Satellite image

A natural rock arch in south western Libya

The Sahara (Arabic: الصَحراء الكُبرى‎, aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-koubra, "The Great Desert") is the world's largest hot desert and the world's second largest desert after Antarctica ^[1]. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language A desert is a Landscape or region that receives very little precipitation. At over 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi), it covers most parts of Northern Africa; an area stretching from the Red Sea, including parts of the Mediterranean coasts, to the outskirts of the Atlantic Ocean. Square Kilometre ( US spelling square kilometer) symbol km2, is a decimal multiple of the SI unit of The square mile is an imperial and US unit of Area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. To the south, it is delimited by the Sahel, a belt of semi-arid tropical savanna separating the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Africa. See also Sahel Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. The Sahel or Sahel Belt (from Arabic ساحل sāḥil Tropical and subtropical grasslands savannas and shrublands are a Grassland Biome located in Semi-arid to semi- Humid Climate regions Sub-Saharan Africa is a geographical term used to describe the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara, or those African countries

The Sahara is almost as large as the continental United States, and is larger than Australia. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. The Sahara has an intermittent history that may go back as much as 3 million years. ^[2] Some of the sand dunes can reach 180 meters (600 feet) in height. ^[3] Its name comes from the Tamajaq Tuareg language word Tenere, which means the desert, translated into the Arabic it gave Sahara "desert": (صَحراء), "ṣaḥrā´" (صحراء (help·info)). The Tuareg (also Twareg or Touareg, Amazigh: Imuhagh / Itargiyen, besides regional ethnyms are a Nomadic The Ténéré is a Desert region in the south central Sahara. ^[4][5] But the original name of the Sahara is: Tinariwen (the deserts), as for the indigenous people of the Sahara, the Tuareg people, the Sahara is not a desert, but many deserts, distinct and different in nature and landscapes. Tinariwen ( Tamashek: ⵜⵏⵔⵓⵏ "empty places" is a Musical band formed in 1982 in Muammar al-Gaddafi 's camps of Tuareg rebels

Overview

The top image shows the Safsaf Oasis on the surface of the Sahara. The bottom (using radar) is the rock layer underneath, revealing black channels cut by the meandering of an ancient river that once fed the oasis. Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range altitude direction or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as Aircraft, ships

The boundaries of the Sahara are the Atlantic Ocean on the west, the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea on the north, the Red Sea and Egypt on the east, and the Sudan and the valley of the Niger River on the south. The Atlas Mountains ( Kabyle: Idurar n leṭles جبال الأطلس) is a Mountain range across a northern stretch of Africa extending about 2400 The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. For the country in north-east Africa see Sudan. The Sudan, from the Arabic bilâd as-sûdân or "land of the The Niger River (ˈnaɪdʒɚ NYE-jer) is the principal River of western Africa, extending about 4180 km (2600 miles The Sahara is divided into western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Aïr Mountains (a region of desert mountains and high plateaus), Tenere desert and the Libyan desert (the most arid region). This article is about the Ahaggar Mountains For the tribe see Ahaggar Tuareg Tribe. The Tibesti Mountains are a group of Dormant volcanoes forming a Mountain range in the central Sahara Desert in the Bourkou-Ennedi-Tibesti The Aïr Mountains (also known as the Aïr Massif; the name is Ayăr in Tuareg and Azbin / Abzin in eastern / western The Ténéré is a Desert region in the south central Sahara. The Libyan Desert (24 degrees North 25 degrees East (الصحراء الليبية is an African Desert that is located in the northern and eastern part of the The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi (3415 m) in the Tibesti Mountains in northern Chad. Emi Koussi is a high Shield volcano that lies at the south end of the Tibesti Mountains in the central Sahara of northern Chad. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International The Tibesti Mountains are a group of Dormant volcanoes forming a Mountain range in the central Sahara Desert in the Bourkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa.

The Sahara divides the continent of Africa into North and Sub-Saharan Africa. A continent is one of several large Landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by Convention rather than any strict criteria with seven regions North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Sub-Saharan Africa is a geographical term used to describe the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara, or those African countries The southern border of the Sahara is marked by a band of semiarid savanna called the Sahel; south of the Sahel lies the lusher Sudan and the Congo River Basin. A savanna or savannah is a Tropical or Subtropical Grassland or Woodland Ecosystem. See also Sahel Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. The Sahel or Sahel Belt (from Arabic ساحل sāḥil The Congo River (for a time known as the Zaire River) is the largest River in Western Central Africa. Most of the Sahara consists of rocky hamada; ergs (large sand dunes) form only a minor part. A hamada ( Arabic, حمادة ḥammāda) is a type of An erg (also sand sea or dune sea) is a large relatively flat area of Desert covered with Wind -swept Sand with little to no vegetation In physical Geography, a dune is a Hill of Sand built by Aeolian processes.

