade non-nobles from owning nobility-estates and promised the estate to the denouncer. Trepka was an impoverished nobleman who lived a townsman life and collected hundreds of such stories hoping to take over any of such estates. It doesn't seem he ever succeeded in proving one at the court. Many sejms issued decrees over the centuries in an attempt to resolve this issue, but with little success. It is unknown what percentage of the Polish nobility came from the 'lower' orders of society, but most historians agree that nobles of such base origins formed a 'significant' element of the szlachta.

The Polish nobility enjoyed many rights that were not available to the noble classes of other countries and, typically, each new monarch conceded them further privileges. Those privileges became the basis of the Golden Liberty in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Golden Liberty ( Latin: Aurea Libertas; Polish: Złota Wolność) sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy Despite having a king, Poland was called the nobility's Commonwealth because the king was elected by all interested members of hereditary nobility and Poland was considered to be the property of this class, not of the king or the ruling dynasty. Rzeczpospolita ( pronounced) is a Polish word for " Republic " or " Commonwealth " a Calque translation of the Free election (Polish wolna elekcja) was the Election of individual kings rather than of Dynasties, to the Polish throne between A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations This state of affairs grew up in part because of the extinction of the male-line descendants of the old royal dynasty (first the Piasts, then the Jagiellons), and the selection by the nobility of the Polish king from among the dynasty's female-line descendants. Piast dynasty is the name used since the 17th century for Polish Royal Dynasty that ruled Poland from its beginnings as Duchy ruled by Mieszko The Jagiellons (Jogailaičiai Jagiellonowie were a royal Dynasty originating from Lithuanian House of Gediminas dynasty that reigned in Central European

Jan Klemens Branicki, holding hetman's buława.
Jan Klemens Branicki, holding hetman's buława. This article is about the 18th century Hetman See also Jan Klemens Branicki, starosta chęciński who died in 1657 and Jan Klemens Branicki, marszałek trybunału Hetman was the title of the second highest military commander (after the Monarch) used in 15th to 18th century Poland, Ukraine and Grand The bulawa (buława булава булава bulava) was a Ceremonial mace or baton carried by a Hetman, an officer of the highest

Poland's successive kings granted privileges to the nobility at the time of their election to the throne (the privileges being specified in the king-elect's Pacta conventa) and at other times in exchange for ad hoc permission to raise an extraordinary tax or a pospolite ruszenie. Pacta conventa (Latin "agreed-upon agreements" was a contractual agreement from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i Ad hoc is a Latin phrase which means "for this [ Purpose ]" Pospolite ruszenie ( Polish for "common movement" the French term Levée en masse is also used is an anachronistic

Poland's nobility thus accumulated a growing array of privileges and immunities:

In 1355 in Buda King Casimir III issued the first country-wide privilege for the nobility, in exchange for their agreement that in the lack of Kazimierz male heirs, the throne would pass to his nephew, King Louis "the Great". Buda ( German: Ofen, Croatian: Budim, Slovak / Czech: Budín, Serbian: Будим or Casimir III the Great (Kazimierz Wielki April 30 1310 – November 5 1370 last King of Poland from the Piast dynasty (1333–1370 was the son of King Władysław Louis I the Great (I (Nagy Lajos Ludwik Węgierski Serbian: Lajoš I/Лајош I Croatian: Ludovik I Czech: Ludvík I He decreed that the nobility would no longer be required to pay 'extraordinary' taxes, or pay with their own funds for military expeditions outside Poland. He also promised that during travels of the royal court, the king and the court would pay for all expenses, instead of using facilities of local nobility.

