Sigmund Freud
Photo of Sigmund Freud, 1938
Born	May 6, 1856(1856-05-06) Freiberg, Moravia, now the Czech Republic
Died	September 23, 1939 (aged 83) London, England
Residence	Austria, (later) England
Nationality	Austrian
Ethnicity	Jewish
Fields	Neurology, Philosophy, Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychotherapy, Psychoanalysis
Institutions	University of Vienna
Alma mater	University of Vienna
Doctoral advisor	Jean-Martin Charcot, (later) Josef Breuer
Doctoral students	Alfred Adler, John Bowlby, Viktor Frankl, Anna Freud, Ernest Jones, Carl Jung, Melanie Klein, Jacques Lacan, Fritz Perls, Otto Rank, Wilhelm Reich, Donald Winnicott
Known for	Psychoanalysis
Notable awards	Goethe Prize

Sigmund Freud (IPA: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt]), born Shlomo Sigismund Freud (May 6, 1856 – September 23, 1939), was an Austrian physician who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology. Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance. Year 1856 ( MDCCCLVI) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Příbor (ˈpr̝̊ibor Freiberg in Mähren is a town in the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. Moravia (Morava; Morawy Moravie Moravia is a historical region in central Europe in the east of the Czech Republic, one of the former Czech lands. The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior The University of Vienna (Universität Wien is a Public university located in Vienna, Austria. Alma mater is Latin for "nourishing mother" It was used in Ancient Rome as a title for the mother Goddess, and in Medieval A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement Jean-Martin Charcot ( 29 November 1825 – 16 August 1893) was a French Neurologist and professor of Anatomical pathology Josef Breuer ( January 15, 1842 – June 20, 1925) was an Austrian Physician whose works lay the foundation of Psychoanalysis Alfred Adler ( February 7 1870 &ndash May 28 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychologist and founder of John Bowlby ( February 26, 1907 – September 2, 1990) was a British psychiatrist and psychoanalyst notable for his interest in child Viktor Emil Frankl MD, PhD, ( March 26, 1905 - September 2, 1997) was an Austrian neurologist Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud Alfred Ernest Jones ( January 1, 1879 – February 11, 1958) Welsh Neurologist, Psychoanalyst and Sigmund Melanie Klein ( March 30 1882 – September 22 1960) was an Austrian born Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst Friedrich (Frederick Salomon Perls ( July 8 1893 Berlin – March 14 1970, Chicago better known as Fritz Perls, was a noted German Otto Rank ( April 22, 1884 – October 31, 1939) was an Austrian Psychoanalyst, writer teacher and therapist Wilhelm Reich ( March 24, 1897 – November 3, 1957) was an Austrian-American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. Donald Woods Winnicott ( 7 April, 1896 - January 28, 1971) was a pediatrician and psychoanalyst Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior The Goethe Prize of Frankfurt-am-Main ( Goethepreis der Stadt Frankfurt) is a German Literary award of high prestige (not restricted to writers though Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance. Year 1856 ( MDCCCLVI) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and ^[1] Freud is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and the defense mechanism of repression and for creating the clinical practice of psychoanalysis for curing psychopathology through a particular form of dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Many observers throughout history have argued that there are influences on Consciousness from other parts of the Mind. Psychological repression, or simply repression, is the psychological act of excluding desires and Impulses (wishes Fantasies or feelings Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of Mental illness or mental distress or the manifestation of behaviours and experiences which may be indicative He is also renowned for his redefinition of sexual desire as the primary motivational energy of human life which is directed toward a wide variety of objects, as well as his therapeutic techniques, including the use of free association, his theory of transference in the therapeutic relationship, and the interpretation of dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires. Libido in its common usage means Sexual desire however more technical definitions such as those found in the work of Carl Jung, are more general referring to libido Transference is a phenomenon in Psychoanalysis characterized by unconscious redirection of feelings for one person to another Dreams are the images sounds thoughts and feelings experienced while Sleeping, particularly strongly associated with Rapid eye movement sleep.

Biography

Early life

Sigmund Freud was born on 6 May 1856 to Galician Jewish^[2] parents in Příbor (German: Freiberg in Mähren), Moravia, Austrian Empire, now Czech Republic. Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance. Year 1856 ( MDCCCLVI) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Galician Jews or Galitzianer Jews are a subdivision of the Ashkenazim geographically originating from Galicia, from western Ukraine (current Příbor (ˈpr̝̊ibor Freiberg in Mähren is a town in the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Moravia (Morava; Morawy Moravie Moravia is a historical region in central Europe in the east of the Czech Republic, one of the former Czech lands. For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, His father Jakob was 41, a wool merchant, and had two children by a previous marriage. His mother Amalié (née Nathansohn), the second wife of Jakob, was 21. He was the first of their seven children and owing to his precocious intellect, his parents favoured him over his siblings from the early stages of his childhood; and despite their poverty, they sacrificed everything to give him a proper education. Due to the economic crisis of 1857, father Freud lost his business, and the family moved first to Leipzig, Germany before settling in Vienna, Austria. The Panic of 1857 was a sudden downturn in the economy of the United States that occurred in 1857 This sort of fix restores section edit linkpoints to where they belong Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. In 1865, Sigmund entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. Freud was an outstanding pupil and graduated the Matura in 1873 with honors. Matura (Matur Maturita Maturità Maturität матура is the word commonly used in Austria, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria

Part of a series of articles on Psychoanalysis

Constructs Psychosexual development Psychosocial development Conscious • Preconscious • Unconscious Psychic Apparatus Id, ego, and super-ego Libido • Drive Transference • Sublimation • Resistance Important figures Sigmund Freud • Carl Jung Alfred Adler • Otto Rank Anna Freud • Margaret Mahler Karen Horney • Jacques Lacan Ronald Fairbairn • Melanie Klein Harry Stack Sullivan Erik Erikson • Nancy Chodorow Susan Sutherland Isaacs Ernest Jones • Heinz Kohut Important works The Interpretation of Dreams Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis "Beyond the Pleasure Principle" Civilization and Its Discontents Schools of thought Self psychology • Lacanian Analytical psychology • Object relations Interpersonal • Relational Ego psychology

