Sino-Roman relations started first on an indirect basis during the 2nd century BCE. The 2nd century BC started the first day of 200 BC and ended the last day of 101 BC. China and Rome progressively inched closer with the embassies of Zhang Qian in 130 BCE and the military expeditions of China to Central Asia, until general Ban Chao attempted to send an envoy to Rome around 100 CE. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial A diplomatic mission is a group of people from one State or an international Inter-governmental organization (such as the United Nations) present in Zhang Qian ( 張[[wikt 騫|騫]] Wade-Giles Chang Ch'ien was an imperial envoy to the outside world in the 2nd century BC during the time of the Han Dynasty Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Control of the Tarim Basin Ban Chao like his predecessors Huo Qubing and Wei Qing from the earlier-half of the Han Dynasty before him is said to Several alleged Roman embassies to China were recorded by a number of ancient Chinese historians. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National See also History An historian is an individual who studies and writes about History, and is regarded as an Authority on it The first one on record, supposedly from either the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius or the later emperor Marcus Aurelius, arrived in 166 CE. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus ( September 19, 86 &ndash March 7 161) generally known in English as Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise" ( April 26, 121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor

Zhang Qian's embassy

A horse statuette of the Late Han Dynasty (1st–2nd century CE). The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China.

In 130 BCE, with the embassies of the Han Dynasty to Central Asia, following the reports of the ambassador Zhang Qian (who was originally sent to obtain an alliance with the Yuezhi against the Xiongnu, but in vain), the Chinese emperor Wudi became interested in developing relationships with the sophisticated urban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria and Parthia:

The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Ferghana (Dayuan) and the possessions of Bactria (Daxia) and Parthia (Anxi) are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed homes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people, but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China - Hou Hanshu (Later Han History). The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Zhang Qian ( 張[[wikt 騫|騫]] Wade-Giles Chang Ch'ien was an imperial envoy to the outside world in the 2nd century BC during the time of the Han Dynasty The Yuezhi or Rouzhi ( Chinese: 月支 Pinyin: yuè zhī or ròu zhī; also 月氏 Pinyin: yuè shì The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of Background birth and years as crown prince Emperor Wu was the tenth child of Emperor Jing, and was born to one of Emperor Jing's favorite Concubines, Fergana or Farghana ( Uzbek: Farg'ona, Persian فرغانه, UniPers "Farqāna", Russian: Фергана "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Dayuan or Ta-Yuan ( lit “Great Yuan” were a people of Ferghana in Central Asia, described in the Chinese historical works of "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Book of the Later Han ( is one of the official Chinese Historical works which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century, using

The Chinese subsequently sent numerous embassies, around ten every year, to these countries and as far as Seleucid Syria. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية “Thus more embassies were dispatched to Anxi (Parthia), Yancai (who later joined the Alans), Lijian (Syria under the Seleucids), Tiaozhi (Chaldea) and Tianzhu (northwestern India)… As a rule, rather more than ten such missions went forward in the course of a year, and at the least five or six. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Alans or Alani (occasionally but more rarely termed Alauni or Halani) were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i Chaldea (from Greek grc Χαλδαία Chaldaia; Akkadian akk māt Kaldu Hebrew כשדים Kaśdim, "the Chaldees" of the Tiānzhú (in Chinese) Tenjiku (in Japanese) Cheonchuk (in Korean) Thiên Trúc (in Vietnamese) are ” Hou Hanshu (Later Han History).

Chinese silk in the Roman Empire

Maenad in silk dress, Naples National Museum. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the

Trade with the Roman Empire followed soon, confirmed by the Roman craze for Chinese silk (supplied through the Parthians) from the 1st century BCE. Roman Trade was the engine that drove the economy of the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The 1st century BC started the first day of 100 BC and ended the last day of 1 BC. Although the Romans knew of wild silk harvested on Cos, they did not at first make the connection with Chinese silk. Kos or Cos ( Greek: Κως Turkish: İstanköy; Italian: Coo formerly Stanchio in English is a Greek Hence, Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History, wrote:

The Seres (Chinese), are famous for the woolen substance obtained from their forests; after a soaking in water they comb off the white down of the leaves… So manifold is the labour employed, and so distant is the region of the globe drawn upon, to enable the Roman maiden to flaunt transparent clothing in public — (Pliny the Elder, The Natural History VI, 54 ). Seres (Gr Σῆρες, Lat Sērēs) was the ancient Greek and Roman name for the inhabitants of the northwestern part of modern China Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author

Yet later in the same work, he writes:

The larva [of the 'bombyx'] then becomes a caterpillar, after which it assumes the state in which it is known as 'bombylis', then that called 'necydalus', and after that, in six months, it becomes a silk-worm. These insects weave webs similar to those of the spider, the material of which is used for making the more costly and luxurious garments of females, known as 'bombycina'. Pamphile, a woman of Cos, the daughter of Platea, was the first person who discovered the art of unravelling these webs and spinning a tissue therefrom; indeed, she ought not to be deprived of the glory of having discovered the art of making vestments which, while they cover a woman, at the same moment reveal her naked charms. (Pliny the Elder, The Natural History XI, 26). Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author

The Senate issued, in vain, several edicts to prohibit the wearing of silk, on economic and moral grounds: the importation of Chinese silk caused a huge outflow of gold, and silk clothes were considered to be decadent and immoral:

I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. . . Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body—(Seneca the Younger c. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c 3 BCE–65 CE, Declamations Vol. Year 3 BC was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 65 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. I).

The Roman historian Florus also describes the visit of numerous envoys, including Seres (perhaps the Chinese), to the first Roman Emperor Augustus, who reigned between 27 BCE and 14 CE:

Now that all the races of the west and south were subjugated, and also the races of the north, (. Florus, Roman Historian, lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian. Seres (Gr Σῆρες, Lat Sērēs) was the ancient Greek and Roman name for the inhabitants of the northwestern part of modern China Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. . . ) the Scythians and the Sarmatians sent ambassadors seeking friendship; the Seres too and the Indians, who live immediately beneath the sun, though they brought elephants amongst their gifts as well as precious stones and pearls, regarded their long journey, in the accomplishment of which they had spent four years, as the greatest tribute which they rendered, and indeed their complexion proved that they came from beneath another sky. —(Florus Epitomae II, 34). Florus, Roman Historian, lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian.

A maritime route opened up with the Chinese-controlled Jiaozhi (centred in modern Vietnam) and the Khmer kingdom of Funan probably by the first century CE. See also History of Vietnam Annam ( 安[[wiktionary 南|南]] pinyin Ānnán or Jiaozhi ( 交趾; pinyin Jiāozhǐ Vietnamese Giao Funan (Old Khmer Bnam, Modern Khmer Phnom, Khmer script នគរភ្នំ (i At the formerly coastal site of Óc Eo in the Mekong Delta, Roman coins were among the vestiges of long-distance trade discovered by the French archaeologist Louis Malleret in the 1940s. Óc Eo is an archaeological site proposed to be named by the French archaeologist site Louis Mallaret in southern An Giang Province, Vietnam, in Mekong ^[1] Óc Eo may have been the port known to the geographer Ptolemy and the Romans as Kattigara. Óc Eo is an archaeological site proposed to be named by the French archaeologist site Louis Mallaret in southern An Giang Province, Vietnam, in Mekong The trade connection extended, via ports on the coasts of India and Sri Lanka, all the way to Roman-controlled ports in Egypt and the Nabataean territories on the northeastern coast of the Red Sea. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Nabataeans ( Arabic: الأنباط, Al-Anbāṭ) were an ancient Semitic people Arabs of southern Jordan, Canaan The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. The Hou Hanshu records that a delegation of Roman envoys arrived in China by this maritime route in 166 CE; this may well have been an exaggeration, by the envoys or the scribe, of what was actually an unofficial party of Roman merchants. The Book of the Later Han ( is one of the official Chinese Historical works which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century, using

Castaways

Pomponius Mela (Book III,Chapter 5), copied by Pliny the Elder, wrote that Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer, proconsul in Gaul, 59 BC, got 'several Indians' (Indi) as a present from a Germanic king. Pomponius Mela, who wrote around AD 43, was the earliest Roman Geographer. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author The Caecilii Metelli were one of the most important and wealthiest families in the Roman Republic. Ancient Rome In the Roman Republic, a proconsul was a Promagistrate (like a Propraetor) who after serving as Consul, spent a year Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Germanic monarchy, also called barbarian monarchy, was a monarchical systemof government which was predominant among the Germanic tribes of Late Antiquity The Indians were driven by a storm to the coasts of Germania (in tempestatem ex Indicis aequoribus):