In 1374 King Louis "the Great" approved the Privilege of Koszyce (Polish: "przywilej koszycki" or "ugoda koszycka") in Košice in order to guarantee the Polish throne for his daughter Jadwiga. Louis I the Great (I (Nagy Lajos Ludwik Węgierski Serbian: Lajoš I/Лајош I Croatian: Ludovik I Czech: Ludvík I The Privilege of Koszyce was a set of concessions made by Louis I of Hungary to the Polish Szlachta in 1374. Košice (; Hungarian: Kassa; (also known by other alternative names) is a city in eastern Slovakia. Jadwiga of Anjou (1373/4 – July 17 1399 was King of Poland from 1384 to her death He broadened the definition of who was a member of the nobility and exempted the entire class from all but one tax (łanowy, which was limited to 2 grosze from łan (an old measure of land size)). Old Polish Weights and measures (mostly used in middle ages included Length Krok ( Ławka ( In addition, the King's right to raise taxes was abolished; no new taxes could be raised without the agreement of the nobility. Henceforth, also, district offices (Polish: "urzędy ziemskie") were reserved exclusively for local nobility, as the Privilege of Koszyce forbade the king to grant official posts and major Polish castles to foreign knights. This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Finally, this privilege obliged the King to pay indemnities to nobles injured or taken captive during a war outside Polish borders. An indemnity is a sum paid by A to B by way of compensation for a particular loss suffered by B.

In 1422 King Władysław II Jagiełło by the Privilege of Czerwińsk (Polish: "przywilej czerwiński") established the inviolability of nobles' property (their estates could not be confiscated except upon a court verdict) and ceded some jurisdiction over fiscal policy to the Royal Council (later, the Senat), including the right to mint coinage. Jogaila, later Władysław II Jagiełło (b about 1362 d 1 June 1434 was Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland. Fiscal policy, taking the scope of Budgetary policy, refers to government policy that attempts to influence the direction of the economy through changes in government taxes A mint is an industrial facility which manufactures Coins for Currency.

In 1430 with the Privileges of Jedlnia, confirmed at Kraków in 1433 (Polish: "przywileje jedlneńsko-krakowskie"), based partially on his earlier Brześć Kujawski privilege (April 25, 1425), King Władysław II Jagiełło granted the nobility a guarantee against arbitrary arrest, similar to the English Magna Carta's Habeas corpus, known from its own Latin name as "neminem captivabimus (nisi jure victum). Kraków, in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow (ˈkrækaʊ M-W: krăk'ou krāk'ō is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland Brześć Kujawski is a town in the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, Population - 4521 (2005, Poland. Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar. Jogaila, later Władysław II Jagiełło (b about 1362 d 1 June 1434 was Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland. Magna Carta ( Latin for Great Charter, literally " Great Paper " also called Magna Carta Libertatum ( Great Charter of Freedoms Habeas corpus (ˈheɪbiəs ˈkɔɹpəs ( Latin: command that you have the body is the name of a legal action or Writ, through which a person can seek relief Neminem captivabimus is a legal term in Lithuanian and Polish historical law. " Henceforth no member of the nobility could be imprisoned without a warrant from a competent court of justice: the king could neither punish nor imprison any noble at his whim. King Władysław's quid pro quo for this boon was the nobles' guarantee that his throne would be inherited by one of his sons (who would be bound to honour the privileges theretofore granted to the nobility). Quid pro quo ( Latin for "something for something") indicates a more-or-less equal exchange or substitution of goods or services On May 2, 1447 the same king issued the Wilno Privilege which gave the Lithuanian boyars the same rights as those possessed by the Polish szlachta. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje This article refers to the aristocratic title of boyar. For the Boyar caste of India, see Boyar (caste.

Polish szlachta (nobles) in Gdańsk. Painting by Wilhelm August Stryowski.
Polish szlachta (nobles) in Gdańsk. Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland Painting by Wilhelm August Stryowski. Wilhelm August Stryowski ( 1834 - 1917) was a Polish-German painter.