People lived on the edge of the desert thousands of years ago^[6] since, immediately after the last ice age, the Sahara was a much wetter place than it is today. An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets Over 30,000 petroglyphs of river animals such as crocodiles (which still exist in parts of the desert)^[7] survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria. Petroglyphs are Images created by removing part of a rock surface by incising pecking carving and abrading A crocodile is any Species belonging to the family Crocodylidae (sometimes classified instead as the Subfamily Crocodylinae) Tassili n'Ajjer ( Tamazight, "Plateau of the Rivers" is a Mountain range in the Sahara Desert in southeast Algeria, Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Fossils of dinosaurs, including Afrovenator, Jobaria and Ouranosaurus, have also been found here. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Afrovenator (ˌæfroʊvɨˈneɪtɚ ("African hunter" is a Genus of Megalosaurid Theropod Dinosaur from the Early Jobaria was a Sauropod dinosaur discovered in the Sahara Desert in 1997 and is one of the most completely known Cretaceous sauropods Ouranosaurus (meaning "brave (monitor lizard" was an unusual Iguanodont that lived during the early Cretaceous (late Aptian The modern Sahara, though, is not as lush in vegetation, except in the Nile Valley, at a few oases, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the olive tree are found to grow. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River In Geography, an oasis (plural oases) or Cienega ( Southwestern United States) is an isolated area of vegetation in a Desert, typically The Olive ( Olea europaea) is a Species of small Tree in the family Oleaceae, native to the coastal areas of the eastern The region has been this way since about 3000 BC. Some 2. 5 million people live in the Sahara, most of these in Egypt, Mauritania, Morocco and Algeria. Mauritania (موريتانيا Mūrītāniyā officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Dominant ethnicities in the Sahara are various Berber groups including Tuareg tribes, various Arabised Berber groups such as the Hassaniya-speaking Maure (Moors, also known as Sahrawis), and various "black African" ethnicities including Tubu, Nubians, Zaghawa, Kanuri, Peul (Fulani), Hausa and Songhai. Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. The Tuareg (also Twareg or Touareg, Amazigh: Imuhagh / Itargiyen, besides regional ethnyms are a Nomadic The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent Tubu is a village in North-West District of Botswana. It is located close to Okavango Delta and it has a primary school The Nubians (Arabic نوبي Nuubi are an ethnic group originally from northern Sudan, now inhabiting East Africa and some parts of Northeast Africa in southern Egypt The Zaghawa (also spelled Zakhawa) are an African ethnic group or tribe mainly living in eastern Chad and western Sudan, including The Kanuri are an African Ethnic group living in Bornu state in northeastern Nigeria, southeast Niger, western Chad and The Fula or Fulbe or Fulani (the latter being an Anglicisation of the word in their language Fulɓe) are an ethnic group of The Songhai are an ethnic group from western Africa akin to the Mandé. Important cities located in the Sahara include Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania; Tamanrasset, Ouargla, Bechar, Hassi Messaoud, Ghardaia, El Oued, Algeria; Timbuktu, Mali; Agadez, Niger; Ghat, Libya; and Faya-Largeau, Chad. Nouakchott ( Arabic: or translation from [[Berber languages|Berber] "The place of the winds"] Nawākšūṭ is the Capital and by far the largest Tamanrasset ( Arabic: تمنراست Tuareg:) is an Oasis city and capital of Tamanrasset Province in southern Ouargla ( Arabic: وَرڤلة) is a capital city of Ouargla province, southern Algeria. Béchar ( بشار) is a capital city of Béchar Province, Algeria. Hassi Messaoud ( Arabic: is a town in eastern Algeria. Oil was discovered here in 1956 and the town's prominence has grown rapidly since then Ghardaïa ( Arabic: غرداية, Mozabite:) is the capital city of Ghardaïa Province, Algeria. El Oued or Oued Souf is a city in El Oued province, Algeria (الواد in Arabic meaning "the River" Timbuktu ( Timbuctoo; Koyra Chiini: Tumbutu; French: Tombouctou) is a city in Tombouctou Region, in the West African Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Agadez (also Agades) is the largest city in northern Niger, with a population of 88569 (2005 census Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. For the Indian mountains see Ghats. Ghat (غات is a city in the municipality of Ghat in remote south-western Libya Faya-Largeau (also known as Faya) is the largest city in northern Chad and the capital of the region of Bourkou-Ennedi-Tibesti. Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa.

It has been reported that the Sahara is expanding south by as much as 30 miles per year, overwhelming degraded grasslands,^{[8] [9]} taking over the Sahel, the dry tropical savanna that has defined the Sahara's southern limit. See also Sahel Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. The Sahel or Sahel Belt (from Arabic ساحل sāḥil A savanna or savannah is a Tropical or Subtropical Grassland or Woodland Ecosystem. Global warming and poor farming methods have been given as possible causes. Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the ^[10] One report states that all of Africa could eventually become a massive desert. This spreading of deserts is known as "desertification," and the phenomenon is occurring in other desert areas worldwide. Desertification is the degradation of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting primarily from human activities and influenced by climatic variations

Geography

A geographical map of Africa, showing the ecological break that defines the Saharan area

The Sahara covers huge parts of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan and Tunisia. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Mauritania (موريتانيا Mūrītāniyā officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Western Sahara ( Arabic: الصحراء الغربية; transliterated: as-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbīyah; Sahara Occidental is a territory Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. It is one of three distinct physiographic provinces of the African massive physiographic division. The physiographic regions of the world are a means of defining the Earth's landforms into distinct regions based upon Nevin Fenneman 's classic three-tiered approach of divisions