Metellus Celer recalls the following: when he was Proconsul in Gaul, he was given people from India by the king of the Sueves; upon asking why they were in this land, he learnt that they were caught in a storm away from India, that they became castaways, and finally landed on the coasts of Germany. Germania was the Latin Exonym for Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western The Suebi or Suevi (from Proto-Germanic * swēbaz based on the Proto-Germanic root * swē- meaning "one's own" They thus resisted the sea, but suffered from the cold for the rest of their travel, and that is the reason why they left. (Sueves is an emendation to the text. Textual criticism (or lower criticism) is a branch of Literary criticism that is concerned with the identification and removal of Transcription errors in )

It is unclear whether these castaways were people from India or Eastern Asia, since "Indians" designated all Asians, Indian and beyond, during Roman times. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Pomponius is using these Indi as evidence for the Northeast Passage and the northward strait out of the Caspian Sea (which in Antiquity was usually thought to be open to Oceanus in the north). The Northern Sea Route (Се́верный морско́й путь Severniy morskoy put’) is a Shipping lane from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. Ocean (Ὠκεανός was believed to be the world-ocean in Classical antiquity, which the ancient Romans and Greeks considered to be Edward Herbert Bunbury suggests that they were of Finnish origin. Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury 9th Baronet ( 8 July 1811 - 5 March 1895) known as Edward Bunbury until 1886 was a British Liberal The terms Finns and Finnish people ( Finnish: suomalaiset, Swedish: finländare) are used in English to There are also some speculations that they may have been American Indians castaway across the Atlantic. Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact describes alleged interactions between the Indigenous peoples of the Americas and peoples of other continents – Africa,

Some confusion may be suspected in this passage since Metellus Celer died before taking up his proconsulship, thus leaving it free for Julius Caesar.

Roman soldiers in the East

The Roman prisoners of the Battle of Carrhae were brought to Margiana by king Orodes. The Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC was a decisive victory for the Parthian Spahbod Surena over the Roman general Crassus near Margu (Greek Margiana) was a Satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire mentioned in the Behistun inscriptions of ca Orodes II of Parthia (also called Hyrodes) ruled the Parthian Empire from 57 to 38 BC

There are several known instances of Roman soldiers being captured by the Parthians and transferred to the East for border duty. According to Pliny, in 54 BCE, after losing at the battle of Carrhae, 10,000 Roman prisoners were displaced by the Parthians to Margiana to man the frontier (of the 40,000 troops under Crassus, half had lost their lives, one quarter escaped, and one quarter were taken prisoner):

"It was to this place (Margiana) that Orodes conducted such of the Romans as had survived the defeat of Crassus" (Plin. Year 54 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Appius Claudius Pulcher and The Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC was a decisive victory for the Parthian Spahbod Surena over the Roman general Crassus near Margu (Greek Margiana) was a Satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire mentioned in the Behistun inscriptions of ca Orodes II of Parthia (also called Hyrodes) ruled the Parthian Empire from 57 to 38 BC Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca Hist. Nat. 6. 18^[2])

About 18 years later the nomadic Xiongnu chief Zhizhi established a state in the nearby Talas valley, near modern day Taraz. The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes The Talas River crosses the territory of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Taraz ( Тараз) formerly Talas, Zhambyl (Kazakh Жамбы́л and Aulie-Ata (Kazakh Әулие́-Ата Chagatai: اولياه The Chinese have an account by Ban Gu of about "a hundred men" under the command of Zhizhi who fought in a so-called "fish-scale formation" to defend Zhizhi's wooden-palisade fortress against Han forces, in the Battle of Zhizhi in 36 BCE. Ban Gu ( 32–92 Courtesy name Mengjian (孟堅 was a 1st century Chinese historian best known for his part in compiling the Book of Han The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Battle of Zhizhi (郅支之戰 was a Battle between the Han Dynasty and the Zhizhi Guduhou Chanyu (sometimes known as Western Xiongnu Year 36 BC was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The historian Homer Dubs claimed that this might have been the Roman testudo formation and that these men, who were captured by the Chinese, were able to found the village of Liqian (Li-chien) in Yongchang County. In Ancient Roman Warfare the testudo or tortoise formation was a formation used commonly by the Roman Legions during battles particularly sieges Liqian ( Chinese: 骊靬 Pinyin: líqián is a defunct county in today's northern province of Gansu in China. Yongchang County (永昌县 is a county located in the province of Gansu in China ^[3] There is, however, no evidence that these men were Romans,^[4] and recent DNA testing of the male inhabitants of Liqian does not support the hypothesis. A genealogical DNA test examines the Nucleotides at specific locations on a person's DNA for Genetic genealogy purposes ^[5]