In 1454 King Kazimierz IV Jagiellon granted the Nieszawa Statutes (Polish: "statuty cerkwicko-nieszawskie"), clarifying the legal basis of voivodship sejmiks (local parliaments). Casimir IV Jagiellon (Kazimierz IV Jagiellończyk; Kazimieras Jogailaitis Kazimir Jahajłavič 30 November 1427 &ndash The Nieszawa Statutes ( Polish: statuty nieszawskie) were a set of laws enacted in the Kingdom of Poland in 1454, in the town of Nieszawa This article concerns both historical and contemporary voivodeships in various countries A sejmik (diminutive of the Polish word " Sejm " meaning a type of Parliament) was a regional assembly in the Polish–Lithuanian The king could promulgate new laws, raise taxes, or call for a levée en masse (pospolite ruszenie) only with the consent of the sejmiks, and the nobility were protected from judicial abuses. Promulgation or enactment is the act of formally proclaiming or declaring new statutory or Administrative law when it receives final approval Levée en masse (literally "Rise in (a Mass" is defined in Article 4 letter A paragraph 6 of the Third Geneva Convention. Pospolite ruszenie ( Polish for "common movement" the French term Levée en masse is also used is an anachronistic The Nieszawa Statutes also curbed the power of the magnates, as the Sejm (national parliament) received the right to elect many officials, including judges, voivods and castellans. Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position A judge, or justice, is an Official who presides over a Court of law A voivode or waywode is a Slavic title that originally denoted the principal commander of a military force A castellan was the Governor or caretaker of a Castle or Keep. These privileges were demanded by the szlachta as a compensation for their participation in the Thirteen Years' War. The Thirteen Years' War was also the name of an Austrian-Ottoman War Thirteen Years War in Hungary The Thirteen Years' War (Dreizehnjähriger Krieg Wojna trzynastoletnia

The first "free election" (Polish: "wolna elekcja") of a king took place in 1492. Free election (Polish wolna elekcja) was the Election of individual kings rather than of Dynasties, to the Polish throne between (To be sure, some earlier Polish kings had been elected with help from bodies such as that which put Casimir II on the throne, thereby setting a precedent for free elections. This article is about the 12th century Polish king For other uses please see Casimir. ) Only senators voted in the 1492 free election, which was won by Jan I Olbracht. A senate is a Deliberative body, often the Upper house or chamber of a Legislature or Parliament. For other monarchs with similar names please see John of Poland. For the duration of the Jagiellonian Dynasty, only members of that royal family were considered for election; later, there would be no restrictions on the choice of candidates. The Jagiellons (Jogailaičiai Jagiellonowie were a royal Dynasty originating from Lithuanian House of Gediminas dynasty that reigned in Central European

In 1493 the national parliament, the Sejm, began meeting every two years at Piotrków. Piotrków Trybunalski {{IPA-pl|t|r|y|b|u|'|n|a|l|s|k|i}} (also known by alternative names) is a City in central Poland with 80738 inhabitants (2005 It comprised two chambers:

The numbers of senators and envoys later increased.

On April 26, 1496 King Jan I Olbracht granted the Privilege of Piotrków (Polish: "przywilej piotrkowski", "konstytucja piotrkowska" or "statuty piotrkowskie"), increasing the nobility's feudal power over serfs. Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy. For other monarchs with similar names please see John of Poland. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed It bound the peasant to the land, as only one son (not the eldest) was permitted to leave the village; townsfolk (Polish: "mieszczaństwo") were prohibited from owning land; and positions in the Church hierarchy could be given only to nobles.