The desert landforms of the Sahara are shaped by wind (eolian) or by occasional rains, and include sand dunes and dune fields or sand seas (erg), stone plateaus (hamada), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadi), and salt flats (shatt or chott). Aeolian (or Eolian or Æolian) processes pertain to the activity of the Winds and more specifically to the winds' ability to shape the surface of the An erg (also sand sea or dune sea) is a large relatively flat area of Desert covered with Wind -swept Sand with little to no vegetation A hamada ( Arabic, حمادة ḥammāda) is a type of Wadi (وادي) (also Vadi) is traditionally a valley In some cases it can refer to a dry riverbed that contains water only during times of heavy rain ^[11] Unusual landforms include the Richat Structure in Mauritania. The Richat Structure, a prominent circular feature in the Sahara desert of Mauritania near Ouadane, has attracted attention since the earliest space missions

Several deeply dissected mountains and mountain ranges, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the Aïr Mountains, Ahaggar Mountains, Saharan Atlas, Tibesti Mountains, Adrar des Iforas, and Red Sea Hills. The Aïr Mountains (also known as the Aïr Massif; the name is Ayăr in Tuareg and Azbin / Abzin in eastern / western This article is about the Ahaggar Mountains For the tribe see Ahaggar Tuareg Tribe. The Saharan Atlas of Algeria is the eastern portion of the Atlas Mountains. The Tibesti Mountains are a group of Dormant volcanoes forming a Mountain range in the central Sahara Desert in the Bourkou-Ennedi-Tibesti The Adrar des Ifoghas is a Sandstone Massif in Mali 's Kidal Region, having an area of about 250000 km² The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi, a shield volcano in the Tibesti range of northern Chad. Emi Koussi is a high Shield volcano that lies at the south end of the Tibesti Mountains in the central Sahara of northern Chad. A shield volcano is a large Volcano with shallow-sloping sides The Tibesti Mountains are a group of Dormant volcanoes forming a Mountain range in the central Sahara Desert in the Bourkou-Ennedi-Tibesti

Most of the rivers and streams in the Sahara are seasonal or intermittent, the chief exception being the Nile River, which crosses the desert from its origins in central Africa to empty into the Mediterranean. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River Underground aquifers sometimes reach the surface, forming oases, including the Bahariya, Ghardaïa, Timimoun, Kufrah, and Siwah. An aquifer is an underground layer of Water -bearing Permeable rock or unconsolidated materials ( Gravel, Sand, Silt, or Clay In Geography, an oasis (plural oases) or Cienega ( Southwestern United States) is an isolated area of vegetation in a Desert, typically El-Waha el-Bahariya or Bahariya ( Arabic: الواحة البحرية meaning the "northern oasis" is an Oasis in Egypt. Ghardaïa ( Arabic: غرداية, Mozabite:) is the capital city of Ghardaïa Province, Algeria. Timimoun (تميمون is an oasis town in Adrar Province, Algeria; in the in Gourara region Kufra (also spelled Cufra or Khofra) is an Oasis in Southeastern Libya that played a minor role in the Western Desert Campaign of World The Siwa Oasis (واحة سيوة Wāḥat Sīwah, from Berber Siwa "prey bird protector of the sun god Amon-Ra

The center of the Sahara is hyper-arid, with little vegetation. The northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis where moisture collects.

To the north, the Sahara reaches to the Mediterranean Sea in Egypt and portions of Libya, but in Cyrenaica and the Magreb, the Sahara borders Mediterranean forest, woodland, and shrub ecoregions of northern Africa, which have a Mediterranean climate characterized by a winter rainy season. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset Mediterranean forests woodlands and shrub is a temperate Biome, characterized by hot dry summers and mild and rainy winters A Mediterranean climate is one that resembles the Climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, which includes over half of the area with this climate type world-wide According to the botanical criteria of Frank White^[12] and geographer Robert Capot-Rey,^[13][14] the northern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the northern limit of Date Palm cultivation (Phoenix dactylifera), and the southern limit of Esparto (Stipa tenacissima), a grass typical of the Mediterranean climate portion of the Maghreb and Iberia. Botanic is an electoral ward of South Belfast, named after Botanic Gardens a local park The Date Palm ( Phoenix dactylifera) is a palm in the genus Phoenix, extensively cultivated for its edible Fruit. Esparto, or esparto grass, also known as "halfah grass" or "needle grass" Macrochloa tenacissima and Stipa tenacissima, is a perennial The northern limit also corresponds to the 100 mm isohyet of annual precipitation. A contour line (also Level set, isopleth, isoline, isogram or isarithm) of a function of two ^[15]

To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of dry tropical savanna with a summer rainy season that extends across Africa from east to west. See also Sahel Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. The Sahel or Sahel Belt (from Arabic ساحل sāḥil Tropical and subtropical grasslands savannas and shrublands are a Grassland Biome located in Semi-arid to semi- Humid Climate regions The southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of Cornulaca monacantha (a Chenopodiaceae), or northern limit of the Cenchrus biflorus, a grass typical of the Sahel. Chenopodiaceae is a family of Flowering plants. Although widely recognized in most plant classifications (notably the Cronquist system) the APG system Cenchrus biflorus is a species of Annual Grass in the Poaceae family Poaceae or Gramineae is a family in the Class Liliopsida of the flowering plants. See also Sahel Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. The Sahel or Sahel Belt (from Arabic ساحل sāḥil ^[13][14] According to climatic criteria, the southern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the 150 mm isohyet of annual precipitation (keeping in mind that precipitation varies strongly from one year to another). Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of In Meteorology, precipitation (also known as one class of hydrometeors, which are atmospheric water phenomena is any product of the condensation of atmospheric ^[15]