A Roman inscription of the 2nd—3rd centuries CE has been found in eastern Uzbekistan in the Kara-Kamar cave complex, which has been analysed as belonging to some Roman soldiers from the Pannonian Legio XV Apollinaris:^[6]

PANN

G. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Pannonia is an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, Legio XV Apollinaris ("devoted to Apollo " was a Roman legion. REX

AP. LG

The expedition of Ban Chao

The Chinese impression of the Daqin people, from the Ming Dynasty encyclopedia Sancai Tuhui

In 97, Ban Chao crossed the Tian Shan and Pamir mountains with an army of 70,000 men in a campaign against the Xiongnu/Huns, who were harassing the trade routes now known as the Silk Road. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led The Sancai Tuhui (三才圖會 compiled by Shanghai natives Wang Qi (王圻 and Wang Siyi (王思義 is a Chinese encyclopedia (known at that time Year 97 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Control of the Tarim Basin Ban Chao like his predecessors Huo Qubing and Wei Qing from the earlier-half of the Han Dynasty before him is said to The Tian Shan (天山 Pinyin: Tiān Shān "celestial mountains" also commonly spelled Tien Shan, is a Mountain range located in Central The Pamir Mountains are located in Central Asia and are formed by the junction or Knot of the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, and The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the The Han general made an alliance with the Parthian king Mithradates II and established his base on shores of the Caspian Sea and at Antiochia Margiana (Merv) at the eastern outpost of the Parthian Kingdom (NOTE: The correct information here should state that Han general Ban Chao established an alliance with the Parthian king Pacorus II of Parthia, as Mithradates II was already dead by the time Ban Chao arrived in Parthia). Mithridates II (the Great was king of Parthia from 123 to 88 BC The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. Merv ( Russian: Мерв from Persian: مرو Marv, sometimes transliterated Marw or Mary; cf Merv ( Russian: Мерв from Persian: مرو Marv, sometimes transliterated Marw or Mary; cf Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Pacorus II of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire from about 78 to 105 It was from here that the Han general dispatched envoy Gan Ying to Daqin (Rome). Daqin ( is the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire and the Near East. Gan Ying left a detailed account of western countries, although he apparently only reached as far as Mesopotamia. While he intended to sail to Rome through the Black Sea, some Parthian merchants, interested in maintaining their profitable role as the middleman in the trade between China and Rome, falsely told him the dangerous trip would take two years at the least (when it was actually closer to two months). Deterred, he returned home.

Gan Ying left an account on Rome (Daqin in Chinese) which may have relied on second-hand sources. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Daqin ( is the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire and the Near East. He locates it to the west of the sea:

Its territory covers several thousand li [a "li" is around half a kilometre], it has over 400 walled cities. This article is about two traditional Chinese units of length Several tens of small states are subject to it. The outer walls of the cities are made of stones. They have established posting stations… There are pines and cypresses. (Hou Hanshu, cited in Leslie and Gardiner).

He also describes the adoptive monarchy of the Emperor Nerva, and Roman physical appearance and products:

As for the king, he is not a permanent figure but is chosen as the man most worthy… The people in this country are tall and regularly featured. Marcus Cocceius Nerva was also the name of a Roman emperor NERVA is an acronym for Nuclear Engine for Rocket They resemble the Chinese, and that is why the country is called Da Qin (The "Great" Qin)… The soil produced lots of gold, silver and rare jewels, including the jewel which shines at night… they sew embroidered tissues with gold threads to form tapestries and damask of many colours, and make a gold-painted cloth, and a "cloth washed-in-the-fire" (asbestos). Asbestos is a group of Minerals with long thin fibrous Crystals The word "asbestos" (῾ἀσβεστος is derived from a Greek adjective (Hou Hanshu, cited in Leslie and Gardiner).

Finally Gan Ying determines Rome correctly as the main economic power at the western end of Eurasia:

It is from this country that all the various marvellous and rare objects of foreign states come. (Hou Hanshu, cited in Leslie and Gardiner).

The eastern travels of Maes Titianus

Maes Titianus went as far as Tashkurgan, known as the "Stone Tower" in Antiquity, the doorstep to China (in blue). China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National

Maës Titianus was the ancient traveller of Hellenistic culture^[7] who penetrated farthest east along the Silk Road from the Mediterranean world. Maës Titianus was an ancient traveller of Hellenistic culture who is recorded as having travelled farthest along the Silk Road from the Mediterranean world This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the In the early second century CE^[8] or at the end of the first century BCE,^[9] during a lull in the intermittent Roman struggles with Parthia, his party reached the famous Stone Tower, Tashkurgan,^[10] in the Pamirs. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Pamir Mountains are located in Central Asia and are formed by the junction or Knot of the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, and

First Roman embassy

With the expansion of the Roman Empire in the Middle East during the 2nd century, the Romans gained the capability to develop shipping and trade in the Indian Ocean. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface Several ports containing Roman ruins have been excavated on the coast of India.

Ptolemy's world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geographia (circa 150), indicating "Sinae" (China) at the extreme right, beyond the island of "Taprobane" (Sri Lanka, oversized) and the "Aurea Chersonesus" (Southeast Asian peninsula). Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca The Geographia or Geography is Ptolemy 's main work besides the Almagest. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island

Groups of Romans probably travelled farther eastwards, either on Roman, Indian, or Chinese ships. The first group of people claiming to be an ambassadorial mission of Romans to China was recorded in 166, sixty years after the westbound expeditions of the Chinese general Ban Chao. Control of the Tarim Basin Ban Chao like his predecessors Huo Qubing and Wei Qing from the earlier-half of the Han Dynasty before him is said to The embassy came to Emperor Huan of Han China "from Antun (Emperor Antoninus Pius), king of Daqin (Rome)". Family background and ascension Liu Zhi was born in 132 to Liu Yi (劉翼 the Marquess of Liwu and his Concubine Yan Ming (匽明 The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus ( September 19, 86 &ndash March 7 161) generally known in English as Antoninus Pius Daqin ( is the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire and the Near East. (As Antoninus Pius died in 161, leaving the empire to his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus), and the convoy arrived in 166, confusion remains about who sent the mission given that both Emperors were named 'Antoninus'. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise" ( April 26, 121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor ) The Roman mission came from the south (therefore probably by sea), entering China by the frontier of Jinan or Tonkin. This article is about the body of water For other uses see SEA and Seas. Jinan ( in some literatures the pinyin without tones is given as Ji'nan, to disambiguate from a possible misreading as Jin'an is a Sub-provincial city Tonkin (Đông Kinh in Vietnamese) also spelled Tongkin, Tonquin or Tongking, is the northernmost part of Vietnam, south of It brought presents of rhinoceros horns, ivory, and tortoise shell, probably been acquired in Southern Asia. Rhinoceros (raɪˈnɒsərəs often colloquially abbreviated rhino, is a name used to group five extant species of Odd-toed ungulates in the family A horn is a pointed projection of the Skin on the head of various Mammals consisting of a covering of horn ( Keratin and other Proteins Ivory is formed from Dentine and constitutes the bulk of the Teeth and Tusks of animals such as the Elephant, Hippopotamus, Tortoises or land Turtles are land-dwelling Reptiles of the family of Testudinidae', order Testudines. About the same time, and possibly through this embassy, the Chinese acquired a treatise of astronomy from the Romans. A treatise is a formal lengthy systematic Discourse on some subject Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study

The existence of China was clearly known to Roman cartographers of the time, since its name and position is depicted in Ptolemy's Geographia, which is dated to c. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca 150. On the map, China is located beyond the Aurea Chersonesus ("Golden Peninsula"), which refers to the Southeast Asian peninsula. A peninsula is a piece of land that is nearly surrounded by Water but connected to Mainland via an Isthmus. It is shown as being on the Magnus Sinus ("Great Gulf"), which presumably corresponds to the known areas of the China Sea at the time; although Ptolemy represents it as tending to the southeast rather than to the northeast. The China Seas consists of the seas of the Western Pacific Ocean Yellow Sea East China Sea South China Sea Trade throughout the Indian Ocean was extensive from the 2nd century, and many trading ports with links to Roman communities have been identified in India and Sri Lanka along the route used by the Roman mission. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface The 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island

Other Roman embassies

Detail of Asia in Ptolemy's world map. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Gulf of the Ganges left, Southeast Asian peninsula in the center, China Sea right, with "Sinae" (China). The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent

Other embassies may have been sent after this first encounter, but were not recorded, until an account appears about presents sent in the early 3rd century by the Roman Emperor to Cao Rui of the Kingdom of Wei (reigned 227–239) in Northern China. The 3rd century is the period from 201 to 300 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Cao Rui ( 205 - 22 January 239) was the son of Cao Pi and the second emperor of the Cao Wei. Cao Wei ( was one of the empires that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period Events By Place Europe Ireland — The rule of High King Cormac mac Airt begins (approximate Events By Place Asia In the Chinese Kingdom of Wei, Wei Qi Wang succeeds Wei Ming Di. The presents consisted of articles of glass in a variety of colours. While several Roman Emperors ruled during this time, the embassy, if genuine, may have been sent by Alexander Severus; since his successors reigned briefly and were busy with civil wars. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander, commonly called Alexander Severus, (October 1 208 &ndash March 18, 235) was the last Roman emperor

Another embassy from Daqin is recorded in the year 284, as bringing presents to the Chinese empire. Events By Place Roman Empire November 20 — Diocletian becomes Emperor. This embassy presumably was sent by the Emperor Carus (282–283), whose short reign was occupied with war with Persia. Marcus Aurelius Carus (c 230 - late July/early August 283 was a Roman Emperor (282-283 Events By Place Roman Empire Emperor Probus is slain in a battle against the usurper Carus, an Illyrian and Praetorian Events By place Roman Empire Carus conquers Ctesiphon, capital of the Persian kingdom. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire

Notes

See also

• Foreign relations of Imperial China
• List of tributaries of Imperial China
• Kangnido map
• Later Han History, Hou Hanshu. Imperial China had a long tradition of Foreign relations. From the Qin Dynasty until the Qing Dynasty, Chinese civilization The following is a list of tributaries of Imperial China. Chronological list Many entities have paid Tribute to Imperial China The Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Jido ("Map of Integrated Lands and Regions of Historical Countries and Capitals" short name Gangnido (Kangnido) is a map of the world The Book of the Later Han ( is one of the official Chinese Historical works which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century, using
• Ptolemy world map
• Silk Road

External links and references

• Accounts of Daqin in the Chinese history of the Later Han Hou Hanshu [1]
• Hill, John E. PtomelyAsiaDetailjpg|thumb|350px|Detail of East and Southeast Asia in Ptolemy 's world map The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Daqin ( is the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire and the Near East. The Book of the Later Han ( is one of the official Chinese Historical works which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century, using 2004. The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. Draft annotated English translation. [2]
• Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265. Events By Place Asia In the Chinese Kingdom of Wei, Wei Qi Wang succeeds Wei Ming Di. Events By Place Roman Empire Gallienus repels the invasion of the Goths in the Balkans. Draft annotated English translation. [3]
• Henry Yule. Sir Henry Yule ( May 1, 1820 - December 30, 1889) was a Scottish Orientalist. Cathay and the Way Thither. 1915.
• http://www.silk-road.com/artl/romanenvoy.shtml
• The Origins of Roman Li-chien
• The Lost Legion (Italian) (English)
• Did the Romans settle in Yongchang County, Gansu Province, China?
• The Romans in China. They came，saw and settled
• Romans in China?
• Los Angeles Times: "Digging for Romans in China"; August 24, 2000