On 23 October 1501, at Mielnik Polish-Lithuanian Union was reformed at the Union of Mielnik (Polish: unia mielnicka, unia piotrkowsko-mielnicka). Events 4004 BC - Creation of the world begins according to the calculations of Archbishop James Ussher 42 BC - Mielnik is a Village in Siemiatycze County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland, close to the border with Belarus. The term Polish–Lithuanian Union sometimes called as United Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania refers to a series of acts and alliances between the Kingdom of Poland The Act of Mielnik or Union of Mielnik of 1501 was an attempt to reintroduce the broken Polish-Lithuanian Union. It was there that the tradition of the coronation Sejm (Polish: "Sejm koronacyjny") was founded. Election sejm (Polish sejm elekcyjny was one of three kinds of special sejm in pre-partition Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Once again the middle nobility (middle in wealth, not in rank) attempted to reduce the power of the magnates with a law that made them impeachable before the Senate for malfeasance. Impeachment is the first of two stages in a specific process for a legislative body to forcibly remove a Government official The expressions misfeasance and nonfeasance, and occasionally malfeasance, are used in English law with reference to the discharge of public obligations However the Act of Mielno (Polish: Przywilej mielnicki) of 25 October did more to strengthen the magnate dominated Senate of Poland then the lesser nobility. Events 1147 - The Portuguese, under Afonso I, and Crusaders from England and Flanders conquer Lisbon after a The Senate ( Senat) is the upper house of the Polish Parliament. The nobles were conceded the right to refuse to obey the King or his representatives--in the Latin, "non praestanda oboedientia"--and to form confederations, an armed rebellion against the king or state officers if the nobles thought that the law or their legitimate privileges were being infringed. A konfederacja ( Polish for "confederation" was an ad hoc association formed by Polish-Lithuanian nobility, Clergy or Cities

"The Commonwealth's Power at Its Zenith. Golden Liberty. The Election of 1573." Painting by Jan Matejko.
"The Commonwealth's Power at Its Zenith. Golden Liberty. Golden Liberty ( Latin: Aurea Libertas; Polish: Złota Wolność) sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy The Election of 1573. Free election (Polish wolna elekcja) was the Election of individual kings rather than of Dynasties, to the Polish throne between " Painting by Jan Matejko. Jan Matejko ( (also known as Jan Mateyko; June 24 1838 Free City of Kraków; - November 1 1893 Kraków) was a Polish painter

On 3 May 1505 King Aleksander I Jagiellon granted the Act of "Nihil novi nisi commune consensu" (Latin: "I accept nothing new except by common consent"). Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João Alexander Jagiellon ( Lithuanian: Aleksandras Jogailaitis; Polish: Aleksander Jagiellończyk; 5 August 1461 – 19 August Nihil novi nisi commune consensu ("Nothing new without the common consent" is the original Latin title of a 1505 act adopted by the Polish This forbade the king to pass any new law without the consent of the representatives of the nobility, in Sejm and Senat assembled, and thus greatly strengthened the nobility's political position. Basically, this act transferred legislative power from the king to the Sejm. This date commonly marks the beginning of the First Rzeczpospolita, the period of a szlachta-run "Commonwealth". Rzeczpospolita ( pronounced) is a Polish word for " Republic " or " Commonwealth " a Calque translation of the

In 1520 the Act of Bydgoszcz granted the Sejm the right to convene every four years, with or without the king's permission.

About that time the "executionist movement" (Polish: "egzekucja praw"--"execution of the laws") began to take form. The Execution(ist Movement ( Polish language: " Ruch egzekucyjny " also " egzekucja praw," "execution of the laws" " Its members would seek to curb the power of the magnates at the Sejm and to strengthen the power of king and country. In 1562 at the Sejm in Piotrków they would force the magnates to return many leased crown lands to the king, and the king to create a standing army (wojsko kwarciane). Crown land is a designated area belonging to The Crown, the equivalent of an entailed estate that passed with the Monarchy and could not be One of the most famous members of this movement was Jan Zamoyski. Biography Early years the royal supporter He attended the University of Paris and University of Padua, where he converted from Calvinism After his death in 1605, the movement lost its political force.