Climate history

An oasis in the Ahaggar Mountains

The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variation between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years. In Geography, an oasis (plural oases) or Cienega ( Southwestern United States) is an isolated area of vegetation in a Desert, typically This article is about the Ahaggar Mountains For the tribe see Ahaggar Tuareg Tribe. ^[16] During the last ice age, the Sahara was bigger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries. An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets ^[17] The end of the ice age brought better times to the Sahara, from about 8000 BC to 6000 BC, perhaps due to low pressure areas over the collapsing ice sheets to the north. A low pressure area, or " low " is a region where the Atmospheric pressure is lower in relation to the surrounding area An ice sheet is a mass of Glacier Ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km² (20000 mile²) ^[18] Once the ice sheets were gone, the northern part of the Sahara dried out. However, not long after the end of the ice sheets, the monsoon, which currently brings rain only as far as the Sahel, came further north and counteracted the drying trend in the southern Sahara. A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months Rain is Liquid precipitation. On Earth it is the condensation of atmospheric Water vapor into drops heavy enough to fall often making it to The monsoon in Africa (and elsewhere) is due to heating during the summer. Air over land becomes warmer and rises, pulling in cool wet air from the ocean, which causes rain. Paradoxically, the Sahara was wetter when it received more solar insolation in the summer. Insolation is a measure of Solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time Changes in solar insolation are caused by changes in the Earth's orbital parameters (9,000 years ago the Earth's axis had a stronger tilt than it does presently, and perihelion occurred at the end of July). The elements of an orbit are the parameters needed to specify that Orbit uniquely given a model of two point-masses obeying the Newtonian laws of motion and the In Celestial mechanics, an apsis, plural apsides (ˈæpsɨdɪːz is the point of greatest or least distance of the Elliptical orbit of an object from ^[19]

By around 3400 BC, the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today,^[20] leading to the gradual rather than abrupt desertification of the Sahara. Desertification is the degradation of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting primarily from human activities and influenced by climatic variations ^[21] The Sahara is currently as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago. ^[16] These conditions are responsible for what has been called the Sahara Pump Theory. The Sahara Pump Theory explains how flora and fauna left Africa to penetrate the Middle East and beyond to Europe and Asia

The Sahara has one of the harshest climates in the world. The prevailing north-easterly wind often causes the sand to form sand storms and dust devils. A dust devil is a strong well-formed and relatively long-lived whirlwind, ranging from small (half a meter wide and a few meters tall to large (over 10 meters wide and over ^[22] Precipitation, while rare, is not unknown. Half of the Sahara receives less than 2 cm of rain a year, with the rest receiving up to 10 cm a year. A centimetre ( American spelling: centimeter, symbol cm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one hundredth ^[23] The rainfall happens very rarely, but when it does it is usually torrential when it occurs after long dry periods, which can last for years.

Presently, the climate is changing, and the Sahara is expanding southward by about 30 miles per year. ^[24]

Ecoregions

The Sahara comprises several distinct ecoregions, whose variations in temperature, rainfall, elevation, and soils harbor distinct communities of plants and animals. An ecoregion ( ecological region) sometimes called a bioregion, is an ecologically and geographically defined area smaller than a "realm" or " According to the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), the ecoregions of the Sahara include:

• Atlantic coastal desert: The coastal desert occupies a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast, where fog generated offshore by the cool Canary Current provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of lichens, succulents, and shrubs. The Atlantic coastal desert is the westernmost Ecoregion in the Sahara of North Africa. The Canary Current is an Ocean current which branches south from the North Atlantic Current and flows toward the south-west about as far as Senegal where Lichens (ˈlaɪkən or /lɪtʃən/ are symbiotic associations of a Fungus (the mycobiont with a photosynthetic partner (the photobiont also known as Succulent plants, also known as succulents or fat plants, are Water -retaining Plants adapted to Arid climate or Soil conditions It covers 39,900 square kilometers (15,400 square miles) in Western Sahara and Mauritania. Western Sahara ( Arabic: الصحراء الغربية; transliterated: as-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbīyah; Sahara Occidental is a territory Mauritania (موريتانيا Mūrītāniyā officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country ^[25]
• North Saharan steppe and woodlands: This ecoregion lies along the northern edge of the desert, next to the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub ecoregions of the northern Maghreb and Cyrenaica. The North Saharan steppe and woodlands is a Desert ecoregion that forms the northern the northern edge of the Sahara next to the Mediterranean forests woodlands and shrub Mediterranean forests woodlands and shrub is a temperate Biome, characterized by hot dry summers and mild and rainy winters The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the Mediterranean climate regions to the north and the hyper-arid Sahara proper to the south. A Mediterranean climate is one that resembles the Climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, which includes over half of the area with this climate type world-wide It covers 1,675,300 square kilometers (646,800 square miles) in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, and Western Sahara. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. ^[26]
• Sahara desert: This ecoregion covers the hyper-arid central portion of the Sahara where rainfall is minimal and sporadic. The Sahara desert Ecoregion, as defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF includes the hyper-arid center of the Sahara, between 18° and 30° N Vegetation is rare, and this ecoregion consists mostly of sand dunes (erg, chech, raoui), stone plateaus (hamadas), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadis), and salt flats. It covers 4,639,900 square kilometers (1,791,500 square miles) of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Sudan. Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. ^[27]
• South Saharan steppe and woodlands: The South Saharan steppe and woodlands occupy a narrow band running east and west between the hyper-arid Sahara and the Sahel savannas to the south. The South Saharan steppe and woodlands is a Deserts and xeric shrublands Ecoregion of northern Africa. See also Sahel Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. The Sahel or Sahel Belt (from Arabic ساحل sāḥil Movements of the equatorial Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) bring summer rains during July and August which average 100 to 200 mm, but vary greatly from year to year. The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ, also known as the Intertropical Front, Monsoon trough, Doldrums or the Equatorial These rains sustain summer pastures of grasses and herbs, with dry woodlands and shrublands along seasonal watercourses. The ecoregion covers 1,101,700 square kilometers (425,400 square miles) in Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Sudan. ^[28]
• West Saharan montane xeric woodlands: Several volcanic highlands in the western portion of the Sahara provide a cooler, moister environment that supports Saharo-Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands. The West Saharan montane xeric woodlands is an Ecoregion that extends across several highland regions in the Sahara. The ecoregion covers 258,100 square kilometers (99,700 square miles), mostly in the Tassili-n-Ajjer of Algeria, with smaller enclaves in the Aïr of Niger, the Dhar Adrar of Mauritania, and the Adrar des Iforas of Mali and Algeria. Tassili n'Ajjer ( Tamazight, "Plateau of the Rivers" is a Mountain range in the Sahara Desert in southeast Algeria, The Aïr Mountains (also known as the Aïr Massif; the name is Ayăr in Tuareg and Azbin / Abzin in eastern / western The Adrar Plateau ( Berber:, lit Mountain) is a highland area of the Sahara Desert in northern Mauritania. The Adrar des Ifoghas is a Sandstone Massif in Mali 's Kidal Region, having an area of about 250000 km² ^[29]
• Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands: The Tibesti and Jebel Uweinat highlands foster higher, more regular rainfall and cooler temperatures, which support woodlands and shrublands of palms, acacias, myrtle, oleander, Tamarix, and several rare and endemic plants. The Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands is a Deserts and xeric shrublands Ecoregion of northern Africa. The Tibesti Mountains are a group of Dormant volcanoes forming a Mountain range in the central Sahara Desert in the Bourkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Jebel Uweinat (1934 m ar جبل العوينات "mountain of sourcelets" also spelled Auenat, Ouenat, Ouinat, Owainat The Date Palm ( Phoenix dactylifera) is a palm in the genus Phoenix, extensively cultivated for its edible Fruit. Acacia is a Genus of Shrubs and Trees belonging to the Subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, first The Myrtle ( Myrtus) is a genus of one or two species of Flowering plants in the family Myrtaceae, native to southern Europe and north Oleander ( Nerium oleander) is an Evergreen Shrub or small Tree in the dogbane family Apocynaceae. Tamarisk redirects here For other uses of tamarisk see Tamarisk (disambiguation The genus Tamarix ( tamarisk The ecoregion covers 82,200 square kilometers (31,700 square miles) in the Tibesti of Chad and Libya, and Jebel Uweinat on the border of Egypt, Libya, and Sudan. ^[30]
• Saharan halopytics: Seasonally-flooded saline depressions in the Sahara are home to halophytic, or salt-adapted, plant communities. biosalinity|halophile A halophyte is a Plant that naturally grows where it is affected by Salinity in the root area or by salt spray such as in saline semi-deserts The Saharan halophytics cover 54,000 square kilometers (20,800 square miles), including the Qattara and Siwa depressions in northern Egypt, the Tunisian salt lakes of central Tunisia, Chott Melghir in Algeria, and smaller areas of Algeria, Mauritania, and Western Sahara. The Qattara Depression (منخفض القطارة 'Munkhafad al-Qattarah' is a Desert basin within the Libyan Desert of north-western Egypt. The Siwa Oasis (واحة سيوة Wāḥat Sīwah, from Berber Siwa "prey bird protector of the sun god Amon-Ra The Tunisian salt lakes are a series of lakes in central Tunisia, lying south of the Atlas Mountains at the northern edge of the Sahara. Chott Melrhir (شط ملغيغ is a large Endorheic salt lake in northeastern Algeria, located at. ^[31].

Fauna

Sahara desert in Tunisia and shadows of camels with travelers

• Dromedary camels and goats are the most domesticated animals found in the Sahara. The Dromedary camel ( Camelus dromedarius) is a large Even-toed ungulate. The domestic goat ( Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of goat Domesticated from the Wild goat of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe Because of its qualities of sobriety, endurance and speed, the dromedary is the favorite animal used by nomads. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that
• The Leiurus quinquestriatus (aka Deathstalker) scorpion which can be 10 cm long. The deathstalker ( Leiurus quinquestriatus) is a Species of Scorpion, a member of the Buthidae family. Its Agitoxin and Scyllatoxin, toxins contained within the venom, are fatal in the majority of cases. Agitoxin is a Toxin found in the Venom of the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus herbraeus (yellow scorpion Scyllatoxin is a Toxin from the Scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus, which blocks small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels
• The monitor lizard. Monitor lizards are the family Varanidae, a group of carnivorous lizards which includes the largest living lizard the Komodo dragon. It has been suggested that the occasional habit of varanids to stand on their two hind legs and to appear to "monitor" their surroundings led to the original Arabic name waral ورل, which is translated to English as "monitor". ^[32]
• Sand vipers, which average less than 50 cm in length. Common names: horned vipers North African desert vipers cerastes vipers Many have a pair of horns, one over each eye. Active at night, they usually lie buried in the sand with only their eyes visible. Bites are painful, but rarely fatal.
• The fennec, an omnivore. Omnivores (from Latin omne all everything vorare to devour are species that eat both Plants and Animals as their primary
• The hyrax. A hyrax (from Greek 'shrewmouse' Afrikaans: klipdassie, from Dutch: klipdas 'rockbadger' is any of four Species of fairly It first appears in the fossil record over 40 million years ago, and for many millions of years hyraxes were the primary terrestrial herbivore in Africa. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system.
• The ostrich which is a flightless bird native to Africa. The Ostrich ( Struthio camelus) is a large Flightless bird native to Africa (and formerly the Middle East) Flightless birds are birds which lack the ability to fly relying instead on their ability to run or swim and are thought to have evolved from their flying ancestors They became rare because they have been driven out.
• The addax, a large white antelope, is a threatened species. The Addax ( Addax nasomaculatus) also known as the screwhorn antelope is a critically endangered Desert Antelope that lives in several isolated regions Antelope are Ruminant hoofed Mammals of the family Bovidae in the order of Even-toed ungulates. Adapted to the desert, they can remain months without drinking, even a whole year.
• The Saharan cheetah lives in Niger, Mali and Chad. The cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus) is an atypical member of the cat family ( Felidae) that is unique in its speed while lacking climbing abilities Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. There remain only a few hundred cheetahs which are very cautious, avoiding any human presence, the cheetah flees the sun from April to October. It then seeks the shelter of shrubs such as balanites and acacias. They are unusually pale.

There exist other animals in the Sahara (birds in particular) such as African Silverbill and Black-throated Firefinch among others. The African Silverbill Lonchura cantans is a small Passerine bird formerly considered conspecific with the Asian species Indian Silverbill, The Black-throated Firefinch ( Lagonosticta larvata) is a common species of Estrildid finch found in Africa

History

Photo of the Sahara from 1908

Egyptians

By 6000 BC predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King Herding is the act of bringing individual animals together into a group ( Herd) maintaining the group and moving the group from place to place&mdashor any combination of In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BC centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. A town is a type of settlement ranging from a few to several thousand (occasionally hundreds of thousands inhabitants although it may be applied loosely even to huge metropolitan Agriculture was developed at least 10000 years ago and it has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family The domestic goat ( Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of goat Domesticated from the Wild goat of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe Pigs, also called hogs or' swine', are Ungulates which have been domesticated as sources of food leather and similar products since ancient times Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone. The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving are commonplace in this era also. Tanning is the process of converting Putrescible skin into non-putrescible Leather, usually with Tannin, an Acidic Chemical compound Pottery is the Ceramic ware made by potters It also refers to a group of materials that includes Earthenware, Stoneware This article describes textile weaving For other senses of this word see Weaving (disambiguation. ^[33] There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BC, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food-gathering. Faiyum ( Arabic: الفيوم Coptic:) is a city in Middle Egypt and the capital of the Faiyum Governorate. For the computer security term see Phishing. Fishing is the activity of catching Fish. Hunting is the practice of pursuing Animals for Food, Recreation, or Trade. Stone arrowheads, knives and scrapers are common. An arrowhead is point of an Arrow, or a shape resembling such a point as Archaeological artifacts arrowheads are a subclass of Projectile points A knife is a handheld sharp-edged instrument consisting of handle attached to a Blade used for cutting ^[34] Burial items include pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial, also called interment and inhumation, is the act of placing a person or object into the ground Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones The dead are buried facing due west. ^[33] By 3400 BC, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, and it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with only scattered settlements around the oases, but little trade or commerce through the desert. Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. The one major exception was the Nile Valley. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River The Nile, however, was impassable at several cataracts, making trade and contact by boat difficult. The cataracts of the Nile are shallow stretches between Aswan and Khartoum where the water's surface is broken by numerous small boulders and stones lying

Nubians

During the Neolithic, before the onset of desertification, the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el-Qa'ab. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples who inhabited what is now called Nubia, were full participants in the "agricultural revolution," living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. This article is about the region in Africa for other uses see Nubia (disambiguation. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen found suggests the presence of a cattle cult like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today. Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. ^[35] Megaliths found at Nabta Playa are overt examples of probably the world's first known Archaeoastronomy devices, predating Stonehenge by some 1000 years. Nabta Playa was once a large Basin in the Nubian Desert, located approximately 500 miles south of modern day Cairo or about 100 kilometers west of Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the study of how peoples in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky how they used phenomena Stonehenge is a Prehistoric Monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about west of Amesbury and north of Salisbury ^[36] This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt. ^[37]

Phoenicians

A Saharan village in Mali

The peoples of Phoenicia, who flourished between 1200-800 BC, created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to Egypt. Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun They generally settled along the Mediterranean coast, as well as the Sahara, among the peoples of Ancient Libya, who were the ancestors of peoples who speak Berber languages in North Africa and the Sahara today, including the Tuareg of the central Sahara. Ancient Libya was the region west of the Nile Valley. It corresponds to what is now generally called Northwest Africa. Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today The Tuareg (also Twareg or Touareg, Amazigh: Imuhagh / Itargiyen, besides regional ethnyms are a Nomadic

The Phoenician alphabet seems to have been adopted by the ancient Libyans of north Africa, and Tifinagh is still used today by Berber-speaking Tuareg camel herders of the central Sahara. Tifinagh ( in Neo-Tifinagh Tifinaɣ in Berber Latin alphabet, tifinaɣ is an Alphabetic script used by some Africans to write their language

Sometime between 633 BC and 530 BC, Hanno the Navigator either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in Western Sahara, but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace. Hanno the Navigator was a Carthaginian explorer who flourished c Western Sahara ( Arabic: الصحراء الغربية; transliterated: as-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbīyah; Sahara Occidental is a territory (See History of Western Sahara. The history of Western Sahara can be traced back to the times of Carthaginian explorer Hanno the Navigator on the 5th century BCE )

Greeks

By 500 BC, a new influence arrived in the form of the Greeks. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the Red Sea coast. The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. The Carthaginians explored the Atlantic coast of the desert. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers The turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets never led to an extensive presence further south than modern Morocco. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside of the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were a constant concern of those living on the edge of the desert. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley.

An Algerian man in urban dress

Urban civilization

An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around this time in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al-Ajal in Fazzan, Libya. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The Garamantes were a Saharan Berber -speaking people who used an elaborate underground Irrigation system and founded a kingdom in the Fezzan Libya 5210 Wan Caza Luca Galuzzi 2007jpg|thumb|Wan Caza dunes in Fezzan Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab ^[16] The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. Fossil water or paleowater is Groundwater that has remained in an Aquifer for millennia The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (which were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Romans knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC However, they traded with the Garamantes, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes capital of Garama. This page is on buildings used for Roman bathing For the activity in general see Ancient Roman bathing. Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes territory. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos The Garamantes civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers, and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels still further into the mountains. An aquifer is an underground layer of Water -bearing Permeable rock or unconsolidated materials ( Gravel, Sand, Silt, or Clay ^[38]

Trans-Saharan trade

Main article: Trans-Saharan trade

The 12th Century traveller Benjamin of Tudela in the Sahara (Dumouza, 19th Century engraving)

Following the Islamic conquest of North Africa in the seventh century CE, trade across the desert intensified. Trans-Saharan trade is trade across the Sahara between Mediterranean countries and West Africa. Benjamin of Tudela (Binyamin MeTudela was a medieval Navarrese rabbi and explorer who traveled through Europe, Asia, and Africa in the 12th For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The kingdoms of the Sahel, especially the Ghana Empire and the later Mali Empire, grew rich and powerful exporting gold and salt to North Africa. See also Sahel Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. The Sahel or Sahel Belt (from Arabic ساحل sāḥil The Ghana Empire or Wagadou Empire (existed c 750 - 1076) was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania, Western Mali The Mali Empire or Manding Empire or Manden Kurufa was a Medieval West African civilization of the Mandinka from c Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants The emirates along the Mediterranean Sea sent south manufactured goods and horses. The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. From the Sahara itself, salt was exported. Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants This process turned the scattered oasis communities into trading centres, and brought them under the control of the empires on the edge of the desert. In Geography, an oasis (plural oases) or Cienega ( Southwestern United States) is an isolated area of vegetation in a Desert, typically A significant slave trade crossed the desert (See Arab slave trade). The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such

This trade persisted for several centuries until the development in Europe of the caravel allowed ships, first from Portugal but soon from all Western Europe, to sail around the desert and gather the resources from the source in Guinea. This article is about the Caravel boat type For the carvel type of boat building see Carvel (boat building. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Guinea is a traditional name for the region of Africa that lies along the Gulf of Guinea. The Sahara was rapidly remarginalized.

European imperialism

At the beginning of the 19th century, most of the northern Sahara, including most of present-day Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt, was part of the Ottoman Empire. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Sahel and southern Sahara were home to several independent states.

European colonialism in the Sahara began in the 19th century. France conquered Algeria from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from Algeria and eastwards from Senegal into the upper Niger to include present-day Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco (1912), Niger, and Tunisia (1881). This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Senegal (le Sénégal officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country south of the Sénégal River in western Africa. The Niger River (ˈnaɪdʒɚ NYE-jer) is the principal River of western Africa, extending about 4180 km (2600 miles Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Mauritania (موريتانيا Mūrītāniyā officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa.

Egypt, under Muhammad Ali and his successors, conquered Nubia (1820-22), founded Khartoum (1823), and conquered Darfur (1874). This article is about the leader of Egypt For other people named Muhammad Ali or Mehmet Ali see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation and Mehemet Ali (disambiguation This article is about the region in Africa for other uses see Nubia (disambiguation. Khartoum ( الخرطوم al-Kharṭūm) is the Capital of Sudan and of Khartoum State. Darfur (دار فور daar foor, lit "realm of the Fur " is a region in Sudan. Egypt, including the Sudan, became a British protectorate in 1882. Egypt and Britain lost control of the Sudan from 1882 to 1898 as a result of the Mahdist War. The Mahdist War was a Colonial war of the late 19th century It was fought between the Mahdist Sudanese and the Egyptian and later British After its capture by British troops in 1898, the Sudan became a Anglo-Egyptian condominium. In International law, a condominium (plural either condominia, as in Latin or condominiums is a political territory (state or border area in or over which two or

Spain captured present-day Western Sahara after 1874. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Western Sahara ( Arabic: الصحراء الغربية; transliterated: as-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbīyah; Sahara Occidental is a territory In 1912, Italy captured Libya from the Ottomans. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab

Modern times

Egypt became independent of Britain in 1936, although the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty allowed Britain to keep troops in Egypt and maintained the British-Egyptian condominium in the Sudan. The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 was a treaty signed in 1936, between the United Kingdom and Egypt, officially (but seldom known as The Treaty of British military forces were withdrawn in 1954.

Most of the Saharan states achieved independence after World War II: Libya in 1951, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia in 1956, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger in 1960, and Algeria in 1962. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Spain withdrew from Western Sahara in 1975, and it was partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco. Mauritania withdrew in 1979, and Morocco continues to hold the territory.

The modern era has seen a number of mines and communities develop to exploit the desert's natural resources. Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body These include large deposits of oil and natural gas in Algeria and Libya and large deposits of phosphates in Morocco and Western Sahara. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. Western Sahara ( Arabic: الصحراء الغربية; transliterated: as-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbīyah; Sahara Occidental is a territory

A number of Trans-African highways have been proposed across the Sahara, including the Cairo-Dakar Highway along the Atlantic coast, the Trans-Sahara Highway from Algiers on the Mediterranean to Kano in Nigeria, the Tripoli-Cape Town Highway from Tripoli in Libya to Ndjamena in Chad, and the Cairo-Cape Town Highway which follows the Nile. The Trans-African Highway network comprises Transcontinental Road projects in Africa being developed by the United Nations Economic Commission for The Cairo-Dakar Highway is Trans-African Highway 1 in the Transcontinental Road network being developed by the United Nations Economic Commission for The Trans-Sahara Highway is a transnational Highway project to pave, improve and ease border formalities on an existing trade route across the Sahara Desert Algiers (الجزائر Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation Kabyle: Ledzayer, Alger) is the Capital and largest Kano is the administrative center of the Kano State and the third largest City in Nigeria, in terms The Tripoli – Cape Town Highway is Trans-African Highway 3 in the Transcontinental Road network being developed by the United Tripolis ( Arabic: طرابلس Ṭarābulus - also طرابلس الغرب Ṭarā-bu-lus al-Gharb Libyan vernacular: N'Djamena (ənʤəˈmeɪnə Arabic Niǧāmīnā نجامينا population 721000 (2005 is the Capital city of Chad. The Cairo - Cape Town Highway is Trans-African Highway 4 in the Transcontinental Road network being developed by the United Nations Each of these highways is partially complete, with significant gaps and unpaved sections.

Peoples and languages

The Sahara is home to a number of peoples and languages. Arabic is the most widely spoken language in the Sahara, from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Berber people are found from western Egypt to Morocco, including the Tuareg pastoralists of the central Sahara. Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. The Tuareg (also Twareg or Touareg, Amazigh: Imuhagh / Itargiyen, besides regional ethnyms are a Nomadic The Beja live in the Red Sea Hills of southeastern Egypt and eastern Sudan. The Beja (البيجا are an ethnic group dwelling in parts of North Africa and the Horn of Africa. The Arabic, Berber, and Beja languages are part of the Afro-Asiatic language family. The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a Language family with about 375 languages ( SIL estimate and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa

Speakers of Nilo-Saharan language family also inhabit the Sahara, including Fur of Darfur in western Sudan and the Saharan languages of Niger, Chad and western Sudan, which includes Kanuri, Tedaga, and Dazaga. The Nilo-Saharan languages are a hypothetical group of African languages spoken mainly in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers (hence the term The Fur language (Fur bèle fòòr or fòòraŋ bèle, Arabic فوراوي Fûrâwî sometimes called Konjara by linguists after a former ruling Darfur (دار فور daar foor, lit "realm of the Fur " is a region in Sudan. The Saharan languages are a subgroup of Nilo-Saharan languages spoken across parts of the eastern Sahara, extending from northwestern Darfur to southern Kanuri is a dialect continuum spoken by approximately 4 million people in Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon, as well as small minorities Tedaga language is a language which belongs to the Saharan subfamily of the Nilo-Saharan, spoken in northern Chad and eastern Niger by the Dazaga, also known as Goran ( Arabic قرعان is a language spoken in the Djurab desert region of Chad by the Daza people and is part of

Countries in the Sahara

The following countries are either fully or partially covered by the Sahara.

• Algeria
• Egypt
• Libya
• Morocco
• Mauritania
• Mali
• Niger
• Sudan
• Tunisia
• Western Sahara
• Chad

See also

• List of deserts by area

References

• Michael Brett and Elizabeth Frentess. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Mauritania (موريتانيا Mūrītāniyā officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Western Sahara ( Arabic: الصحراء الغربية; transliterated: as-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbīyah; Sahara Occidental is a territory Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. This is a list of Deserts in the world ordered by area. It includes all deserts with an area greater than 50 000 km² (19 300 square miles The Berbers. Blackwell Publishers, 1996.
• Charles-Andre Julien. History of North Africa: From the Arab Conquest to 1830. Praeger, 1970.
• Abdallah Laroui. The History of the Maghrib: An Interpretive Essay. Princeton, 1977.
• Hugh Kennedy. Hugh N Kennedy MA PhD (Cantab is Professor of Arabic in the Faculty of Languages and Cultures at School of Oriental and African Studies, London formerly professor of history Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. Longman, 1996.
• Richard W. Bulliet. The Camel and the Wheel. Harvard University Press, 1975. Republished with a new preface Columbia University Press, 1990.

Notes

External links

• About Sahara subsurface hydrology and planned usage of the aquifers