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After planning to study law, Freud joined the medical faculty at University of Vienna to study under Darwinist Prof. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior The concept of psychosexual development, as envisioned by Sigmund Freud at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century is a central element in his sexual Psychosocial development as articulated by Erik Erikson explains Eight Stages through which a healthily developing Human should pass from Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the See also Consciousness Jacques Lacan Philosophy of mind Rapid eye movement sleep Many observers throughout history have argued that there are influences on Consciousness from other parts of the Mind. The term psychic apparatus (sometimes translated as psychical apparatus or mental apparatus) is a central concept of Freudian Metapsychology. Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of Libido in its common usage means Sexual desire however more technical definitions such as those found in the work of Carl Jung, are more general referring to libido Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior especially Human behavior as studied in Philosophy, Conflict, Economics Transference is a phenomenon in Psychoanalysis characterized by unconscious redirection of feelings for one person to another In Psychology, sublimation is a coping mechanism It has its roots in the Nietzschean & psychoanalytical approach and is often also referred to as a type Psychological resistance is the phenomenon often encountered in clinical practice in which patients either directly or indirectly oppose changing their behavior or refuse to discuss Alfred Adler ( February 7 1870 &ndash May 28 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychologist and founder of Otto Rank ( April 22, 1884 – October 31, 1939) was an Austrian Psychoanalyst, writer teacher and therapist Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud Margaret Schönberger Mahler ( May 10 1897 – October 2 1985) was a Hungarian physician who later became interested in psychiatry Karen Horney (pronounced "horn-eye" /hɔrnaɪ/ born Danielsen ( September 16, 1885 – December 4, 1952) was a German Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst William Ronald Dodds Fairbairn ( 11 August 1889 - 31 December 1964) was a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society. Melanie Klein ( March 30 1882 – September 22 1960) was an Austrian born Herbert "Harry" Stack Sullivan ( February 21, 1892, Norwich New York – January 14, 1949, Paris, France Erik Homburger Erikson ( June 15, 1902 – May 12, 1994) was born in Frankfurt to Danish parents but later obtained Nancy Julia Chodorow is a feminist sociologist and psychoanalyst born 20 January 1944 in New York City. Susan Sutherland Isaacs (née Fairhurst (1885–1948 was an English educational Psychologist and Psychoanalyst. Alfred Ernest Jones ( January 1, 1879 – February 11, 1958) Welsh Neurologist, Psychoanalyst and Sigmund Heinz Kohut May 3 1913 &ndash October 8 1981 is best known for his development of Self Psychology, a school of thought The Interpretation of Dreams is a book by Sigmund Freud. The first edition was first published in German in November 1899 as Die Traumdeutung The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis (Les quatres concepts fondamentaux de la psychanalyse is the English translation of one of the pivotal works of Jacques " Beyond the Pleasure Principle " (first published in German in 1920 as Jenseits des Lustprinzips) is an essay by Sigmund Freud. Civilization and Its Discontents is a book by Sigmund Freud. Written in 1929 and first published in German in 1930 as Das Unbehagen in der Kultur Self psychology is a school of Psychoanalytic theory and therapy created by Heinz Kohut and developed in the United States. Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst Analytical psychology (or Jungian psychology) refers to the school of Psychology originating from the ideas of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, and then advanced Object relations theory is a psychodynamic theory within Psychoanalytic psychology. Interpersonal psychoanalysis is based on the theories of Harry Stack Sullivan, an American Psychiatrist who believed that the details of patient's interpersonal interactions Relational psychoanalysis is a school of Psychoanalysis in the United States that emphasizes the role of real and imagined relationships with others in Mental disorder Ego psychology is a school of Psychoanalysis rooted in Sigmund Freud 's structural -- id-ego-superego -- model of the mind The University of Vienna (Universität Wien is a Public university located in Vienna, Austria. Karl Claus. Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Claus ( January 2 1835 &ndash January 18 1899 was a German zoologist At that time, eel life history was still unknown, and due to their mysterious origins and migrations, a racist association was often made between eels and Jews and Gypsies. The Eel is a long thin bony fish of the order Anguilliformes. In search for their male sex organs, Freud spent four weeks at the Austrian zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels without finding more than his predecessors such as Simon von Syrski. Trieste (Trieste Slovene and Croatian: Trst; German: Triest) is a city and port in northeastern Italy very near to In 1876, he published his first paper about "the testicles of eels" in the "Mitteilungen der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften", conceding that he could not solve the matter either. The testicle (from Latin testiculus, diminutive of testis, meaning "witness" virility plural testes) is the male True eels ( Anguilliformes) are an order of Fish, which consists of four suborders 19 families 110 Genera and approximately 600 Frustrated by the lack of success that would have gained him fame, Freud chose to change his course of study. Biographers like Siegfried Bernfeld wonder if and how this early episode was significant for his later work regarding hidden sexuality and frustrations. ^[3][4][5]

Medical school

In 1874, the concept of "psychodynamics" was proposed with the publication of Lectures on Physiology by German physiologist Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke who, in coordination with physicist Hermann von Helmholtz, one of the formulators of the first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy), supposed that all living organisms are energy-systems also governed by this principle. Psychodynamics, is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation and Ernst Wilhelm Ritter von Brücke (b Ernst Wilhelm Brücke on 6 July 1819 in Berlin, Germany; d In Thermodynamics, the first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the more universal physical law of the Conservation of energy. In Physics, the law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of Energy in an isolated system remains constant and cannot be created although it may During this year, at the University of Vienna, Brücke served as supervisor for first-year medical student Sigmund Freud who adopted this new "dynamic" physiology. The University of Vienna (Universität Wien is a Public university located in Vienna, Austria. In his Lectures on Physiology, Brücke set forth the radical view that the living organism is a dynamic system to which the laws of chemistry and physics apply. The dynamical system concept is a mathematical Formalization for any fixed "rule" which describes the Time dependence of a point's position Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. ^[6] This was the starting point for Freud's dynamic psychology of the mind and its relation to the unconscious. ^[6] The origins of Freud’s basic model, based on the fundamentals of chemistry and physics, according to John Bowlby, stems from Brücke, Meynert, Breuer, Helmholtz, and Herbart. John Bowlby ( February 26, 1907 – September 2, 1990) was a British psychiatrist and psychoanalyst notable for his interest in child Ernst Wilhelm Ritter von Brücke (b Ernst Wilhelm Brücke on 6 July 1819 in Berlin, Germany; d Theodor Meynert ( 15 June 1833 - 31 May 1892) was a German-Austrian Neuropathologist and Anatomist who was born in Josef Breuer ( January 15, 1842 – June 20, 1925) was an Austrian Physician whose works lay the foundation of Psychoanalysis Johann Friedrich Herbart ( May 4, 1776 - August 11, 1841) was a German Philosopher, Psychologist, and founder ^[7] In 1879, Freud interrupted his studies to complete his one year of obligatory military service, and in 1881 he received his Dr. med. (M. D. ) with the thesis Über das Rückenmark niederer Fischarten ("on the spinal cord of lower fish species"). The spinal cord is a long thin tubular bundle of Nerves that is an extension of the Central nervous system from the brain and is enclosed in and protected Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two

Freud and psychoanalysis

Group photo 1909 in front of Clark University. Clark University is a private University and Liberal arts college in Worcester Massachusetts. Front row: Sigmund Freud, Granville Stanley Hall, C.G.Jung; back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sandor Ferenczi. Abraham Arden Brill (1874–1948 was an American Psychiatrist. Alfred Ernest Jones ( January 1, 1879 – February 11, 1958) Welsh Neurologist, Psychoanalyst and Sigmund Sándor Ferenczi ( July 7, 1873 – May 22, 1933) was a Hungarian psychoanalyst.

19 Berggasse

Approach to Freud's consulting rooms at Berggasse

In October 1885 Freud went to Paris on a travelling fellowship to study with Europe's most renowned neurologist, Jean Martin Charcot. Jean-Martin Charcot ( 29 November 1825 – 16 August 1893) was a French Neurologist and professor of Anatomical pathology He was later to remember the experience of this stay as catalytic in turning him toward the practice of medical psychopathology and away from a less financially promising career in research neurology^[8]. Charcot specialised in the study of hysteria and its susceptibility to hypnosis which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience. Hysteria in its colloquial use describes a state of Mind, one of unmanageable Fear or Emotional excesses Hypnosis is often thought to be a wakeful state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility with diminished peripheral awareness Freud later turned away from hypnosis as a potential cure, favouring free association and dream analysis. ^[9] Charcot himself questioned his own work on hysteria towards the end of his life. ^[10]

After opening his own medical practice, specializing in neurology, Freud married Martha Bernays in 1886. Year 1886 ( MDCCCLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Her father Berman was the son of Isaac Bernays chief rabbi in Hamburg. Isaac Bernays ( 1792 - May 1 1849) was chief Rabbi in Hamburg. After experimenting with hypnosis on his neurotic patients, Freud abandoned this form of treatment as it proved ineffective for many, in favor of a treatment where the patient talked through his or her problems. Hypnosis is often thought to be a wakeful state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility with diminished peripheral awareness This came to be known as the "talking cure", as the ultimate goal of this talking was to locate and release powerful emotional energy that had initially been rejected, and imprisoned in the unconscious mind. Freud called this denial of emotions "repression", and he believed that it was often damaging to the normal functioning of the psyche, and could also retard physical functioning as well, which he described as "psychosomatic" symptoms. Psychosomatic medicine is an interdisciplinary medical field studying psychosomatic illness, now more commonly referred to as psychophysiologic illness or disorder (The term "talking cure" was initially coined by the patient Anna O. who was treated by Freud's colleague Josef Breuer. Anna O was the Pseudonym of a patient of Josef Breuer, who published her case study in his book Studies on Hysteria, written in collaboration Josef Breuer ( January 15, 1842 – June 20, 1925) was an Austrian Physician whose works lay the foundation of Psychoanalysis ) The "talking cure" is widely seen as the basis of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior ^[11]

There has long been dispute about the possibility that a romantic liaison blossomed between Freud and his sister-in-law, Minna Bernays, who had moved into Freud's apartment at 19 Berggasse in 1896. Year 1896 ( MDCCCXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year It has been suggested ^[12] that the affair resulted in a pregnancy and subsequently an abortion for Miss Bernays. A hotel log dated August 13, 1898 has been suggested to support the allegation of an affair. Events 3114 BC - According to the Lounsbury correlation the start of the Maya calendar. Year 1898 ( MDCCCXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common ^[13]

In his 40s, Freud "had numerous psychosomatic disorders as well as exaggerated fears of dying and other phobias" (Corey 2001, p. 67). During this time Freud was involved in the task of exploring his own dreams, memories, and the dynamics of his personality development. During this self-analysis, he came to realize the hostility he felt towards his father (Jacob Freud), who had died in 1896,^[14] and "he also recalled his childhood sexual feelings for his mother (Amalia Freud), who was attractive, warm, and protective" (Corey 2001, p. 67). Corey (2001) considers this time of emotional difficulty to be the most creative time in Freud's life.

After the publication of Freud's books in 1900 and 1902, interest in his theories began to grow, and a circle of supporters developed in the following period. Freud often chose to disregard the criticisms of those who were skeptical of his theories, however, which earned him the animosity of a number of individuals, the most famous being Carl Jung, who originally supported Freud's ideas. Part of the reason for their fallout was due to Jung's growing commitment to religion and mysticism, which conflicted with Freud's atheism. ^[15]

Last years

In 1930, Freud received the Goethe Prize in appreciation of his contribution to psychology and to German literary culture. The Goethe Prize of Frankfurt-am-Main ( Goethepreis der Stadt Frankfurt) is a German Literary award of high prestige (not restricted to writers though Three years later the Nazis took control of Germany and Freud's books featured prominently among those burned and destroyed by the Nazis. Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. In March 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. The ( German: "link-up" also known as the, was the 1938 Annexation of Austria into Greater Germany by the Nazi This led to violent outbursts of anti-Semitism in Vienna, and Freud and his family received visits from the Gestapo. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility The ( contraction of ge heime Sta ats' po' lizei: "Secret State Police" was the official Secret police of Nazi Germany Freud decided to go into exile "to die in freedom". He and his family left Vienna in June 1938 and traveled to London. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.

A heavy cigar smoker, Freud endured more than 30 operations during his life due to oral cancer. Oral cancer is any cancerous tissue growth located in the Mouth. In September 1939 he prevailed on his doctor and friend Max Schur to assist him in suicide. Max Schur, MD ( September 26, 1897 – October 12, 1969) was a doctor and friend of Sigmund Freud. After reading Balzac's La Peau de chagrin in a single sitting he said, "My dear Schur, you certainly remember our first talk. La Peau de chagrin (English The Magic Skin or The Wild Ass's Skin) is an 1831 Novel by French novelist and playwright You promised me then not to forsake me when my time comes. Now it is nothing but torture and makes no sense any more. " Schur administered three doses of morphine over many hours that resulted in Freud's death on September 23, 1939. ^[16] Three days after his death, Freud's body was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium in England during a service attended by Austrian refugees, including the author Stefan Zweig. Golders Green Crematorium and Mausoleum was the first crematorium to be opened in London, and one of the oldest crematoria in Britain. Stefan Zweig ( November 28, 1881, Vienna, Austria &ndash February 22, 1942, Petrópolis, Brazil) His ashes were later placed in the crematorium's columbarium. A columbarium (plural columbaria or columbariums) is a place for the respectful and usually public storage of cinerary Urns (i They rest in an ancient Greek urn which Freud had received as a present from Marie Bonaparte and which he had kept in his study in Vienna for many years. Princess Marie Bonaparte ( 2 July 1882 - 21 September 1962) was a French psychoanalyst, closely linked with Sigmund After Martha Freud's death in 1951, her ashes were also placed in that urn. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January Golders Green Crematorium has since also become the final resting place for Anna Freud and her lifelong friend Dorothy Burlingham, as well as for several other members of the Freud family. Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud

Freud's ideas

Freud has been influential in two related but distinct ways. He simultaneously developed a theory of how the human mind is organized and operates internally, and how human behavior both conditions and results from this particular theoretical understanding. MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually This led him to favor certain clinical techniques for attempting to help cure psychopathology. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as He theorized that personality is developed by the person's childhood experiences. Child article read through the various talk pages for the debate -- it's been put on and removed twice

Early work

Sigmund Freud memorial in Hampstead, North London. Hampstead is an area of London, England, located north-west of Charing Cross. Sigmund and Anna Freud lived at 20 Maresfield Gardens, near to this statue. Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud Their house is now a museum dedicated to Freud's life and work. [1] The building behind the statue is the Tavistock Clinic, a major psychiatric institution. See Tavistock Institute for the independent charity focussing on group relations

Since neurology and psychiatry were not recognized as distinct medical fields at the time of Freud's training, the medical degree he obtained after studying for six years at the University of Vienna board certified him in both fields, although he is far more well-known for his work in the latter. Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric The University of Vienna (Universität Wien is a Public university located in Vienna, Austria. As far as neurology went, Freud was an early researcher on the topic of neurophysiology, specifically cerebral palsy, which was then known as "cerebral paralysis. Neurophysiology (from Greek grc νεῦρον neuron, "nerve" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία Cerebral palsy ( CP) is an Umbrella term encompassing a group of non-progressive, non- contagious conditions that cause Physical disability " He published several medical papers on the topic, and showed that the disease existed far before other researchers in his day began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during the birth process being a cause. This article is about the English surgeon for other people named William Little see William Little (disambiguation. Cerebral palsy ( CP) is an Umbrella term encompassing a group of non-progressive, non- contagious conditions that cause Physical disability Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom of the problem. It was not until the 1980s that Freud's speculations were confirmed by more modern research.

Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring to consciousness repressed thoughts and feelings in order to free the patient from the suffering caused by the repetitive return of distorted forms of these thoughts and feelings. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the According to some of his successors, including his daughter Anna Freud, the goal of therapy is to allow the patient to develop a stronger ego; according to others, notably Jacques Lacan, the goal of therapy is to lead the analysand to a full acknowledgment of his or her inability to satisfy the most basic desires. Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior

Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feelings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging the patient to talk in free association and to talk about dreams. Another important element of psychoanalysis is a relative lack of direct involvement on the part of the analyst, which is meant to encourage the patient to project thoughts and feelings onto the analyst. Through this process, transference, the patient can reenact and resolve repressed conflicts, especially childhood conflicts with (or about) parents. Transference is a phenomenon in Psychoanalysis characterized by unconscious redirection of feelings for one person to another

The origin of Freud's early work with psychoanalysis can be linked to Joseph Breuer. Josef Breuer ( January 15, 1842 – June 20, 1925) was an Austrian Physician whose works lay the foundation of Psychoanalysis Freud actually credits Breuer with the discovery of the psychoanalytical method. One case started this phenomenon that would shape the field of psychology for decades to come, the case of Anna O. In 1880 a young girl came to Breuer with symptoms of what was then called female hysteria. Anna O was the Pseudonym of a patient of Josef Breuer, who published her case study in his book Studies on Hysteria, written in collaboration Female hysteria was a once-common medical diagnosis made exclusively in women which is today no longer recognized by modern medical authorities as a medical disorder Anna O. was a highly intelligent 21-year-old woman. She presented with symptoms such as paralysis of the limbs, dissociation, and amnesia; today this set of symptoms are known as conversion disorder. Dissociation is a state of acute mental Decompensation in which certain Thoughts Emotions Sensations and/or memories are Conversion disorder is a condition where patients present with neurological symptoms such as Numbness, Paralysis, or fits, but where no neurological explanation After many doctors had given up and accused Anna O. of faking her symptoms, Breuer decided to treat her sympathetically, which he did with all of his patients. He started to hear her mumble words during what he called states of absence. Eventually Breuer started to recognize some of the words and wrote them down. He then hypnotized her and repeated the words to her; Breuer found out that the words were associated with her father's illness and death.

In the early 1890s Freud used a form of treatment based on the one that Breuer had described to him, modified by what he called his "pressure technique". The traditional story, based on Freud's later accounts of this period, is that as a result of his use of this procedure most of his patients in the mid-1890s reported early childhood sexual abuse. He believed these stories, but after being heavily criticized for this belief and hearing a patient tell the story about Freud's personal friend being a victimizer, Freud concluded that his patients were fantasizing the abuse scenes.

In 1896 Freud posited that the symptoms of 'hysteria' and obsessional neurosis derived from unconscious memories of sexual abuse in infancy, and claimed that he had uncovered such incidents for every single one of his current patients (one third of whom were men). However a close reading of his papers and letters from this period indicates that these patients did not report early childhood sexual abuse as he later claimed: rather, he based his claims on analytically inferring the supposed incidents, using a procedure that was heavily dependent on the symbolic interpretation of somatic symptoms.

Freud and cocaine

Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic. Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant He wrote several articles on the antidepressant qualities of the drug and he was influenced by his friend and confidant Wilhelm Fliess, who recommended cocaine for the treatment of the "nasal reflex neurosis. An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression Wilhelm Fliess ( 24 October 1858 &ndash 13 October 1928) was a German Otolaryngologist who practised in Berlin " Fliess operated on Freud and a number of Freud's patients whom he believed to be suffering from the disorder, including Emma Eckstein, whose surgery proved disastrous. Emma Eckstein (1865 - 1924 was an early patient of Sigmund Freud who underwent disastrous nasal surgery undertaken by Freud's friend and confidant Wilhelm Fliess .

Freud felt that cocaine would work as a panacea for many disorders and wrote a well-received paper, "On Coca," explaining its virtues. He prescribed it to his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow to help him overcome a morphine addiction he had acquired while treating a disease of the nervous system. Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow (1846&ndash1891 was an Austrian physiologist and Physician who became known for his important investigations on the electrical activity The term " addiction " is used in many contexts to describe an obsession compulsion or excessive Physical dependence or psychological dependence such as Freud also recommended it to many of his close family and friends. He narrowly missed out on obtaining scientific priority for discovering cocaine's anesthetic properties (of which Freud was aware but on which he had not written extensively), after Karl Koller, a colleague of Freud's in Vienna, presented a report to a medical society in 1884 outlining the ways in which cocaine could be used for delicate eye surgery. In Science, priority is the claim and recognition of first discovery or theory Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις Karl Koller may refer to Karl Koller (ophthalmologist (or Carl Koller Karl Koller (general Karl Koller (footballer Freud was bruised by this, especially because this would turn out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world. Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished because of this early ambition. Furthermore, Freud's friend Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute case of "cocaine psychosis" as a result of Freud's prescriptions and died a few years later. Freud felt great regret over these events, which later biographers have dubbed "The Cocaine Incident. " However, he managed to move on, and even continued to use cocaine.

The Unconscious

Perhaps the most significant contribution Freud made to Western thought were his arguments concerning the importance of the unconscious mind in understanding conscious thought and behavior. Many observers throughout history have argued that there are influences on Consciousness from other parts of the Mind. The western world overwhelmingly supported positivism up until Freud's time- the belief that self-knowledge as well as self-control is possible. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings Positivism is the Philosophy that the only authentic knowledge is knowledge that is based on actual sense experience Freud, however, came up with a revolutionary as well as controversial idea by declaring that people essentially have no free will.

As psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer, among others, pointed out, "contrary to what most people believe, the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. In 1890, when psychoanalysis was still unheard of, William James, in his monumental treatise on psychology, examined the way Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, Janet, Binet and others had used the term 'unconscious' and 'subconscious'". For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation William James (January 11 1842 – August 26 1910 was a pioneering Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann ( February 23, 1842 &ndash June 5, 1906) was a German Philosopher. Pierre Marie Félix Janet ( May 30 1859 - February 24 1947) was a pioneering French Psychiatrist and Philosopher in the Alfred Binet ( July 8, 1857 &ndash October 18, 1911) French Psychologist and Inventor of the first usable ^[17] Boris Sidis, a Russian Jew who emigrated to the United States of America in 1887, and studied under William James, wrote The Psychology of Suggestion: A Research into the Subconscious Nature of Man and Society in 1898, followed by ten or more works over the next twenty five years on similar topics to the works of Freud. Boris Sidis PhD MD ( October 12, 1867 - October 24, 1923) was a Russian Jewish Psychologist, Physician For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation William James (January 11 1842 – August 26 1910 was a pioneering Historian of psychology Mark Altschule concluded, "It is difficult - or perhaps impossible - to find a nineteenth-century psychologist or psychiatrist who did not recognize unconscious cerebration as not only real but of the highest importance. "^[18] Freud's advance was not, then, to uncover the unconscious but to devise a method for systematically studying it, and his claims about the dynamics and structure of the unconscious.

Freud called dreams the "royal road to the unconscious". Dreams are the images sounds thoughts and feelings experienced while Sleeping, particularly strongly associated with Rapid eye movement sleep. By this, he meant that dreams illustrate the "logic" of the unconscious mind. Freud developed his first topology of the psyche in The Interpretation of Dreams (1899) in which he proposed the argument that the unconscious exists and described a method for gaining access to it. Topology ( Greek topos, "place" and logos, "study" is the branch of Mathematics that studies the properties of The Interpretation of Dreams is a book by Sigmund Freud. The first edition was first published in German in November 1899 as Die Traumdeutung The preconscious was described as a layer between conscious and unconscious thought—that which we could access with a little effort. See also Consciousness Jacques Lacan Philosophy of mind Rapid eye movement sleep Thus, Freud argued against any attempts to repress the unconscious and instead believed that it needed to be understood in order to achieve the ideals of the Enlightenment, positivism and rationalism. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286

One key factor in the operation of the unconscious is "repression. Psychological repression, or simply repression, is the psychological act of excluding desires and Impulses (wishes Fantasies or feelings " Freud believed that many people "repress" painful memories deep into their unconscious mind. Although Freud later attempted to find patterns of repression among his patients in order to derive a general model of the mind, he also observed that repression varies among individual patients. Freud also argued that the act of repression did not take place within a person's consciousness. Thus, people are unaware of the fact that they have buried memories or traumatic experiences.

Later, Freud distinguished between three concepts of the unconscious: the descriptive unconscious, the dynamic unconscious, and the system unconscious. The descriptive unconscious referred to all those features of mental life of which people are not subjectively aware. The dynamic unconscious, a more specific construct, referred to mental processes and contents which are defensively removed from consciousness as a result of conflicting attitudes. A social construction or social construct is any phenomenon "invented" or "constructed" by participants in a particular Culture or Society The system unconscious denoted the idea that when mental processes are repressed, they become organized by principles different from those of the conscious mind, such as condensation and displacement.

Eventually, Freud abandoned the idea of the system unconscious, replacing it with the concept of the Ego, super-ego, and id (discussed below). Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of Throughout his career, however, he retained the descriptive and dynamic conceptions of the unconscious.

Psychosexual development

Main article: Psychosexual development

Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and thus turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material. The concept of psychosexual development, as envisioned by Sigmund Freud at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century is a central element in his sexual The word mythology (from the Greek grc μυθολογία mythología, meaning "a story-telling a legendary lore" Freud named his new theory the Oedipus complex after the famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. The Oedipus complex, in Freudian Psychoanalysis, is named after the Greek mythical character Oedipus, who unknowingly kills his father Oedipus the King ( Ancient Greek: tyrannos Modern Greek: ( "Oedipus the Tyrant" also known as Oedipus Rex, is a Sophocles (ˈsɒfəkliːz Ancient Greek, sopʰoklɛ̂ːs circa "I found in myself a constant love for my mother, and jealousy of my father. I now consider this to be a universal event in childhood," Freud said. Freud sought to anchor this pattern of development in the dynamics of the mind. Each stage is a progression into adult sexual maturity, characterized by a strong ego and the ability to delay gratification (cf. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality). Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality is a 1905 work by Sigmund Freud which advanced his theory of sexuality, in particular its relation to He used the Oedipus conflict to point out how much he believed that people desire incest and must repress that desire. Incest refers to any sexual activity between closely related persons (often within the immediate family that is illegal or socially Taboo. The Oedipus conflict was described as a state of psychosexual development and awareness. He also turned to anthropological studies of totemism and argued that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedipal conflict. Cultural anthropology is one of four fields of Anthropology (the holistic study of humanity) as it developed in the United States. A totem is any supposed entity that watches over or assists a group of people such as a family Clan or tribe ( Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary and Webster's The Oedipus complex, in Freudian Psychoanalysis, is named after the Greek mythical character Oedipus, who unknowingly kills his father

Freud originally posited childhood sexual abuse as a general explanation for the origin of neuroses, but he abandoned this so-called "seduction theory" as insufficiently explanatory, noting that he had found many cases in which apparent memories of childhood sexual abuse were based more on imagination than on real events. Sexual abuse, also referred to as molestation, is the forcing of undesired sexual acts by one person upon another During the late 1890s Freud, who never abandoned his belief in the sexual etiology of neuroses, began to emphasize fantasies built around the Oedipus complex as the primary cause of hysteria and other neurotic symptoms. Despite this change in his explanatory model, Freud always recognized that some neurotics had been sexually abused by their fathers, and was quite explicit about discussing several patients whom he knew to have been abused. ^[19]

Freud also believed that the libido developed in individuals by changing its object, a process codified by the concept of sublimation. Libido in its common usage means Sexual desire however more technical definitions such as those found in the work of Carl Jung, are more general referring to libido In Psychology, sublimation is a coping mechanism It has its roots in the Nietzschean & psychoanalytical approach and is often also referred to as a type He argued that humans are born "polymorphously perverse", meaning that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. He further argued that, as humans develop, they become fixated on different and specific objects through their stages of development—first in the oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then in the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in evacuating his or her bowels), then in the phallic stage. The oral stage in Psychoanalysis is the term used by Sigmund Freud to describe his theory of child development during the first 18 months of life in which an The anal stage in Psychology is the term used by Sigmund Freud to describe the development during the second year of life in which a child's pleasure and The Phallic Stage of Psychosexual Development The Phallic stage is the third stage of Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development that occurs between the ages of 4 and 6 Freud argued that children then passed through a stage in which they fixated on the mother as a sexual object (known as the Oedipus Complex) but that the child eventually overcame and repressed this desire because of its taboo nature. The Oedipus complex, in Freudian Psychoanalysis, is named after the Greek mythical character Oedipus, who unknowingly kills his father (The lesser known Electra complex refers to such a fixation on the father. The Electra complex (colloquially Daddy issues or the Bernfeld factor) is a concept found in psychoanalytic theory regarding female psycho-sexual development ) The repressive or dormant latency stage of psychosexual development preceded the sexually mature genital stage of psychosexual development. The genital stage in Psychology is the term used by Sigmund Freud to describe the final stage of human Psychosexual development.

Freud's way of interpretation has been called phallocentric by many contemporary thinkers. This is because of, for Freud, the unconscious desires for the phallus (penis). Males are afraid of losing their masculinity, symbolized by the phallus, to another male. Females always desire to have a phallus - an unfulfillable desire. Thus boys resent their fathers (fear of castration) and girls desire theirs.

Ego, super-ego, and id

Main article: Ego, super-ego, and id

In his later work, Freud proposed that the psyche could be divided into three parts: ego, super-ego, and id. Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of The id is known as the child-like portion of the psyche that is very impulsive and only takes into account what it wants and disregards all consequences. The super-ego is the moral code of the psyche that solely follows right and wrong and takes into account no special circumstances in which the morally right thing may not be right for that situation. Finally, the ego is the balance between the two. It is the part of the psyche that is, usually, portrayed in the person's action, and after the super-ego and id are balanced, the ego acts in a way that takes both impulses and morality into consideration.

Freud discussed this structural model of the mind in the 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle, and fully elaborated it in The Ego and the Id (1923), where he developed it as an alternative to his previous topographic schema (conscious, unconscious, preconscious). " Beyond the Pleasure Principle " (first published in German in 1920 as Jenseits des Lustprinzips) is an essay by Sigmund Freud. "The Ego and the Id" is a prominent paper by the Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud.

Freud acknowledges that his use of the term Id (or the It) derives from the writings of Georg Grodeck. Georg Grodeck was a German Psychiatrist and contemporary of Sigmund Freud, but apparently not a part of his circle of Psychoanalysts. It is interesting to note that the term Id appears in the earliest writing of Boris Sidis, attributed to William James, as early as 1898. Boris Sidis PhD MD ( October 12, 1867 - October 24, 1923) was a Russian Jewish Psychologist, Physician For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation William James (January 11 1842 – August 26 1910 was a pioneering

The life and death drives

Freud believed that humans were driven by two conflicting central desires: the life drive (libido) (survival, propagation, hunger, thirst, and sex) and the death drive (Thanatos). Libido in its common usage means Sexual desire however more technical definitions such as those found in the work of Carl Jung, are more general referring to libido In Greek mythology, Thanatos (in Ancient Greek, θάνατος &ndash " Death " was the Daemon personification Freud's description of Cathexis, whose energy is known as libido, included all creative, life-producing drives. The death drive (or death instinct), whose energy is known as anticathexis, represented an urge inherent in all living things to return to a state of calm: in other words, an inorganic or dead state. In classical Freudian Psychoanalytic theory, the death drive is the drive towards death destruction and non-existence He recognized Thanatos only in his later years and develops his theory on the death drive in Beyond the Pleasure Principle. " Beyond the Pleasure Principle " (first published in German in 1920 as Jenseits des Lustprinzips) is an essay by Sigmund Freud. Freud approaches the paradox between the life drives and the death drives by defining pleasure and unpleasure. According to Freud, unpleasure refers to stimulus that the body receives. (For example, excessive friction on the skin's surface produces a burning sensation; or, the bombardment of visual stimuli amidst rush hour traffic produces anxiety. ) Conversely, pleasure is a result of a decrease in stimuli (for example, a calm environment the body enters after having been subjected to a hectic environment). If pleasure increases as stimuli decreases, then the ultimate experience of pleasure for Freud would be zero stimulus, or death. Given this proposition, Freud acknowledges the tendency for the unconscious to repeat unpleasurable experiences in order to desensitize, or deaden, the body. This compulsion to repeat unpleasurable experiences explains why traumatic nightmares occur in dreams, as nightmares seem to contradict Freud's earlier conception of dreams purely as a site of pleasure, fantasy, and desire. On the one hand, the life drives promote survival by avoiding extreme unpleasure and any threat to life. On the other hand, the death drive functions simultaneously toward extreme pleasure, which leads to death. Freud addresses the conceptual dualities of pleasure and unpleasure, as well as sex/life and death, in his discussions on masochism and sadomasochism. Sadism refers to Sexual or non-sexual gratification in the infliction of Pain or humiliation upon or by another person Sadism refers to Sexual or non-sexual gratification in the infliction of Pain or humiliation upon or by another person The tension between Eros and Thanatos represents a revolution in his manner of thinking. Some also refer to the death instinct as the Nirvana Principle. In sramanic philosophy Nirvana (निर्वाण| Nirvāṇa; निब्बान Nibbāna; Prakrit: णिव्वाण

These ideas resemble aspects of the philosophies of Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist Schopenhauer's pessimistic philosophy, expounded in The World as Will and Representation, describes a renunciation of the will to live that corresponds on many levels with Freud's Death Drive. Similarly, the life drive clearly parallels much of Nietzsche's concept of the Dionysian in The Birth of Tragedy. However, Freud denied having been acquainted with their writings before he formulated the groundwork of his own ideas. ^[20]

Freud's legacy

Psychotherapy

Main article: Psychotherapy

Freud's theories and research methods were controversial during his life and still are so today, but few dispute his tremendous impact on psychologists and many academic disciplines. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition,

Most importantly, Freud popularized the "talking-cure"—an idea that a person could solve problems simply by talking over them, something that was almost unheard of in the 19th century. Even though many psychotherapists today tend to reject the specifics of Freud's theories, this basic mode of treatment comes largely from his work.

Most of Freud's specific theories, such as his stages of psychosexual development, and especially his methodology, have fallen out of favor in modern experimental psychology. Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method.

Some psychotherapists, however, still follow an approximately Freudian system of treatment. Many more have modified his approach, or joined one of the schools that branched from his original theories (see Neo-Freudian). The Neo-Freudian psychologists were those followers of Sigmund Freud who accepted the basic tenets of his theory of Psychoanalysis but altered it in some Still others reject his theories entirely, although their practice may still reflect his influence.

Psychoanalysis today maintains the same ambivalent relationship with medicine and academia that Freud experienced during his life. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior

Philosophy

While he saw himself as a scientist, Freud greatly admired Theodor Lipps, a philosopher and main supporter of the ideas of the subconscious and empathy^[21]. Theodor Lipps ( 28 July 1851 in Wallhalben – 17 October 1914 in Munich) was a German Philosopher Freud's theories have had a tremendous effect on the humanities—especially on the Frankfurt school and critical theory. The humanities are academic disciplines which study the Human condition, using methods that are primarily Analytic, Critical, or Speculative The Frankfurt School is a school of neo-Marxist Critical theory, Social research, and Philosophy. In the Humanities and Social sciences, critical theory is the examination and critique of Society and Literature, drawing from knowledge across Freud had an incisive influence on French philosophers such as Jacques Derrida and Jean-Francois Lyotard following the "return to Freud" of the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. Jean-François Lyotard (ʒɑ̃ fʀɑ̃swa ljɔˈtaʀ August 10 1924 April 21 1998) was a French philosopher and literary Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst Freud's model of the mind is often criticized as an unsubstantiated challenge to the enlightenment model of rational agency, which was a key element of much modern philosophy. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Agency is a Philosophical concept of the capacity of an agent to act in a world Modern philosophy is Philosophy done in Europe and North America between the 17th and early 20th centuries.

Rationality

While many Enlightenment thinkers viewed rationality as both an unproblematic ideal and a defining feature of man, Freud's work implied a more complex and contradictory conception of rationality. On the one hand, his model of the mind drastically reduced the scope and power of reason. In this view, reasoning occurs in the conscious mind --the ego-- but this is only a small part of the whole. The mind also contains the hidden, irrational elements of id and superego, which lie outside of conscious control, drive behavior, and motivate conscious activities. As a result, these structures call into question humans' ability to act purely on the basis of reason, since lurking motives are also often at play. Moreover, even apparently rational mental activity may be motivated by hidden urges or societal forces (e. g. defense mechanisms, where reasoning becomes "rationalizing"). On the other hand, Freud's entire impetus was toward expanding the scope of rationality, both through the theoretical understanding of these irrational forces and through the process of psychoanalysis itself, in which the repressed unconscious motivations, memories, and feelings that underlie neurotic symptoms are brought to the light of consciousness, comprehended, and integrated into the rational self. Freud's motto for psychoanalysis was, "Where it (the id) was, I (the ego) shall become. " That is, the non-rational and irrational shall give way to rationality.

Transparency of Self

Freud challenged the idea of empiricists such as John Locke and David Hume that the workings of the mind can be understood by introspection. John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy He considered many central aspects of a person remain radically inaccessible to the conscious mind (without the aid of psychotherapy).

Critical reactions

Although Freud's theories were influential, they came under widespread criticism during his lifetime and afterward. A paper by Lydiard H. Horton, read in 1915 at a joint meeting of the American Psychological Association and the New York Academy of Sciences, called Freud's dream theory "dangerously inaccurate" and noted that "rank confabulations. Lydiard Heneage Horton (1879- January 19 1945) was a consulting Psychologist and Author, who lectured and wrote about Dream Psychology The American Psychological Association (APA is a professional organization representing psychologists in the U The New York Academy of Sciences is the third oldest scientific society in the United States . . appear to hold water, psychoanalytically" ^[22]. Peter D. Kramer, a psychiatrist and faculty member of Brown Medical School, said "I'm afraid [Freud] doesn't hold up very well at all. Peter D Kramer, MD, is an American Psychiatrist, former Marshall Scholar and faculty member of Brown Medical School specializing A psychiatrist (also archaically called an alienist) is a Physician who specializes in Psychiatry and is certified in treating Mental disorders The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University (formerly known as Brown Medical School) is the medical school of Brown University. It almost feels like a personal betrayal to say that. But every particular is wrong: the universality of the Oedipus complex, penis envy, infantile sexuality. " A 2006 article in Newsweek magazine called him "history's most debunked doctor. Newsweek is an American weekly Newsmagazine published in New York City. "^[23]

Freud's theories are often criticized for not being real science. ^[24] This objection was raised by Karl Popper, who claimed that all proper scientific theories must be potentially falsifiable. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Falsifiability (or "refutability" is the logical possibility that an assertion can be shown false by an observation or a physical experiment Popper argued that no experiment or observation could ever falsify Freud's theories of psychology (e. g. , someone who denies having an Oedipal complex is interpreted as repressing it), and thus they could not be considered scientific. ^[25] Author Richard Webster characterized Freud's work as a "complex pseudo-science"^[26]. Richard Webster (born 1950 is a Freud scholar and cultural historian. Pseudoscience is defined as a body of knowledge methodology belief or practice that is claimed to be Scientific or made to appear scientific but does not adhere to the

H. J. Eysenck claims that Freud 'set psychiatry back one hundred years', consistently mis-diagnosed his patients, fraudulently misrepresented case histories and that "what is true in Freud is not new and what is new in Freud is not true". Hans Jürgen Eysenck ( March 4, 1916 in Berlin, Germany - September 4, 1997 in London, UK) was a ^[27]

Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen claims that "The truth is that Freud knew from the very start that Fleischl, Anna O. The meaning of the word truth extends from Honesty, Good faith, and Sincerity in general to agreement with Fact or Reality and his 18 patients were not cured, and yet he did not hesitate to build grand theories on these non-existent foundations. . . he disguised fragments of his self-analysis as ‘objective’ cases, that he concealed his sources, that he conveniently antedated some of his analyses, that he sometimes attributed to his patients ‘free associations’ that he himself made up, that he inflated his therapeutic successes, that he slandered his opponents. "[2]

Among adherents of Freudian thought, a frequently criticized aspect of Freud's belief system is his model of psychosexual development, including Freud's claim that infants are sexual beings. Others have accepted Freud's expanded notion of sexuality, but have argued that this pattern of development is not universal, nor necessary for the development of a healthy adult. Instead, they have emphasized the social and environmental sources of patterns of development. Moreover, they call attention to social dynamics Freud de-emphasized or ignored, such as class relations. Social dynamics is the study of the ability of a Society to react to inner and outer changes and deal with its regulation mechanisms This branch of Freudian critique owes a great deal to the work of Herbert Marcuse. Herbert Marcuse ( July 19, 1898 &ndash July 29, 1979) was a German philosopher and sociologist, and a member of

Freud has also come under fire from many feminist critics. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Although Freud was an early champion of both sexual freedom and education for women (Freud, "Civilized Sexual Morality and Modern Nervousness"), some feminists have argued that at worst his views of women's sexual development set the progress of women in Western culture back decades, and that at best they lent themselves to the ideology of female inferiority. Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin Believing as he did that women are a kind of mutilated male, who must learn to accept their "deformity" (the "lack" of a penis) and submit to some imagined biological imperative, he contributed to the vocabulary of misogyny. Misogyny (mɪˈsɒdʒɪni is hatred (or contemptof women Misogyny is parallel to Misandry — the hatred of men Terms such as "penis envy" and "castration anxiety" contributed to discouraging women from entering any field dominated by men, until the 1970s. For the Crass album see Penis Envy (album. For the Virgin 1 documentary see. Castration anxiety is an idea put forth by Sigmund Freud in his writings on the Oedipus complex; it posits a deep-seated fear or Anxiety in boys and men Some of Freud's most criticized statements appear in his 'Fragment of Analysis' on Ida Bauer such as "This was surely just the situation to call up distinct feelings of sexual excitement in a girl of fourteen" in reference to Dora being kissed by a 'young man of prepossessing appearance'^[28] implying the passivity of female sexuality and his statement "I should without question consider a person hysterical in whom an occasion for sexual excitement elicited feelings that were preponderantly or exclusively unpleasurable"^[29]. Ida Bauer (1882–1945 was an Austrian patient of Sigmund Freud whom he diagnosed with Hysteria.

On the other hand, feminist theorists such as Juliet Mitchell, Nancy Chodorow, Jessica Benjamin, Jane Gallop, and Jane Flax have argued that psychoanalytic theory is essentially related to the feminist project and must, like other theoretical traditions, be adapted by women to free it from vestiges of sexism. Feminist theory is the extension of Feminism into theoretical or philosophical, ground Juliet Mitchell (born 1940 in New Zealand) is a British socialist feminist, who is currently a fellow at Jesus College, Cambridge University Nancy Julia Chodorow is a feminist sociologist and psychoanalyst born 20 January 1944 in New York City. Jessica Benjamin (born January 17, 1946) is an American psychoanalyst and feminist. Jane (Anne Gallop (born 1952 is a Distinguished Professor of English and Comparative Literature at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Major French feminists psychoanalysts like Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva and Bracha L. Ettinger elaborate Freudian theory and insights in order both to develop them and to criticize them, arriving, in the case of Irigaray and Ettinger into new propositions regarding the feminine. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Luce Irigaray (born 1932 Belgium) is a French feminist, Philosopher, Linguist, psychoanalytic and cultural theorist Julia Kristeva (Юлия Кръстева (born 24 June 1941) is a Bulgarian - French Philosopher, Literary critic, Bracha L Ettinger (born 1951 also known as Bracha Ettinger, Bracha Lichtenberg Ettinger, Hebrew ברכה אטינגר, ברכה ליכטנברג-אטינגר ^[30] Freud's views are still being questioned by people concerned about women's equality. Another feminist who finds potential use of Freud's theories in the feminist movement is Shulamith Firestone. Shulamith Firestone (born 1945 (also called Shulie Firestone) is a Jewish Canadian -born feminist. In "Freudianism: The Misguided Feminism", she discusses how Freudianism is essentially completely accurate, with the exception of one crucial detail: everywhere that Freud wrote "penis", the word should be replaced with "power".

Dr. Jurgen von Scheidt speculated that most of Freud's psychoanalytical theory was a byproduct of his cocaine use. Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant ^[31] Chronic cocaine use can produce unusual thinking patterns due to the depletion of dopamine levels in the prefrontal cortex. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates

Additionally, Freud has been widely criticized for his impact on survivors of sexual violence. Throughout his work, he came to the realization that many psychological disorders were caused by sexual trauma. After publishing these findings, he was ridiculed by the mental health community so, to protect his reputation, he declared that his findings were incorrect and these women were all lying about being abused. This has, in the opinions of many specialists in the area, led to decades of disbelieving sexual abuse survivors.

Patients

Freud used pseudonyms in his case histories. Many of the people identified only by pseudonyms were traced to their true identities by Peter Swales. Peter J Swales (1948 -) is a Welsh "guerilla historian of Psychoanalysis ", and former assistant to the Rolling Stones, who has written essays This is a partial list of patients whose case studies were published by Freud:

Freud's couch used during psychoanalytic sessions

• Anna O. = Bertha Pappenheim (1859–1936)
• Cäcilie M. Anna O was the Pseudonym of a patient of Josef Breuer, who published her case study in his book Studies on Hysteria, written in collaboration = Anna von Lieben
• Dora = Ida Bauer (1882–1945)
• Frau Emmy von N. Ida Bauer (1882–1945 was an Austrian patient of Sigmund Freud whom he diagnosed with Hysteria. = Fanny Moser
• Fräulein Elisabeth von R. = Ilona Weiss^[32]
• Fräulein Katharina = Aurelia Kronich
• Fräulein Lucy R.
• Little Hans = Herbert Graf (1903–1973)
• Rat Man = Ernst Lanzer (1878–1914)
• Wolf Man = Sergei Pankejeff (1887–1979)

Other patients:

• H.D. (1886–1961)
• Emma Eckstein (1865–1924)
• Gustav Mahler (1860–1911) (single consultation only)
• Princess Marie Bonaparte

People on whom psychoanalytic observations were published but who were not patients:

• Daniel Paul Schreber (1842–1911)
• Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) (co-authored with and primarily written by William Bullitt)
• Michelangelo, in Freud's essay The Moses of Michelangelo
• Leonardo da Vinci, in Freud's book Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood
• Moses, in Freud's book Moses and Monotheism
• Josef Popper-Lynkeus, in Freud's paper Josef Popper-Lynkeus and the Theory of Dreams

Related news

Freud was a member of B'nai B'rith order in Vienna. The Oedipus complex, in Freudian Psychoanalysis, is named after the Greek mythical character Oedipus, who unknowingly kills his father Herbert Graf (1903-1973 was an Austrian American Opera producer For the Italian comic book character see Rat-Man (comics " Rat Man " was the Nickname given by Sigmund Sergei Konstantinovitch Pankejeff (Сергей Константинович Панкеев ( December 24, 1886 &ndash May 7, 1979) was a HD (September 10 1886 – September 27 1961 born Hilda Doolittle, was an American poet, Novelist and Memoirist She is best known Emma Eckstein (1865 - 1924 was an early patient of Sigmund Freud who underwent disastrous nasal surgery undertaken by Freud's friend and confidant Wilhelm Fliess Princess Marie Bonaparte ( 2 July 1882 - 21 September 1962) was a French psychoanalyst, closely linked with Sigmund Daniel Paul Schreber (25 July 1842 - 14 April 1911 was a German judge who suffered from what was then diagnozed as Dementia praecox. Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. William Bullitt may refer to William Christian Bullitt Jr, (1891 — 1967 American diplomat journalist and novelist William Marshall Bullitt Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime One of them by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that he was the pinnacle of all Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ The Independent Order of B'nai B'rith ( IPA: /bəneɪ 'brɪθ/ Hebrew: בני ברית "Sons of the Covenant " is the oldest continually-operating In 2004 the seat of French lodge in Paris has been named after Sigmund Freud. ^[33]

From 1921 until 1937 Freud and Girindrasekhar Bose used to write letters to each other. Bose was the founder of Indian Psychoanalytic Society ^[34], ^[35].

Edward Bernays was Freud's nephew. Edward Louis Bernays ( November 22, 1891 – March 9, 1995) is considered one of the fathers of the field of Public relations along His father was Ely Bernays, brother of Freud's wife Martha Bernays, and his mother was Freud's sister Anna.

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People

External links

• Freud Museum, Freiberg, Pribor
• Freud Museum, Maresfield Gardens, London
• Sigmund Freud Life and Work
• Dream Psychology by Sigmund Freud
• International Psychoanalytical Association, founded by Freud in 1910
• AskFreud.org Dream and Parapraxis Portal
• International Network of Freud Critics
• Sigmund Freud's article on Psychoanalysis from the 1926 (Thirteenth) edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica
• Sigmund-Freud-Institut
• Freud Archives at Library of Congress
• Freud's Unwritten Case: The Patient "E." by Douglas A. Davis
• Works by Sigmund Freud at Project Gutenberg
• Essays by Freud at Quotidiana.org
• Freud, the Serpent and the Sexual Enlightenment of Children/DANIEL BURSTON
• Works by Sigmund Freud (public domain in Canada)
• soliloquia.ch: Sigmund Freud (Freud Speaking - Audio, English/German