Until the death of Zygmunt II August, the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, monarchs could only be elected from within the royal family. For other nobles of the same name please see Sigismund. Sigismund II Augustus I (Zygmunt II August The Jagiellons (Jogailaičiai Jagiellonowie were a royal Dynasty originating from Lithuanian House of Gediminas dynasty that reigned in Central European However, starting from 1573, practically any Polish noble or foreigner of royal blood could become a Polish-Lithuanian monarch. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic Every newly elected king was supposed to sign two documents - the Pacta conventa ("agreed pacts") - a confirmation of the king's pre-election promises, and Henrican articles (artykuły henrykowskie, named after the first freely elected king, Henry of Valois). Pacta conventa (Latin "agreed-upon agreements" was a contractual agreement from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i The Henrician Articles, or Henrycian Articles ( Polish: Artykuły henrykowskie, Latin: Articuli Henriciani) or more often stated in Henry III of France (Henri III Henryk ( September 19 1551 – August 2, 1589) The latter document served as a virtual Polish constitution and contained the basic laws of the Commonwealth:

In 1578 king Stefan Batory created the Crown Tribunal in order to reduce the enormous pressure on the Royal Court. This article is about the ruler of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th century Crown Tribunal ( Polish: Trybunał Koronny, Latin Iudicium Ordinarium Generale Tribunalis Regni) – was the highest Appeal This placed much of the monarch's juridical power in the hands of the elected szlachta deputies, further strengthening the nobility class. In 1581 the Crown Tribunal was joined by a counterpart in Lithuania, the Lithuanian Tribunal. Lithuanian Tribunal (Trybunał Litewski was the highest Appeal Court for the Bajorai of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish-Lithuanian

Transformation into aristocracy

For many centuries, wealthy and powerful members of the szlachta sought to gain legal privileges over their peers. Few szlachta were wealthy enough to be known as magnates (karmazyni — the "Crimsons", from the crimson colour of their boots). Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position Crimson is a strong bright deep Red color combined with some Blue, resulting in a tiny degree of Purple. A proper magnate should be able to trace noble ancestors back for many generations and own at least 20 villages or estates. Folwark (Palivarkas is a Polish word for the giant Farms (in Latin, " latifundia " that were operated in the Crown He should also hold a major office in the Commonwealth. This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Some historians estimate the number of magnates as 4% of szlachta number. Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position Out of 1 million of szlachta, tens of thousands of families, perhaps only 200-300 persons could be classed as great magnates with country-wide possessions and influence, and 30-40 of them could be viewed as those with significant impact on country's politics.

Magnates often received gifts from monarchs, which significantly increased their wealth. Often, those gifts were only temporary leases, which the magnates never returned (in 16th century, the anti-magnate opposition among szlachta were known as the ruch egzekucji praw - movement for execution of the laws - which demanded that all such possessions are returned to their proper owner, the king). See also Leasing, Renting A lease is a Legal document, but can be an oral arrangement which confers a right on one person (called One of the most important victories of the magnates was the late 16th century right to create ordynacja's (similar to majorats), which ensured that a family which gained wealth and power could more easily preserve this. Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position Ordynat was the Title of the principal Heir of " ordynacja " estates (landed property in Fideicommis) in the Polish-Lithuanian Majorat is the right of succession to Property according to age ( Primogeniture) Ordynacje's of families of Radziwiłłs, Zamoyski's, Potocki's or Lubomirski's often rivalled the estates of the king and were important power bases for the magnates. Radziwiłł in Polish, (Radvila Radziwill Радзівіл Radzivił Radvil is a family of high nobility which has been powerful and important for centuries Zamoyski, plural Zamoyscy is the Surname of a Polish family of hereditary nobles. Potocki is the surname of a Polish Szlachta (nobility family History The Potocki family is a great artistocratic family originated from Lubomirski (plural Lubomirscy) is the surname of a Polish Szlachta (nobility family

All szlachta privileges were finally abolished after the Second World War under the communist regime of the People's Republic of Poland. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based The People's Republic of Poland or Polish People's Republic ( Polish: Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, PRL Russian

Szlachta culture

The Polish nobility differed in many respects from the nobility of other countries. The most important difference was that, while in most European countries the nobility lost power as the ruler strove for absolute monarchy, in Poland the reverse process occurred: the nobility actually gained power at the expense of the king, and the political system evolved toward a mix of democracy, oligarchy and aristocracy. Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything A political system is a System of Politics and Government. It is usually compared to the Law system, Economic system, Cultural Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system Oligarchy' ( Greek, Oligarkhía) is a Form of government where Political power effectively rests with a small elite segment Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations

Polish noblewomen, early 17th century.
Polish noblewomen, early 17th century.

Poland's nobility were also more numerous than those of all other European countries, forming some 10%-12% of the total population and almost 25% among ethnic Poles[1], while in some poorer regions (e. g. Mazowsze, the area centred on Warsaw) nearly 30%. Masovia or Mazovia (Mazowsze is a geographic and historic region situated in eastern Poland 's Masovian Plain. Warsaw (Warszawa; also known by other names) is the Capital and Largest city of Poland. However, according to [2] szlachta comprised around 8% of the total population in 1791 (up from 6. 6% in the 16th century), and no more than 16% of the Roman Catholic (mostly ethnically Polish) population. It should be noted, though, that Polish szlachta usually incorporated most local nobility from the areas that were absorbed by Poland-Lithuania (Ruthenian boyars, Livonian nobles, etc. ) By contrast, the nobilities of other European countries, except for Spain, amounted to a mere 1-3%.

There were a number of avenues to upward social mobility and the achievement of nobility. Poland's nobility was not a rigidly exclusive, closed class. Many low-born individuals, including townsfolk, peasants and Jews, could and did rise in Polish society up to official ennoblement. A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Ennoblement is the conferring of Nobility —the induction of an individual into the noble class. Thus Poland's noble class was more stable than those of other countries, and so was spared the societal tensions and eventual disintegration that characterised the French revolution. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Each szlachcic had enormous influence over the country's politics, in some ways even greater than what is enjoyed by the citizens of modern democratic countries. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system Between 1652 and 1791, any nobleman could nullify all the proceedings of a given sejm (Commonwealth parliament) or sejmik (Commonwealth local parliament) by exercising his individual right of liberum veto (Latin for "I do not allow"), except in the case of a confederated sejm or confederated sejmik. A sejmik (diminutive of the Polish word " Sejm " meaning a type of Parliament) was a regional assembly in the Polish–Lithuanian Liberum veto ( Latin: I freely forbid) was a parliamentary device in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that allowed any deputy to Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Confederated sejm (sejm skonfederowany was a form of Sejm in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 18th century

All children of the Polish nobility inherited their noble status from a noble mother and father. Any individual could attain ennoblement (Polish: "nobilitacja") for special services to the state. Ennoblement is the conferring of Nobility —the induction of an individual into the noble class. A foreign noble might be naturalised as a Polish noble (Polish: "indygenat") by the Polish king (later, from 1641, only by a general sejm). The General Sejm (Sejm walny was the Parliament of Poland for four centuries from the late 15th through the late 18th century

Polish noblemen, early 17th century.
Polish noblemen, early 17th century.

In theory at least, all Polish noblemen were social equals. Also in theory they were legal peers. Those who held 'real power' dignities were more privileged but these dignities were not hereditary. Those who held honorary dignities were higher in 'ritual' hierarchy but these dignities were also granted for a lifetime. Some tenancies became hereditary and went with both privilege and titles. Nobles who were not direct barons of the Crown but held land from other lords were only peers "de iure". The poorest enjoyed the same rights as the wealthiest magnate. Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position The exceptions were a few symbolically privileged families such as the Radziwiłł, Lubomirski and Czartoryski, who sported honorary aristocratic titles recognized in Poland or received from foreign courts, such as "Prince" or "Count. Radziwiłł in Polish, (Radvila Radziwill Радзівіл Radzivił Radvil is a family of high nobility which has been powerful and important for centuries Lubomirski (plural Lubomirscy) is the surname of a Polish Szlachta (nobility family Czartoryski ( Polish plural Czartoryscy) is the Surname of a Polish - Lithuanian Magnate family also known as the Familia Prince, from the Latin root Princeps, is a general term for a Monarch, for a member of a monarch's or former monarch's family and is a A count is a Nobleman in European countries The word count comes from French comte, itself from Latin " (see also The Princely Houses of Poland). The Princely Houses of Poland had some important qualities differentiating them from other princely houses in Europe All other szlachta simply addressed each other by their given name or as "Sir Brother" (Panie bracie) or the feminine equivalent. The other forms of address would be "Illustrious and Magnificent Lord", "Magnificent Lord", "Generous Lord" or "Noble Lord" (in decreasing order) or simply "His/Her Grace Lord/Lady XYZ".

Hetman Stefan Czarniecki in crimson bekiesza. Holds buława in right hand. Note crimson boots (buty karmazynowe), a sign of wealth and high status. The crimson color worn by wealthy szlachta prompted the magnates' nickname, "karmazyni" — "the crimson ones."
Hetman Stefan Czarniecki in crimson bekiesza. Hetman was the title of the second highest military commander (after the Monarch) used in 15th to 18th century Poland, Ukraine and Grand Biography Stefan Czarniecki was born in 1599 in family estate of Czarnca by Włoszczowa in southern Poland in an impoverished Szlachta family Holds buława in right hand. The bulawa (buława булава булава bulava) was a Ceremonial mace or baton carried by a Hetman, an officer of the highest Note crimson boots (buty karmazynowe), a sign of wealth and high status. The crimson color worn by wealthy szlachta prompted the magnates' nickname, "karmazyni" — "the crimson ones. Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position "

According to their financial standing, the nobility were in common speech divided into:

Note that Polish landed gentry (ziemianie or ziemiaństwo) was composed of any nobility that owned lands: thus of course the magnates, the middle nobility and that lesser nobility that had at least part of the village. Landed gentry is a term traditionally applied in Britain to those people of a certain type and education who possess land in the form of country estates often (but As manorial lordships were also opened to burgesses of certain privileged royal cities, not all landed gentry had a hereditary title of nobility.

Heraldry

Main article: Polish heraldry

Coats of arms were very important to the Polish nobility. The history of Polish heraldry is an integral part of the history of the Szlachta, the Polish Nobility. A coat of arms or armorial bearings (often just arms for short in European tradition is a design belonging to a particular person (or group of people It is notable, that the Polish heraldic system evolved separately from its western counterparts and differed in many ways from the heraldry of other European countries.

The most notable difference is that, contrary to other European heraldic systems, most families sharing origin would also share a coat-of-arms. They would also share arms with families adopted into the clan (these would often have their arms officially altered upon ennoblement). Sometimes unrelated families would be falsely attributed to the clan on the basis of similarity of arms. Also often noble families claimed inaccurate clan membership. Logically, the number of coats of arms in this system was rather low and did not exceed 200 in late Middle Ages.

Also, the tradition of differentiating between the coat of arms proper and a lozenge granted to women did not develop in Poland. The lozenge in Heraldry is a diamond-shaped charge (an object that can be placed on the field of the shield usually somewhat narrower than it is tall Usually men inherited the coat of arms from their fathers. Also, the brisure was rarely used. In Heraldry, cadency is any systematic way of distinguishing similar coats of arms belonging to members of the same Family.

Sarmatism

The szlachta's prevalent mentality and ideology were manifested in "Sarmatism," a name derived from supposed ancestors of the szlachta, the Sarmatians. An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics Sarmatism embodied the dominant Lifestyle, Culture and Ideology of the Szlachta ( Nobility) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες This belief system became an important part of szlachta culture and affected all aspects of their lives. It enshrined traditional village life, peace and pacifism; popularised oriental-style apparel (the żupan, kontusz, sukmana, pas kontuszowy, delia); and made the scimitar-like szabla, too, a near-obligatory item of everyday szlachta apparel. For "Z(hupan" the homophonic title of the leader of a " župa " see that article Kontusz (pronounce /'kɔntuʃ/ is a type of outer garment worn by the Polish and Lithuanian male nobility ( Szlachta) Pas kontuszowy (" Kontusz sash" was a cloth Sash used for compassing a Kontusz (a robe-like garment A scimitar (ˈsɪmɪtə is a Sword with a curved blade design finding its origins in Southwest Asia Szabla (plural szable is the general Slavic word for Sabre. In particular it is used to describe a specifically Eastern European one-edged sabre-like Sarmatism served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility as it created an almost nationalistic sense of unity and pride in the szlachta's "Golden Liberty" (złota wolność). The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Golden Liberty ( Latin: Aurea Libertas; Polish: Złota Wolność) sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy Knowledge of Latin was widespread, and most szlachta freely mixed Polish and Latin vocabulary (the latter, "macaronisms" — from "macaroni") in everyday conversation. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.

Jan Zamoyski, in crimson delia and blue silk żupan.
Jan Zamoyski, in crimson delia and blue silk żupan. Biography Early years the royal supporter He attended the University of Paris and University of Padua, where he converted from Calvinism For "Z(hupan" the homophonic title of the leader of a " župa " see that article

In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism seemed like a salutary cultural movement: it fostered religious faith, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom. Late Sarmatism turned belief into bigotry, honesty into political naiveté, pride into arrogance, courage into stubbornness, equality and freedom within the szlachta class into dissension and anarchy. Dissension was the 60th Magic The Gathering set 38th expert level set and the third and final set in the Ravnica Block released in May 5, 2006

Religious beliefs

Prior to the Reformation, the Polish nobility were mostly Roman Catholic or Orthodox. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Many families, however, soon adopted the Reformed faiths. The Reformed churches are a group of Christian Protestant Denominations formally characterized by a similar Calvinist system of doctrine historically After the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the nobility became almost exclusively Catholic, despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not the majority religion in Poland (the Catholic and Orthodox churches each accounted for some 40% of the population, with the remaining 20% being Jews or members of Protestant denominations). The Counter-Reformation (also Catholic Reformation denotes the period of Catholic revival from the pontificate of Pope Pius IV in 1560 to the close of the Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Szlachta, as the Commonwealth itself, was extremely tolerant of other religions. There were almost no conflicts based on faith, and szlachta members are known to have intervened several times to pacify religious conflicts in cities and towns. In the 18th century, many followers of Jacob Frank joined the ranks of Jewish-descended Polish gentry. Jacob Frank (יעקב פרנק Ya'akov Frank, Jakob Frank; 1726 - 1791 was an 18th century Jewish religious leader who claimed to be the reincarnation of

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Theodore: Topór-Jakubowski, "15th-century Polish Nobility in the 21st century" (WHITE EAGLE: Journal of the Polish Nobility Association Foundation: Villa Anneslie, 529 Dunkirk Road, Anneslie, MARYLAND, The United States of America: The Polish Nobility Association Foundation, 1998), Spring/Summer 1998, page 9. Topór ( Polish for " Axe " is a Polish coat of arms.
  2. ^ Norman Davies, "God's Playground: A History of Poland; Volume I: The Origins to 1795" (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), page 224. Ivor Norman Richard Davies Fellow of the British Academy (born 8 June 1939 to Richard and Elizabeth Davies
  3. ^ TADEUSZ MANTEUFFEL, "The Formation of the Polish State: The Period of Ducal Rule, 963-1194" (Detroit, MICHIGAN, U. Tadeusz Manteuffel or Tadeusz Manteuffel-Szoege (1902-1970 was a Polish Historian, specializing in the Medieval History of Europe S. A. : WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY PRESS, 1982), page 149.
  4. ^ Ochmański, Jerzy (1986). The National Idea in Lithuania from the 16th to the First Half of the 19th Century: The Problem of Cultural-Linguistic Differentiation. Poznań: Mickiewicz University.  

References

External links

Dictionary

Szlachta

-proper noun

  1. Nobility of Poland, Slovakia and Lithuania.
© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
 Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic