| Российская Федерация Rossiyskaya Federatsiya Russian Federation | ||||||
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| Anthem: Государственный гимн Российской Федерации (Russian) Gosudarstvenny gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii (transliteration) National Anthem of the Russian Federation | ||||||
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| Capital (and largest city) | Moscow | |||||
| Official languages | Russian official throughout nation; twenty-seven others co-official in various regions | |||||
| Demonym | Russian | |||||
| Government | Federal semi-presidential republic | |||||
| - | President | Dmitry Medvedev | ||||
| - | Prime Minister | Vladimir Putin | ||||
| Founded (862)1 | Arrival of Rurik to Novgorod | |||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 17,075,400 km² (1st) 6,592,800 sq mi | ||||
| - | Water (%) | 13[1] | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2008 estimate | 142,008,838[2] (9th) | ||||
| - | 2002 census | 145,166,731[3] | ||||
| - | Density | 8. A national anthem is a generally patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history traditions and struggles of its people recognized either by a nation's Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The Hymn of the Russian Federation (Государственный гимн Российской Федерации Gosudarstvenny Gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii) is the National Transliteration is the practice of Transcribing a Word or text written in one Writing system into another writing system or system of rules for such practice Russia 's area is about 17 million square kilometers (65 million sq Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of An official language is a Language that is given a special legal status in a particular Country, State, or other territory Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages History Russian was the sole official language of the Russian Empire which existed until 1917 A demonym or gentilic is a word that denotes the members of a People or the inhabitants of a place The Russian people (Русские— Russkie) are an East Slavic Ethnic group, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. Political federalism is a Political philosophy in which a group of members are bound together (Latin foedus, covenant) with a governing The semi-presidential system is a System of government in which a prime minister and a President are both active participants in the day-to-day administration A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its The President of Russia (Президент России or the President of the Russian Federation, Президент Российской Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev ( Dmitrij Anatol′evič Medvedev;; born 14 September 1965 is currently President of Russia, inaugurated on 7 May 2008 The Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation, (Председатель Правительства Российской Федерации unofficially called the Prime-Minister Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (; born 7 October 1952 in Leningrad, USSR; now Saint Petersburg, Russia was the second President of Russia Early history Pre-Slavic inhabitants See also Steppe nomads, Scythians, Bosporan Kingdom, Khazaria In prehistoric times Rurik or Riurik (Рюрик; Old East Norse: Rørik, meaning "famous ruler" c Veliky Novgorod (Вели́кий Но́вгород is the foremost historic city of North-Western Russia and the administrative center of Novgorod Area is a Quantity expressing the two- Dimensional size of a defined part of a Surface, typically a region bounded by a closed Curve. To help compare sizes of different Areas here is a list of areas between 10 million km² and 100 million km² This is a list of the countries of the world sorted by total area. The square mile is an imperial and US unit of Area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. In Mathematics, a percentage is a way of expressing a number as a Fraction of 100 ( per cent meaning "per hundred" In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology List of countries by population in 2005|List of countries by population in 1907This is a list of countries ordered according to Population. Population density (in agriculture standing stock and Standing crop) is a measurement of Population per unit area or unit volume 3/km² (209th) 21. List of countries and dependencies by Population density in inhabitants/km² 5/sq mi | ||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2007 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $2. The purchasing power parity ( PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium Exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their Purchasing power. 088 trillion[4] (7th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $14,692[4] (52nd) | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2007 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $1. There are three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP (the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation Per capita is a Latin phrase meaning for each head with Per meaning 'through' or 'by' This article includes three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP at Purchasing power parity (PPP Per capita 290 trillion[4] (10th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $9,075 (54th) | ||||
| Gini (2005) | 40. PLEASE NO RANDOM FIGURES THERE ARE NO FIGURES BASED ON NATIONAL STATISTICS IN THIS ARTICLE Per capita is a Latin phrase meaning for each head with Per meaning 'through' or 'by' This article includes three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product Per capita at Nominal values, the The Gini coefficient is a measure of statistical dispersion most prominently used as a measure of inequality of income distribution or inequality of wealth 5[5] | |||||
| HDI (2005) | ▲ 0. The Human Development Index ( HDI) is an index combining normalized measures of Life expectancy, Literacy, Educational attainment, and GDP 802 (high[6]) (67th) | |||||
| Currency | Ruble (RUB) | |||||
| Time zone | (UTC+2 to +12) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | (UTC+3 to +13) | ||||
| Internet TLD | .ru (.su reserved), (.рф2 proposed) | |||||
| Calling code | +7 | |||||
| 1 | Modern Russia became an independent state after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 (sovereignty formally proclaimed on 12 June 1990). This is a list of countries by Human Development Index as included in the United Nations Development Program 's Human Development Report 2007 A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is The ruble or rouble (рубль rublʹ, plural ru рубли́ rubli; see note on English spelling and Russian plurals with numbers ISO 4217 is the International standard describing three-letter codes (also known as the currency code) to define the names of currencies established Daylight saving time ( DST A country This is a list of country calling codes defined by ITU-T recommendation E The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Events 1381 - Peasants' Revolt: in England, rebels arrive at Blackheath. Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) In many legal aspects (e. g. Copyright law) the continuity of Russian legal system starts with the establishment of RSFSR on November 7, 1917 [7] [8]. Copyright is a legal concept enacted by Governments, giving the creator of an original work of authorship Exclusive rights to control its distribution usually for Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat Year 1917 ( MCMXVII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Russian Federation is the successor to earlier forms of continuous statehood, starting from 9 century AD when Rurik, a viking warrior, establishes "Russ" or "Rhos" state at Novgorod, traditionally taken as the beginning of Russian statehood | |||||
| 2 | The .рф Top-level domain has been proposed for the Russian Federation as of 2008 and will only accept domains which use the Cyrillic alphabet. The Millennium of Russia is a famous bronze monument in the Kremlin of Novgorod, Russia. The Cyrillic alphabet (səˈrɪlɪk also called azbuka, from the old name of the first two letters is actually a family of Alphabets, subsets of which are used by | |||||
Russia (Russian: Росси́я, Rossiya), also[9] the Russian Federation (Russian: Росси́йская Федера́ция (help·info), Rossiyskaya Federatsiya), is a transcontinental country extending over much of northern Eurasia. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The Romanization of the Russian alphabet is the process of transliterating the Russian language from the Cyrillic alphabet and Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages This is a list of countries spanning more than one continent, sometimes referred to as transcontinental states. In Political geography and International politics, a country is a Political division of a geographical entity For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. It is a semi-presidential republic comprising 83 federal subjects. The semi-presidential system is a System of government in which a prime minister and a President are both active participants in the day-to-day administration A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its Russia is a Federation which consists of 83 subjects. These subjects are of equal federal rights in the sense that they have equal Russia shares land borders with the following countries (counter-clockwise from northwest to southeast): Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (Kaliningrad Oblast), Poland (Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and North Korea. Russia has international borders with 14 countries With a land border of in total it has behind China, the second-longest land border of any country Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Kaliningrad Oblast (Калинингра́дская о́бласть Kaliningradskaya oblast; informally called Yantarny kray (ru Янта́рный край meaning Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, It is also close to the U.S. state of Alaska, Sweden, Denmark, Turkey and Japan across relatively small stretches of water (the Bering Strait, the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea and La Pérouse Strait, respectively). The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Bering Strait (Берингов пролив Beringov proliv) is a sea Strait between Cape Dezhnev, Russia, the easternmost point (169°43' The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey La Pérouse Strait is a Strait dividing the southern part of the Russian island of Sakhalin (Karafuto from the northern part of the Japanese island
At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is by far the largest country in the world, covering more than an eighth of the Earth’s land area; with 142 million people, it is the ninth largest by population. This is a list of the countries of the world sorted by total area. List of countries by population in 2005|List of countries by population in 1907This is a list of countries ordered according to Population. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning 11 time zones and incorporating a great range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest mineral and energy resources,[10] and is considered an energy superpower. The term energy Superpower has several potential definitions that might be used relating to different contexts It has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's unfrozen fresh water. [11]
The nation's history began with that of the East Slavs. The East Slavs are a Slavic ethnic group, the speakers of East Slavic languages. The Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. [12] Founded and ruled by Vikings and their descendants, the first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus', arose in the 9th century and adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988,[13] beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings [13] Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated and the lands were divided into many small feudal Russian states. The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was Moscow, which served as the main force in the Russian reunification process and independence struggle against the Golden Horde. The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Великое княжество Московское was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation and exploration to become the huge Russian Empire, stretching from Poland eastward to the Pacific Ocean. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions
Russia established worldwide power and influence from the times of the Russian Empire to being the largest and leading constituent of the Soviet Union, the world's first and largest constitutionally socialist state and a recognized superpower. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Soviet Union was governed by three versions of its Constitution, following the 1918 Soviet Constitution established by the Russian Federation, the immediate The term socialist state (or socialist republic, or workers' state) can carry one of several different (but related meanings In strictly speaking any A superpower is a State with a leading position in the international system and the ability to Influence events and project power on a worldwide scale The nation can boast a long tradition of excellence in every aspect of the arts and sciences. [12] The Russian Federation was founded following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, but is recognized as the continuing legal personality of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 [14] Russia is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and a leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States and the G8. It is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the world's largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. Nations that are known or believed to possess Nuclear weapons are sometimes referred to as the nuclear club. Russia possesses the largest stockpile of Weapons of mass destruction in the world
Contents |
Geography
The Russian Federation stretches across much of the north of the super-continent of Eurasia. The Russian Federation stretches across much of the north of the super-continent of Eurasia. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. Because of its size, Russia displays both monotony and diversity. As with its topography, its climates, vegetation, and soils span vast distances. [15] From north to south the East European Plain is clad sequentially in tundra, coniferous forest (taiga), mixed and broad-leaf forests, grassland (steppe), and semi-desert (fringing the Caspian Sea) as the changes in vegetation reflect the changes in climate. The East European Plain (also Russian Plain) is a Plain comprised of a series of river basins in Eastern Europe. In physical Geography, tundra is an area where the Tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons Taiga (ˈtaɪgə from Turkic or Mongolian) is a Biome characterized by Coniferous forests In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. Siberia supports a similar sequence but is taiga. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving The country contains 23 World Heritage Sites[16] and 40 UNESCO Biosphere reserves. A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex A biosphere reserve is an international Conservation designation given by UNESCO under its Programme on [17]
Topography
The two widest separated points in Russia are about 8,000 km (5,000 mi) apart along a geodesic line. In Mathematics, a geodesic /ˌdʒiəˈdɛsɪk -ˈdisɪk/ -dee-sik is a generalization of the notion of a " straight line " to " curved spaces These points are: the boundary with Poland on a 60 km long (40-mi long) spit of land separating the Gulf of Gdańsk from the Vistula Lagoon; and the farthest southeast of the Kuril Islands, a few miles off Hokkaidō Island, Japan. The Vistula Spit (Mierzeja Wiślana Балтийская коса Frische Nehrung is a spit, or peninsular stretch of land which cuts the Vistula Lagoon off Gdańsk Bay or the Bay of Gdańsk (Zatoka Gdańska Gduńskô Hôwinga Гданьская бухта also known as Danzig Bay (Danziger Bucht is a southeastern The Vistula Lagoon (Zalew Wiślany or Zatoka Fryska in 1910 Калининградский залив or Kaliningradskiy Zaliv; Frisches Haff Aismarės is a The Kuril Islands (ˈkʊrɪl or /ˈkjuˈriˈl/ Кури́льские острова́ əstrʌˈva ru-Latn ''Kuril'skie ostrova'' or Kurile Islands in Russia WikipediaWikiProject Japanese prefectures for guidelines --> formerly known as Ezo, Yezo, Yeso, or Yesso, is Japan 's The points which are furthest separated in longitude are 6,600 km (4,100 mi) apart along a geodesic. These points are: in the West, the same spit; in the East, the Big Diomede Island (Ostrov Ratmanova). The Diomede Islands (острова Диомида, ostrová Diomída) also known in Russia as Gvozdev Islands (острова Гвоздёва The Russian Federation spans 11 time zones.
Russia has the world's largest forest reserves[11] and is known as "the lungs of Europe,"[18] second only to the Amazon Rainforest in the amount of carbon dioxide it absorbs. Central Russian Upland is an area of approximately 200000 miles² (500000 km² in Southern European Russia and Northeast of Ukraine, located inside East European Zaraysk (Зара́йск is a town in Moscow Oblast, Russia, the administrative center of Zaraysky District, The Virgin Komi Forests is a natural UNESCO World Heritage site in the Northern Ural mountains of the Komi Republic, Russia. Sochi (Сочи ˈsotɕɪ is a Russian Resort city, situated in Krasnodar Krai just north of the southern Russian border Krasnodar Krai (Краснода́рский край Krasnodarsky kray) is a federal subject of Russia (a Krai) located in the Southern The Amazon Rainforest (Brazilian Portuguese: Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia; Spanish: Selva Amazónica or Amazonía It provides a huge amount of oxygen for not just Europe, but the world. With access to three of the world's oceans—the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific—Russian fishing fleets are a major contributor to the world's fish supply. [19] The Caspian is the source of what is considered the finest caviar in the world. Caviar is the processed, Salted Roe of certain species of Fish, most notably the Sturgeon ( black caviar) and the
Most of Russia consists of vast stretches of plains that are predominantly steppe to the south and heavily forested to the north, with tundra along the northern coast. Magadan Oblast (Магада́нская о́бласть Magadanskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) in the Far Russian Far East (Да́льний Восто́к Росси́и ˈdalʲnʲɪj vʌˈstok rʌˈsʲiɪ is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced In physical Geography, tundra is an area where the Tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons Mountain ranges are found along the southern borders, such as the Caucasus (containing Mount Elbrus, Russia's and Europe's highest point at 5,642 m / 18,511 ft) and the Altai, and in the eastern parts, such as the Verkhoyansk Range or the volcanoes on Kamchatka. The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Mount Elbrus (Эльбрус is a Mountain located in the western Caucasus Mountain range, in Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia The Altai Mountains (Алтай Altay; Алтай 阿尔泰山脉 are a Mountain range in central Asia, where Russia, The Verkhoyansk Range (Верхоянский хребет is a Mountain range of eastern Siberia, spanning ca The Ural Mountains form a north-south range that divides Europe and Asia, rich in mineral resources. Riphean redirects here For the time period see Riphean stage The Ural Mountains (Ура́льские го́ры Uralskiye Russia possesses 10% of the world's arable land. In Geography, arable land (from Latin arare, to Plough) is an agricultural term meaning land that can be used for [20]
Russia has an extensive coastline of over 37,000 kilometers (23,000 mi) along the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, as well as the Baltic, Black and Caspian seas. The Arctic Ocean, located in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Arctic north polar region is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey [5] The Barents Sea, White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea, Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan are linked to Russia. The Barents Sea (Barentshavet Баренцево море is a part of the Arctic Ocean located north of Norway and Russia. The White Sea (Бе́лое мо́ре Vienanmeri is an Inlet of the Barents Sea on the northwest coast of Russia. The Kara Sea ( Russian: Ка́рское мо́ре is part of the Arctic Ocean north of Siberia. The Laptev Sea ( Russian: мо́ре Ла́птевых is a Marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean. The East Siberian Sea ( Russian: ru Восто́чно-Сиби́рское мо́ре is a Marginal sea in the Arctic Ocean. The Bering (or Imarpik) Sea is a body of water in the Pacific Ocean that comprises a deep water basin (the Aleutian Basin) which rises through The Sea of Okhotsk ( Russian: Охо́тское мо́ре English Transliteration: Okhotskoye More) is a part of the western Pacific Ocean, The Sea of Japan is a Marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean, bordered by Japan, Korea, North Korea and Russia Major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, the Franz Josef Land, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin. Novaya Zemlya (Но́вая Земля́ also spelled Novaja Zemlja, lit Franz Josef Land, Franz Joseph Land, or Francis Joseph's Land ( Russ The New Siberian Islands (Новосиби́рские острова Novosibirskiye Ostrova are an Archipelago, located to the North of the East Siberian Wrangel Island (о́стров Вра́нгеля ostrov Vrangelya) is an Island in the Arctic Ocean, between the Chukchi Sea and East The Kuril Islands (ˈkʊrɪl or /ˈkjuˈriˈl/ Кури́льские острова́ əstrʌˈva ru-Latn ''Kuril'skie ostrova'' or Kurile Islands in Russia Sakhalin (Сахали́н səxʌˈlʲin Japanese:nihongo|樺太|karafuto or; Chinese: 庫頁 Kùyè also Saghalien, is a large elongated The Diomede Islands (one controlled by Russia, the other by the United States) are just three kilometers (1. The Diomede Islands (острова Диомида, ostrová Diomída) also known in Russia as Gvozdev Islands (острова Гвоздёва 9 mi) apart, and Kunashir Island is about twenty kilometers (12 mi) from Hokkaidō. Kunashir Island (Кунаши́р 国後島 Kunashiri) meaning Black Island in Ainu) is the southernmost island of the Kuril Islands WikipediaWikiProject Japanese prefectures for guidelines --> formerly known as Ezo, Yezo, Yeso, or Yesso, is Japan 's
Russia has thousands of rivers and inland bodies of water, providing it with one of the world's largest surface water resources. The most prominent of Russia's bodies of fresh water is Lake Baikal, the world's deepest, purest and most capacious freshwater lake. Lake Baikal (о́зеро Байка́л Ozero Baykal, ˈozʲɪrə bʌjˈkɑl Байгал нуур Baygal nuur) is in Southern Siberia in Russia [21] Lake Baikal alone contains over one fifth of the world's fresh surface water. [22] Of its 100,000 rivers,[23] The Volga is the most famous—not only because it is the longest river in Europe but also because of its major role in Russian history. Major lakes include Lake Baikal, Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega. Lake Baikal (о́зеро Байка́л Ozero Baykal, ˈozʲɪrə bʌjˈkɑl Байгал нуур Baygal nuur) is in Southern Siberia in Russia Lake Ladoga (Лáдожское Óзеро Ladozhskoye Ozero; Laatokka is a Freshwater Lake located in Republic of Karelia and Leningrad Lake Onega (also known as Onego, Онежское озеро Onezhskoe ozero, i Russia has a wide natural resource base unmatched by any other country, including major deposits of petroleum, natural gas, coal, timber and mineral resources. [5][24]
Climate
The climate of the Russian Federation formed under the influence of several determining factors. The enormous size of the country and the remoteness of many areas from the sea result in the dominance of the continental climate, which is prevalent in European and Asian Russia except for the tundra and the extreme southeast. Continental climate is a Climate that is characterized by Winter Temperatures cold enough to support a fixed period of Snow cover each Year [15] Mountains in the south obstructing the flow of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean and the plain of the west and north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences. [25]
Throughout much of the territory there are only two distinct seasons — winter and summer; spring and autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely low temperatures and extremely high. [25] The coldest month is January (on the shores of the sea—February), the warmest usually is July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. [15] Summers can be quite hot and humid, even in Siberia. A small part of Black Sea coast around Sochi is considered in Russia to have subtropical climate. Sochi (Сочи ˈsotɕɪ is a Russian Resort city, situated in Krasnodar Krai just north of the southern Russian border The subtropics are the zones of the Earth immediately north and south of the tropic zone which is bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of [26] The continental interiors are the driest areas.
History
Early periods
- Further information: Eurasian nomads, Scythia, Bosporan Kingdom, and Khazaria
In prehistoric times, the vast steppes of Southern Russia were home to disunited tribes of nomadic pastoralists. Early history Pre-Slavic inhabitants See also Steppe nomads, Scythians, Bosporan Kingdom, Khazaria In prehistoric times Eurasian Nomads are a large group of peoples of the Eurasian Steppe. In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th The Bosporan Kingdom or the Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus was an ancient state located in eastern Crimea and the Taman Peninsula on the shores of the "Kazar" redirects here for the Marvel Comics character see Ka-Zar; for the village in Azerbaijan see Xəzər. The Kurgan hypothesis (also theory or model) is a model of early Indo-European origins, which postulates that the Kurgan culture of the Pontic steppe Urheimat ( German: ur- Original, Ancient; Heimat Home, Homeland) is a linguistic term denoting the The Proto-Indo-Europeans (PIE were the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language, who likely lived around 4000 BC, during the Copper Age and the In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use Nomadic pastoralism is a form of Agriculture where Livestock (such as cattle sheep goats and camels are taken to different locations in order to find fresh In classical antiquity, the Pontic Steppe was known as Scythia. The term Pontic-Caspian steppe summarizes the vast Steppelands stretching from north of the Black Sea as far as the east of the Caspian Sea, from central In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th [27] Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in the course of the 20th century in such places as Ipatovo,[27] Sintashta,[28] Arkaim,[29] and Pazyryk. Ipatovo kurgan refers to kurgan 2 of the Ipatovo Barrow Cemetery 3 a cemetery of Kurgan burial mounds located near Ipatovo, some 120 km north-east of Stavropol The Sintashta fortified settlement in the southern Urals is dated to ca Arkaim is an archaeological site situated in the Southern Urals steppe 8 The Pazyryk (Пазарык is the name of an ancient Nomadic people who lived in the Altai Mountains lying in Siberian Russia south of the modern city [30] In the latter part of the eighth century BC, Greek traders brought classical civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais and Phanagoria. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean Tanais ( Greek: Τάναϊς Tánaïs) is the ancient name for the River Don in Russia. Phanagoria was the largest Greek colony on the Taman peninsula, spreading on two plateaux along the Asian shore of the Cimmerian Bosporus, 25 kilometers [31] Between the third and sixth centuries BC, the Bosporan Kingdom, a Hellenistic polity which succeeded the Greek colonies,[32] was overwhelmed by successive waves of nomadic invasions,[33] led by warlike tribes, such as the Huns and Turkic Avars. The Bosporan Kingdom or the Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus was an ancient state located in eastern Crimea and the Taman Peninsula on the shores of the Polity ( Greek: Πολιτεία or Πολίτευμα transliterated as Politeía or Políteuma) was originally a term used in Ancient Greece The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy The Caucasian Avars are a modern people of Caucasus, mainly of Dagestan. A Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas until the 8th century. "Kazar" redirects here for the Marvel Comics character see Ka-Zar; for the village in Azerbaijan see Xəzər. In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey [34]
The ancestors of modern Russians are the Slavic tribes, whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the Pinsk Marshes. The Russian people (Русские— Russkie) are an East Slavic Ethnic group, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries The Pinsk Marshes (Пинские болота or Pripyat Marshes ( Pripet Marshes, Припятские болота are a vast territory of Wetlands [35] Moving into the lands vacated by the migrating Germanic tribes, the Early East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from Kiev toward present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk toward Novgorod and Rostov. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The East Slavs are a Slavic ethnic group, the speakers of East Slavic languages. Kiev, also known as Kyiv ( Ukrainian:, Kyiv, ˈkɪjiw Russian:, Kiyev; see also Cities' alternative names) is the Suzdal (Су́здаль is a town in Vladimir Oblast, Russia, situated north-east of Moscow, from the city of Murom (Му́ром Finnish: Muromi, Old Norse: Moramar) is a historic city in Vladimir Oblast, Russia, which sprawls Polotsk ( Polatsk, По́лацк Полоцк Polockas Połock is a historical city in Belarus, situated on the Dvina river Veliky Novgorod (Вели́кий Но́вгород is the foremost historic city of North-Western Russia and the administrative center of Novgorod Rostov (Росто́в Old Norse: Rostofa is one of the oldest towns in Russia and an important tourist centre of the so called Golden [36] From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia[36] and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native Finno-Ugric tribes, including the Merya,[37] the Muromians,[38] and the Meshchera. The term Finno-Ugric people is used to describe peoples speaking a Finno-Ugric language. Merya people (Меря also Merä) were an ancient Finno-Ugric people who lived in the regions of modern Russian cities of Moscow, The Muromians (Мурома were a Finno-Ugric tribe who lived in the Oka River basin of what is now Russia. The Meshchera (Мещёра Meshchyora) were a Finno-Ugric tribe which lived in the territory between the Oka River and the Klyazma river [39]
Kievan Rus
Scandinavian Norsemen, called "Vikings" in Western Europe and "Varangians" in the East,[40] combined piracy and trade in their roamings over much of Northern Europe. Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas The Varangians or Varyags ( Old Norse: Væringjar Greek: Βάραγγοι Βαριάγοι Váraggoi / Varyágoi, Ukrainian Piracy is Robbery committed at sea or sometimes on shore without a commission from a sovereign Nation (as distinct from Privateering In the mid-9th century, they ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas. [41] According to the earliest Russian chronicle, a Varangian named Rurik was elected ruler (konung or knyaz) of Novgorod around the year 860;[13] his successors moved south and extended their authority to Kiev,[42] which had been previously dominated by the Khazars. The Primary Chronicle (ѣѣтъ Пóвесть временны́х лет Povest' vremennykh let; Пóвість врéм'яних літ Povist' vremjanykh Rurik or Riurik (Рюрик; Old East Norse: Rørik, meaning "famous ruler" c Germanic monarchy, also called barbarian monarchy, was a monarchical systemof government which was predominant among the Germanic tribes of Late Antiquity The Title Grand Prince or Great Prince (Magnus Princeps Russian and Ukrainian: Великий князь Velikiy knyaz; Вялíкий [43]
In the 10th to 11th centuries this state of Kievan Rus' became the largest and most prosperous in Europe. Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan [44] In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Kipchaks and the Pechenegs, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as Zalesye. The Pechenegs or Patzinaks ( Turkish: Peçenekler, Hungarian: Besenyő, Greek: Patzinaki/Petsenegi or Πατζινάκοι/Πετσενέγοι/Πατζινακίται Zalesye (literally "over the woods" or Opolye (literally "in the fields" is a historical region of Russia, comprising the north and west [45] Like many other parts of Eurasia, these territories were overrun by the Mongols. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. The Mongol invasion of Rus' was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223 between Subutai 's reconnaissance unit and the combined force The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern and central expanses of Russia for over three centuries. Tatars ( Tatar: Tatarlar/Татарлар sometimes spelled Tartars, are a Turkic -speaking ethnic group or multiple ethnic groups This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. Mongol rule retarded the country's economic and social development. [46] However, the Novgorod Republic together with Pskov retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the Mongol yoke and was largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. The Novgorod Republic (Новгородская республика / Novgorodskaya respublika Новгородская земьля / Novgorodskaya zemlja) was a Pskov (Псков ancient Russian spelling Пльсковъ Pleskov) in Latvian Pleskava, in Estonian Pihkva, is an ancient city located in The Mongol invasion of Rus' was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223 between Subutai 's reconnaissance unit and the combined force Led by Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the Germanic crusaders who attempted to colonize the region. Saint Alexander Nevsky (Алекса́ндр Яросла́вич Не́вский in Russian; transliteration Aleksandr Yaroslavich Nevskij) ( May 30 The Northern Crusades or Baltic Crusades were Crusades undertaken by the Catholic kings of Denmark and Sweden, the German Livonian Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state because of in-fighting between members of the princely family that ruled it collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, Novgorod in the north-west, and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west. Vladimir-Suzdal Principality (Влади́миро-Су́здальское кня́жество The Novgorod Republic (Новгородская республика / Novgorodskaya respublika Новгородская земьля / Novgorodskaya zemlja) was a The Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia ( Ruthenian: sla Галицко-Волинскоє Королѣвство Regnum Galiciæ et Lodomeriæ or Galicia-Vladimir, was Conquest by the Golden Horde in the 13th century was the final blow and resulted in the destruction of Kiev in 1240. [47] Galicia-Volhynia was eventually absorbed into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and the independent Novgorod Republic, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic The Novgorod Republic (Новгородская республика / Novgorodskaya respublika Новгородская земьля / Novgorodskaya zemlja) was a [13]
Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia
The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was Grand Duchy of Moscow. The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Великое княжество Московское was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and The Tsardom of Rus' (Царство Русское was the official name for the Russian state between Ivan IV 's assumption of the title of Tsar (Emperor in 1547 The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Великое княжество Московское was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and It would annex rivals such as Tver and Novgorod, and eventually become the basis of the modern Russian state. Tver (Тверь is a city in Russia, the administrative center of Tver Oblast. The Novgorod Republic (Новгородская республика / Novgorodskaya respublika Новгородская земьля / Novgorodskaya zemlja) was a After the downfall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS The term Third Rome describes the idea that some European city or state is the successor to the legacy of the Roman Empire, with Byzantium being the "second While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, the Duchy of Moscow (or "Muscovy") began to assert its influence in Western Russia in the early 14th century. The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Великое княжество Московское was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and Assisted by the Russian Orthodox Church and Saint Sergius of Radonezh's spiritual revival, Russia inflicted a defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). See also Eastern Orthodox Church Structure and organization The Slavic Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure Venerable Sergius of Radonezh (Сергий Радонежский Sergii Radonezhsky)—also translated as Sergey Radonezhsky or Serge of Radonezh was The Battle of Kulikovo (Куликовская битва битва на Куликовском поле was fought by the Tartaro - Mongols (the Golden Horde Ivan III (Ivan the Great) eventually tossed off the control of the invaders, consolidated surrounding areas under Moscow's dominion and first took the title "grand duke of all the Russias". Ivan III Vasilevich (Иван III Васильевич ( 22 January 1440, Moscow – 27 October 1505, Moscow also known as Ivan the Great An invasion is a military offensive consisting of all or large parts of the Armed forces of one geopolitical entity aggressively entering territory [48]
In 1547, Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) was officially crowned the first Tsar of Russia. Tsar csar and tzar redirect here For other uses see Tsar (disambiguation. During his long reign, Ivan IV annexed the Tatar khanates (Kazan, Astrakhan) along the Volga River and transformed Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state. The siege of Kazan in 1552 was the final battle of Russo-Kazan Wars. The Kazan Khanate (Казан ханлыгы|Qazan xanlığı|قازان خانليغى Russian: Казанское ханство tr: Kazanskoe khanstvo The Khanate of Astrakhan ( Xacitarxan Khanate) was a Tatar Feudal state that appeared after the collapse of the Ivan IV promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (Zemsky Sobor) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions. Sudebnik of tsar Ivan IV (Судебник a revised code of laws instituted by his grandfather Ivan the Great. The zemsky sobor (зе́мский собо́р was the first Russian Parliament of the feudal Estates type in the 16th and 17th centuries [49][50] But Ivan IV's rule was also marked by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of Poland, Lithuania, Sweden for the access to the Baltic coast and sea trade. The Livonian War of 1558–1582 was a lengthy military conflict between the Tsardom of Russia and variable coalition of Denmark–Norway, Grand Duchy of [51] The military losses, epidemics and poor harvests[52] weakened the state, and the Crimean Tatars were able to burn down Moscow. In Epidemiology, an epidemic (from Greek epi- upon + demos people is a classification of a disease that appears as new cases in a The Crimean Khanate or the Khanate of Crimea (Qırım Hanlığı|قريم خانلغى Крымское ханство - Krymskoye khanstvo; [53] The death of Ivan's sons, combined with famine (1601–1603),[54] led to the civil war and foreign intervention of the Time of Troubles in the early 1600s. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation For the Dungeons & Dragons plotline see Time of Troubles (Forgotten Realms. [55] By the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in Eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the Pacific coast. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving The Chukchi Peninsula, Chukotski Peninsula or Chukotsk Peninsula ( Russian: Чукотский полуостров at about 66° N 172° W is the northeastern The Bering Strait between North America and Asia was first sighted by a Russian explorer in 1648. The Bering Strait (Берингов пролив Beringov proliv) is a sea Strait between Cape Dezhnev, Russia, the easternmost point (169°43'
Imperial Russia
Under the Romanov dynasty and Peter I (Peter the Great), the Russian Empire was officially founded. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The House of Romanov (Рома́нов rʌˈmanəf was the second and last imperial Dynasty of Russia, which ruled the country from 1613 to 1917 Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War, forcing it to cede West Karelia and Ingria (two regions lost by Russia in the Time of Troubles[56]), Estland, and Livland, securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. The Great Northern War (1700-21 was fought between Russia and Sweden for supremacy in the Baltic Sea. Karelia ( Karelian and Finnish Karjala, Карелия ( Kareliya) Karelen the land of the Karelian peoples, is an area in For the Italian municipality see Ingria Italy. For the Brachiopod Genus, see Ingria (brachiopod. For the Dungeons & Dragons plotline see Time of Troubles (Forgotten Realms. Livonia (Līvõmō Latvian and Livonija Estonian: Liivimaa; Finnish: Liivinmaa; German and Swedish: Livland [57] It was in Ingria that Peter founded a new capital, Saint Petersburg. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River Peter's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia. Catherine II (Catherine the Great), who ruled from 1762 to 1796, continued the efforts at establishing Russia as one of the Great Powers of Europe. Catherine II, called Catherine the Great (Екатерина II Великая Yekaterina II Velikaya;) reigned as Empress of Russia for 34 years A great power is a Nation or State that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale In alliance with Prussia and Austria, Russia stood against Napoleon's France and eliminated its rival Poland-Lithuania in a series of partitions, gaining large areas of territory in the west. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the As a result of its victories in the Russo-Turkish War, by the early 19th century Russia had made significant territorial gains in Transcaucasia. Russo-Turkish War may refer to one of the following conflicts between Imperial Russia and the Ottoman Empire: Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570 The South Caucasus is a mountainous geopolitical area of south-central Eurasia, also referred to as Transcaucasia, or The Transcaucasus. Napoleon's invasion failed miserably as obstinate Russian resistance combined with the bitterly cold Russian winter dealt him a disastrous defeat, from which more than 95% of his invading force perished. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The Russian (or Soviet) Winter is a common excuse for military failures of invaders in Russia [58] The officers of the Napoleonic Wars brought back to Russia the ideas of liberalism and even attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825, which was followed by several decades of political repression. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal
The prevalence of serfdom and the conservative policies of Nicolas I impeded the development of Russia in the mid-nineteenth century. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The origins of Serfdom in Russia are traced to Kievan Rus in the 11th century Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant reforms, including the abolition of serfdom in 1861; these "Great Reforms" spurred industrialization. Alexander (Aleksandr II Nikolaevich (Александр II Николаевич ( Moscow, 29 April 1818 – 13 March 1881 in St The Emancipation Reform of 1861 in Russia was the first and most important of liberal reforms affected during the reign of Alexander II of Russia. is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a Pre-industrial society into an industrial one However, many socio-economic conflicts were aggravated during Alexander III’s reign and under his son, Nicholas II. Alexander III Alexandrovich ( 10 March 1845 – 1 November 1894) (Александр III Александрович reigned as Emperor Harsh conditions in factories created mass support for the revolutionary socialist movement. In January, 1905 striking workers peaceably demonstrated for reforms in Saint Petersburg but were fired upon by troops, killing and wounding hundreds. The abject failure of the Tsar's military forces in the initially-popular Russo-Japanese War, and the event, known as "Bloody Sunday", ignited the Russian Revolution of 1905. The Russo-Japanese War (日露戦争 Romaji: Nichi-Ro Sensō Русско-японская война Russko-Yaponskaya Voyna;, 10 February 1904 – 5 September For other incidents referred to by this name see Bloody Sunday. See also Russian Revolution (1917 The 1905 Russian Revolution also known as the Failed Russian Revolution of 1905 was an empire-wide struggle of Although the uprising was swiftly put down by the army and he retained much of his power, Nicholas II was forced to concede major reforms including granting the freedoms of speech and assembly, legalization of political parties and the creation of an elected legislative assembly, the Duma, however basic improvements in the lives of industrial workers were unfulfilled. A Duma (Ду́ма is any of various representative assemblies in modern Russia and Russian history
Russia entered World War I in the aid of its ally Serbia and fought a war across three fronts while isolated from its allies. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Russia did not want war but felt that only alternative was German domination of Europe. Although the army was far from defeated in 1916, the already existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, casualties (Russia suffered the highest amount of both military and civilian deaths of the Entente Powers), and tales of corruption and even treason in high places, leading to the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1917. The number of World War I casualties, both The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them A series of uprisings were organized by workers and peasants throughout the country, as well as by soldiers in the Russian army, who were mainly of peasant origin. Many of the uprisings were organized and led by democratically elected councils called Soviets. The February Revolution overthrew the Russian monarchy, which was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government. The February Revolution (Февральская революция in 1917 in Russia was the first stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917. The Russian Provisional Government was formed in Petrograd in 1917 after the February Revolution and the Abdication The abdication marked the end of imperial rule in Russia, and Nicholas and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the Civil War. The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed While initially receiving the support of the Soviets, the Provisional Government proved unable to resolve many problems which had led to the February Revolution. The second revolution, the October Revolution, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and created the world’s first Communist state. The October Revolution (Октябрьская революция Oktyabrskaya revolyutsiya) also known as the Soviet Revolution
Soviet Russia
Following the October Revolution, a civil war broke out between the new regime and the Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, and the White movement. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union is covered in the following series of articles The October Revolution (Октябрьская революция Oktyabrskaya revolyutsiya) also known as the Soviet Revolution The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed The Socialist-Revolutionary Party (the PSR the SRs, or Esers; Партия социалистов-революционеров (ПСР эсеры was a Russian The Mensheviks (Minority (Меньшевик) were a faction of the Russian Revolutionary movement that emerged in 1903 after a dispute between Vladimir The White movement (Beloie Dvijenie Белое движение whose military arm is known as the White Army (Belaia Armia Белая Армия or White Guard The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk concluded hostilities with the Central Powers in World War I. Not to be confused with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (February 9 1918, a similar treaty involving Ukraine and the Central Powers. The Central Powers ( German: "Mittelmächte" Hungarian: "Központi hatalmak" Turkish: "İttifak Russia lost the Ukraine, its Polish and Baltic territories, and Finland by signing the treaty. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Baltic governorates were the governorates (or Guberniyas of the Russian Empire on the territory of what in 1918 became and is now independent Estonia Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. The Allied powers launched a military intervention in support of anti-Communist forces and both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror. The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The Allied intervention was a multi-national military expedition launched in 1918 during the Russian Civil War and World War I The Red Terror in Soviet Russia was the campaign of mass arrests and Executions conducted by the Bolshevik government In general the term White Terror refers to acts of violence carried out by Reactionary (usually monarchist or conservative) groups as part of a At the end of the Civil War, the economy and infrastructure were devastated. Following victory in the Civil War, the Russian SFSR together with three other Soviet republics formed the Soviet Union on December 30, 1922. The Treaty on the Creation of the USSR is a document that legalized the creation of a union of several Soviet republics in the form of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Events 1460 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Wakefield. 1816 - The Treaty of St Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic dominated the Soviet Union for its entire 74-year history; the USSR was often referred to as "Russia" and its people as "Russians. " The largest of the republics, Russia contributed over half the population of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks introduced free universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and housing. Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws aimed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities. [59] Notably, Russia became the first country in the world with full freedom of divorce and legalized abortion. After Lenin's death in 1924 Joseph Stalin consolidated power and became dictator. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party A dictator is an Authoritarian ruler (eg Absolutist or autocratic) who assumes sole and absolute power without hereditary ascension such as an Absolute Stalin launched a command economy, rapid industrialization of the largely rural country and collectivization of its agriculture and the Soviet Union transformed from an agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time. A planned economy or directed economy is an Economic system in which the Government or Workers' councils manages the Economy. is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a Pre-industrial society into an industrial one Collectivization in the Soviet Union was a policy pursued under Stalin, between 1928 and 1940(much later for areas further away from capital to consolidate individual
On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history,[63] opening the largest theater of the Second World War. Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Eastern Front of World War II (die Ostfront 1941-1945, der Rußlandfeldzug 1941-1945 (Russian campaign or der Ostfeldzug 1941-1945 (Eastern Campaign Although the German army had considerable success early on, they suffered defeats after reaching the outskirts of Moscow and were dealt their first major defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943. Wehrmacht (literally "defense force" was the name of the unified Armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 The Battle of Stalingrad is a commonly used name in English sources for several large operations by Germany and its allies and Soviet forces conducted with the [64] Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe in 1944–45 and captured Berlin in May, 1945. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. For the bombing campaign on Berlin by the RAF from November 1943 to March 1944 see Battle of Berlin (air. In the conflict, Soviet military and civilian death toll were 10. 6 million and 15. 9 million respectively,[65] accounting for half of all World War II casualties. World War II was humanity's deadliest war causing tens of millions of deaths The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation[66] but the Soviet Union emerged as an acknowledged superpower. A superpower is a State with a leading position in the international system and the ability to Influence events and project power on a worldwide scale The Red Army occupied Eastern Europe after the war, including the eastern half of Germany; Stalin installed communist governments in these satellite states. The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state Satellite state is a political term that refers to a country which is formally independent but under heavy influence or control by another country Becoming the world's second nuclear weapons power, the USSR established the Warsaw Pact alliance and entered into a struggle for global dominance with the United States, which became known as the Cold War. Russia possesses the largest stockpile of Weapons of mass destruction in the world The Warsaw Pact (see Nomenclature) was an organization of Communist states in Central and Eastern Europe. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the
Under Stalin's successor Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 and the Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human being to orbit the Earth aboard the first manned spacecraft, Vostok 1. Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following This article is about artificial satellites For natural satellites also known as moons see Natural satellite. Sputnik 1 ( "Спутник-1", "Satellite-1" ПС-1 ( PS-1, i EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Vostok 1 (Восток-1 meaning Orient -1 or East-1 was the first Human spaceflight. Tensions with the United States heightened when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the U. S. Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba. The PGM-19 Jupiter was a Medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM of the United States Air Force, removed from service by April 1963 Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation between the United States, the Soviet Union, and Cuba during the Cold War. Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of rule by collective leadership ensued until Leonid Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the pre-eminent figure in Soviet politics. Brezhnev's rule oversaw economic stagnation and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which dragged on without success and with continuing casualties inflicted by insurgents. Economic stagnation, often called simply stagnation is a prolonged period of slow Economic growth (traditionally measured in terms of the GDP growth The Soviet war in Afghanistan, also known as the Soviet-Afghan War or just the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, was a nine-year conflict involving A Mujahid (Arabic ar مجاهد, literally "struggler" is a Muslim involved in a Jihad, id est fighting in a war or Soviet citizens became increasingly discontented with the war, ultimately leading to the withdrawal of Soviet forces by 1989.
From 1985 onwards, Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize the country. Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev ( Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov;; born 2 March 1931 in Privolnoye Stavropol Krai) is a Russian politician (Гла́сность)is literally defined as publicity and sometimes figuratively interpreted as "tipping a vase to let someone see into the vase but not the bottom of the vase" (Перестройка) is the Russian term (now used in English for the economic reforms introduced in June 1987 by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev The USSR economy was the second largest in the world prior to the Soviet collapse. The economy of the Soviet Union was based on a system of State ownership, administrative planning Socialist competition and free labour [67] During its last years, the economy was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits and explosive growth in money supply leading to inflation. [68] In August 1991, an unsuccessful military coup against Gorbachev aimed at preserving the Soviet Union instead led to its collapse. The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt ( August 19 - August 21, 1991) also known as the August Putsch or August Coup was a three-day In Russia, Boris Yeltsin came to power and declared the end of Communist rule. Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin () (1 February 1931 23 April 2007 was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999 The USSR splintered into fifteen independent republics and was officially dissolved in December 1991. The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 Boris Yeltsin was elected the President of Russia in June 1991, in the first direct presidential election in Russian history. The President of Russia (Президент России or the President of the Russian Federation, Президент Российской
Russian Federation
During and after the disintegration of the USSR when wide ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalization were being undertaken,[69] the Russian economy went through a major crisis. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 the Russian Federation became an independent country This period was characterized by deep contraction of output, with GDP declining by roughly 50 percent between 1990 and the end of 1995 and industrial output declining by over 50 percent. [70][69] In October 1991, Yeltsin announced that Russia would proceed with radical, market-oriented reform along the lines of "shock therapy", as recommended by the United States and International Monetary Fund. In Economics, shock therapy refers to the sudden release of price and currency controls withdrawal of state subsidies and immediate trade liberalization within a country usually The International Monetary Fund ( IMF) is an International organization that oversees the Global financial system by following the Macroeconomic [71][72] Price controls were abolished, privatization was started. Incomes policies in Economics are Wage and Price controls, most commonly instituted as a response to Inflation. Privatization is the incidence or process of transferring ownership of business from the Public sector (government to the Private sector (business Millions were plunged into poverty. According to the World Bank, whereas 1. 5% of the population was living in poverty in the late Soviet era, by mid-1993 between 39% and 49% of the population was living in poverty. [73] Delays in wage payment became a chronic problem with millions being paid months, even years late. Russia took up the responsibility for settling the USSR's external debts, even though its population made up just half of the population of the USSR at the time of its dissolution. External debt (or foreign debt) is that part of the total debt in a country that is owed to Creditors outside the country [74] The privatization process largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to groups of individuals with inside connections in the Government and the mafia. Russian Mafia ( Русская мафия, Russkaya Mafiya) Red Mob ( Красная мафия Krasnaya Mafiya) or Violent criminal groups often took over state enterprises, clearing the way through assassinations or extortion. Corruption of government officials became an everyday rule of life. Political corruption is the use of governmental powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain Many of the newly rich mobsters and businesspeople took billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight. Capital flight, in Economics, occurs when Assets and/or Money rapidly flow out of a Country, due to an economic event that disturbs Investors [75] The long and wrenching depression was coupled with social decay. Social services collapsed and the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed. The early and mid-1990s was marked by extreme lawlessness. Criminal gangs and organized crime flourished and murders and other violent crime spiraled out of control. [76]
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In 1993 a constitutional crisis resulted in the worst civil strife in Moscow since the October Revolution. The Russian constitutional crisis of 1993 began on 21 September when Russian President Boris Yeltsin dissolved the country's legislature ( Congress of People's [78] President Boris Yeltsin illegally[79] dissolved the country's legislature which opposed his moves to consolidate power and push forward with unpopular neo-liberal reforms; in response, legislators barricaded themselves inside the White House, impeached Yeltsin and elected a new President and major protests against Yeltsin's government resulted in hundreds killed. Originally coined by its critics and opponents " neoliberalism " is a label referring to the recent reemergence of Economic liberalism or Classical liberalism The White House (Белый дом also known as the Russian White House, is a Government building in Moscow. With military support, Yeltsin sent the army to besiege the parliament building and disperse its defenders and used tanks and artillery to eject the legislators.
The 1990s were plagued by armed ethnic conflicts in the North Caucasus. The North Caucasus, also Ciscaucasus, Ciscaucasia or Forecaucasia, is the northern part of the Caucasus region between Europe Such conflicts took a form of separatist Islamist insurrections against federal power (most notably in Chechnya), or of ethnic/clan conflicts between local groups (e. The Chechen Republic (ˈʧɛʧɨn rɪˈpʌblɨk Чече́нская Респу́блика Chechenskaya Respublika; Нохчийн Республика Noxçiyn Respublika g. , in North Ossetia-Alania between Ossetians and Ingushs, or between different clans in Chechnya). The Republic of North Ossetia-Alania (Респу́блика Се́верная Осе́тия–Ала́ния Ossetic: Республикӕ Цӕгат Ирыстон — Алани The Ossetians (ирæттæ irættæ are an Iranic Ethnic group indigenous to Ossetia, a region that spans the Caucasus Mountains The Ingush ( Ingush: Галгай "Ghalghay" are an Ethnic group of the North Caucasus, mostly inhabiting the Russian Since the Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war (First Chechen War, Second Chechen War) has been fought between disparate Chechen rebel groups and the Russian military. The Chechen Republic (ˈʧɛʧɨn rɪˈpʌblɨk Чече́нская Респу́блика Chechenskaya Respublika; Нохчийн Республика Noxçiyn Respublika Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc The First Chechen War also known as the War in Chechnya was fought between Russia and Chechnya from 1994 to 1996 and resulted in Chechnya's The Second Chechen War, in a later phase better known as the War in the North Caucasus, was launched by the Russian Federation starting August 26 [80] Terrorist attacks against civilians carried out by Chechen separatists, most notably the Russian apartment bombings, Moscow theater hostage crisis and Beslan school siege, caused hundreds of deaths and drew worldwide attention. The Russian apartment bombings were a series of explosions that hit four apartment blocks in the Russian cities of Buynaksk, Moscow and Volgodonsk The Moscow theater hostage crisis, also known as the 2002 Nord-Ost siege, was the seizure of a crowded Moscow Theatre on October 23 The Beslan school hostage crisis (also referred to as the Beslan school siege or Beslan massacre) A series of explosions shook the school followed by a fire High budget deficits and the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis caused the financial crisis of 1998[81] and resulted in further GDP decline. The Asian Financial Crisis was a period of Financial crisis that gripped much of Asia beginning in July 1997 and raised fears of a worldwide economic meltdown ( [69] On December 31, 1999 Boris Yeltsin resigned from the presidency, handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister, Vladimir Putin, who then won the 2000 election. Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia. Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (; born 7 October 1952 in Leningrad, USSR; now Saint Petersburg, Russia was the second President of Russia Putin won popularity for suppressing the Chechen insurgency, although sporadic violence still occurs throughout the North Caucasus. High oil prices and initially weak currency followed by increasing domestic demand, consumption and investments has helped the economy grow for nine straight years, alleviating the standard of living and increasing Russia's clout on the world stage. [5] While many reforms made under Putin’s rule have been generally criticized by Western nations as un-democratic,[82] Putin's leadership over the return of order, stability and progress has won him widespread popularity in Russia,[83] as well as recognition abroad. [84]
Government and politics
According to the Constitution, which was adopted by national referendum on December 12, 1993 following the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis, Russia is a federation and a semi-presidential republic, wherein the President is the head of state[85] and the Prime Minister is the head of government. The Government of the Russian Federation (Прави́тельство Росси́йской Федера́ции is an executive governmental body that brings together the principal The politics of Russia ( the Russian Federation) take place in a framework of a federal presidential Republic. The State Duma (Государственная дума (Gosudarstvennaya Duma common abbreviation Госдума (Gosduma in the Russian Federation is the For the constitution of the Imperial Russia see Russian Constitution of 1906 The current Constitution of the Russian Federation Events 627 - Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeats Emperor Khosrau II 's Persian Year 1993 ( MCMXCIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar) The Russian constitutional crisis of 1993 began on 21 September when Russian President Boris Yeltsin dissolved the country's legislature ( Congress of People's A federation ( Latin: foedus, covenant is a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central ("federal" The semi-presidential system is a System of government in which a prime minister and a President are both active participants in the day-to-day administration A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its The President of Russia (Президент России or the President of the Russian Federation, Президент Российской Head of state is the generic term for the individual or collective office that serves as the chief public representative of a Monarchic or Republican Nation-state The Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation, (Председатель Правительства Российской Федерации unofficially called the Prime-Minister This article focuses on the cases where the Head of Government is a separate office from the Head of State The Russian Federation is fundamentally structured as a representative democracy. Representative democracy is a form of government founded on the principles of the people's representatives Executive power is exercised by the government. In Political science and Constitutional law, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the State. [86] Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Federal Assembly. A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation The Government of the Russian Federation (Прави́тельство Росси́йской Федера́ции is an executive governmental body that brings together the principal The Federal Assembly of Russia (Russian Федеральное Собрание transliteration Federalnoye Sobraniye or Federalnoje Sobranije is the Legislature of the [87] The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, which serves as the country's supreme legal document and as a social contract for the people of the Russian Federation. Separation of powers, a term ascribed to French Enlightenment Political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, is a model for the Governance Social contract describes a broad class of republican theories whose subjects are implied agreements by which people form Nations and maintain a Social order
The federal government is composed of three branches:
- Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly, made up of the State Duma and the Federation Council makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse, and has power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government. The Moscow Kremlin Senate building (Russian Сенат was commissioned by Catherine II of Russia and designed by Matvey Kazakov. The Moscow Kremlin ( Russian: Московский Кремль Moskovskiy Kreml) usually referred to as simply The Kremlin, is a historic fortified A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation In Government, bicameralism (bi + Latin la ''camera'' chamber is the practice of having two legislative or Parliamentary chambers Thus a bicameral The Federal Assembly of Russia (Russian Федеральное Собрание transliteration Federalnoye Sobraniye or Federalnoje Sobranije is the Legislature of the The State Duma (Государственная дума (Gosudarstvennaya Duma common abbreviation Госдума (Gosduma in the Russian Federation is the Federation Council of Russia (Сове́т Федера́ции Sovet Federatsii) is the Upper house of the Federal law is the body of Law created by the Federal government of a country A declaration of war is a formal performative Speech act or signing of a document by an authorised party of a government in order to initate a state of War The power of the purse is the ability of one group to Manipulate and control the actions of another group by withholding Funding, or putting stipulations on the use Impeachment is the first of two stages in a specific process for a legislative body to forcibly remove a Government official
- Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law, and appoints the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies. In Political science and Constitutional law, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the State. The President of Russia (Президент России or the President of the Russian Federation, Президент Российской A commander-in-chief is the Commander of a nation's Military forces or significant element of those forces For other uses see Bill. A bill is a proposed new law introduced within a Legislature that has not been ratified, adopted
- Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, Supreme Court of Arbitration and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional. In Law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of Courts which administer Justice in the name of the sovereign or State Constitutional Court of Russian Federation (Russian Конституционный Суд Российской Федерации is a high court which is empowered to rule on whether The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation ( Russian: ru Верховный Суд Российской Федерации is the final instance in Administrative law The Supreme Court of Arbitration of the Russian Federation is the Court of final instance in commercial disputes in Russia Constitutionality is the status of a law, a procedure or an act's accordance with the laws or guidelines set forth in the applicable Constitution.
According to the Constitution of Russia, constitutional justice in the court is based on the equality of all citizens,[88] judges are independent and subject only to the law,[89] trials are to be open and the accused is guaranteed a defense. For the constitution of the Imperial Russia see Russian Constitution of 1906 The current Constitution of the Russian Federation [90] Since 1996, Russia has instituted a moratorium on the death penalty in Russia, although capital punishment has not been abolished by law. Both the legal and moral status of Capital punishment in Russia are currently controversial
The president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term[91] (eligible for a second term but constitutionally barred for a third consecutive term);[92] election last held 2 March 2008. Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president. The national legislature is the Federal Assembly, which consists of two chambers; the 450-member State Duma[93] and the 176-member Federation Council. The Federal Assembly of Russia (Russian Федеральное Собрание transliteration Federalnoye Sobraniye or Federalnoje Sobranije is the Legislature of the The State Duma (Государственная дума (Gosudarstvennaya Duma common abbreviation Госдума (Gosduma in the Russian Federation is the Federation Council of Russia (Сове́т Федера́ции Sovet Federatsii) is the Upper house of the Leading political parties in Russia include United Russia, the Communist Party, the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia and Fair Russia. United Russia (Единая Россия Yedinaya Rossiya) is a major Political party in the Russian Federation. The Communist Party of the Russian Federation (Коммунистическая партия Российской Федерации = КПРФ Transliteration of Russian into English|translit The Liberal Democratic Party of Russia ( Либерально-Демократическая Партия России, Fair Russia Motherland/Pensioners/Life (Справедли́вая Росси́я Ро́дина/Пенсионе́ры/Жизнь|Spravedlivaya Rossiya Rodina/Pensionery/Zhizn
Subdivisions
- Federal subjects
The Russian Federation comprises 83 federal subjects. Being the largest country in the world spanning a large percentage of Eurasia, and one of the most populated Russia is divided into several types and levels of Russia is a Federation which consists of 83 subjects. These subjects are of equal federal rights in the sense that they have equal [94] These subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council. Federation Council of Russia (Сове́т Федера́ции Sovet Federatsii) is the Upper house of the [95] However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.
- 46 oblasts (provinces): most common type of federal subjects, with federally appointed governor and locally elected legislature. The Russian Federation is divided into 83 subjects ( subyekty) of which 46 are oblasts ("provinces" sing
- 21 republics: nominally autonomous; each has its own constitution, president, and parliament. The Russian Federation is divided into 83 federal subjects (constituent units 21 of which are Republics. Republics are allowed to establish their own official language alongside Russian but are represented by the federal government in international affairs. Republics are meant to be home to specific ethnic minorities.
- Nine krais (territories): essentially the same as oblasts. The Russian Federation is divided into 83 subjects, of which nine are krais, or krays ("territories" sing The "territory" designation is historic, originally given to frontier regions and later also to administrative divisions that comprised autonomous okrugs or autonomous oblasts.
- Four autonomous okrugs (autonomous districts): originally autonomous entities within oblasts and krais created for ethnic minorities, their status was elevated to that of federal subjects in the 1990s. Autonomous Okrug (district area region is a type of federal subject of Russia and simultaneously a type of administrative division of some federal With the exception of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, all autonomous okrugs are still administratively subordinated to a krai or an oblast of which they are a part. Chukotka Autonomous Okrug (Чуко́тский автоно́мный о́круг tr
- One autonomous oblast (the Jewish Autonomous Oblast): originally autonomous oblasts were administrative units subordinated to krais. The Russian Federation is divided into 83 federal subjects, one of which is an Autonomous oblast (autonomous province the Jewish Autonomous Jewish Autonomous Oblast (Евре́йская автоно́мная о́бласть Yevreyskaya avtonomnaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia In 1990, all of them except the Jewish AO were elevated in status to that of a republic.
- Two federal cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg): major cities that function as separate regions. The Russian Federation is divided into 83 federal subjects, two of which are federal cities. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River
- Federal districts and economic regions
Federal subjects are grouped into seven federal districts, each administered by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia. This article is about an administrative division of the federal government of Russia The President of Russia (Президент России or the President of the Russian Federation, Президент Российской [96] Unlike the federal subjects, the federal districts are not a subnational level of government, but are a level of administration of the federal government. Federal districts' envoys serve as liaisons between the federal subjects and the federal government and are primarily responsible for overseeing the compliance of the federal subjects with the federal laws.
Foreign relations and military
The Russian Federation is recognized in international law as continuing the legal personality of the former Soviet Union. Russia is a Federation which consists of 83 subjects. These subjects are of equal federal rights in the sense that they have equal This article covers the foreign relations of Russia since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (UTC (Вооружённые Си́лы Росси́йской Федера́ции Transliteration Vooruzhyónniye Síly Rossíyskoy Federátsii The President of Russia (Президент России or the President of the Russian Federation, Президент Российской Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev ( Dmitrij Anatol′evič Medvedev;; born 14 September 1965 is currently President of Russia, inaugurated on 7 May 2008 [14] Russia continues to implement the international commitments of the USSR, and has assumed the USSR's permanent seat on the UN Security Council, membership in other international organizations, the rights and obligations under international treaties and property and debts. Russia has a multifaceted foreign policy. It maintains diplomatic relations with 178 countries and has 140 embassies. [97] Russia's foreign policy is determined by the President and implemented by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The President of Russia (Президент России or the President of the Russian Federation, Президент Российской [98]
As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, Russia plays a major role in maintaining international peace and security, and plays a major role in resolving international conflicts by participating in the Quartet on the Middle East, the Six-party talks with North Korea, promoting the resolution of the Kosovo conflict and resolving nuclear proliferation issues. The Quartet on the Middle East, sometimes called the Diplomatic Quartet or Madrid Quartet or simply the Quartet, is a foursome of nations and International The six-party talks aim to find a peaceful resolution to the security concerns as a result of the North Korean nuclear weapons program. North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, The term Kosovo War or Kosovo Conflict is often used to describe two sequential and at times parallel armed conflicts in Kosovo: 1996–1999 Nuclear proliferation is a term now used to describe the spread of Nuclear weapons, fissile material and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information to nations Russia is a member of the Group of Eight (G8) industrialized nations, the Council of Europe, OSCE and APEC. The Council of Europe (Conseil de l'Europe is the oldest International organisation working towards European integration, being founded in 1949 Russia usually takes a leading role in regional organizations such as the CIS, EurAsEC, CSTO, and the SCO. The Eurasian Economic Community ( EurAsEC or EAEC or EEC) was put into motion on 10 October 2000 when Belarus, The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation ( SCO) is an Intergovernmental mutual-security organization which was founded in 2001 by the leaders of China, President Vladimir Putin has advocated a strategic partnership with close integration in various dimensions including establishment of four common spaces between Russia and the EU. Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (; born 7 October 1952 in Leningrad, USSR; now Saint Petersburg, Russia was the second President of Russia [99] Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia has developed a friendlier, albeit volatile relationship with NATO. The North Atlantic Treaty The NATO-Russia Council was established in 2002 to allow the 26 Allies and Russia to work together as equal partners to pursue opportunities for joint collaboration. [100]
Russia assumed control of Soviet assets abroad and most of the Soviet Union's production facilities and defense industries are located in the country. The Russian Airborne Troops or VDV (from "Vozdushno-Desantnye Vojska" Russian: Воздушно-десантные войска = ВДВ Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the [101] The Russian military is divided into the Ground Forces, Navy, and Air Force. The Russian Ground Forces (Сухопутные войска Российской Федерации tr The Russian Navy or VMF ( Russian: Военно-Морской Флот (ВМФ России- Voyenno-Morskoy Flot Rossii (VMF or literally Military Maritime The Russian Air Force ( Russian: Военно-воздушные cилы России transliteration: Voyenno-vozdushnye sily Rossii) is the air force There are also three independent arms of service: Strategic Rocket Forces, Military Space Forces, and the Airborne Troops. The Strategic Rocket Forces of Russian Federation or RVSNRF ( Russian: Ракетные войска стратегического назначения Российской The Military Space Forces (VKS are the branch of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation responsible for military space operations The Russian Airborne Troops or VDV (from "Vozdushno-Desantnye Vojska" Russian: Воздушно-десантные войска = ВДВ In 2006, the military had 1. 037 million personnel on active duty. [102] Russia has the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons in the world. It has the second largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines and is the only country apart from the U. S. with a modern strategic bomber force. A strategic bomber is a heavy type Aircraft designed to drop large amounts of ordnance onto a distant target for the purposes of debilitating an enemy's [103] The country has a large and fully indigenous arms industry, producing all of its own military equipment. The arms industry is a global Industry and Business which Manufactures and sells Weapons and Military technology and equipment. Russia is the world's top supplier of weapons, a spot it has held since 2001, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales[104] and exporting weapons to about 80 countries. [105] Following the Soviet practice, it is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for two years' Armed Forces service, though various problems associated with this is why the armed forces are from 2008 reducing the conscription term from 18 months to 12, and plan to increase contract servicemen to compose 70% of the armed forces by 2010. Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority [5] Defense expenditure has quadrupled over the past six years. [106] Official government military spending for 2008 is $40 billion,[107] though various sources, including US intelligence,[108] and the International Institute for Strategic Studies,[102] have estimated Russia’s military expenditures to be considerably higher. The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS is a British research institute (or Think tank) in the area of international affairs. [109] Currently, the military is undergoing a major equipment upgrade with about $200 billion (what equals to about $400 billion in PPP dollars) on procurement of military equipment between 2006 and 2015. [110]
Economy
Since the turn of the century, rising oil prices, increased foreign investment, higher domestic consumption and greater political stability have bolstered economic growth in Russia. Russia is a unique emerging market in the sense that being the nucleus of a former superpower shows more anomalies The Sukhoi Superjet 100 is a modern Fly-by-wire Regional jet in the 75- to 95-seat category The country ended 2007 with its ninth straight year of growth, averaging 7% annually since the financial crisis of 1998. In 2007, Russia's GDP was $2. 076 trillion (est. PPP), the 7th largest in the world, with GDP growing 8. The purchasing power parity ( PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium Exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their Purchasing power. 1% from the previous year. Growth was primarily driven by non-traded services and goods for the domestic market, as opposed to oil or mineral extraction and exports. [5] The average salary in Russia was $640 per month in early 2008, up from $80 in 2000. [111] Approximately 14% of Russians lived below the national poverty line in 2007,[112] significantly down from 40% in 1998 at the worst of the post-Soviet collapse. These are lists of Countries of the world by percentage of population living in Poverty. [73] Unemployment in Russia was at 6% in 2007, down from about 12. 4% in 1999. [113][114]
Russia has the world's largest natural gas reserves, the second largest coal reserves and the eighth largest oil reserves. Soyuz TMA-2 was a Soyuz mission to the International Space Station (ISS launched by a Soyuz FG launch vehicle It is the world's leading natural gas exporter and the second leading oil exporter. Oil, natural gas, metals, and timber account for more than 80% of Russian exports abroad. [5] Since 2003, however, exports of natural resources started decreasing in economic importance as the internal market strengthened considerably. [80] Despite higher energy prices, oil and gas only contribute to 5. 7% of Russia's GDP and the government predicts this will drop to 3. 7% by 2011. [115] Russia is also considered well ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry. [116] The country has more higher education graduates than any other country in Europe. Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges [117]
In the first half of 2007, foreign investment in the Russian economy doubled year-on-year, reaching $60. 3 billion. [118] In 2000 total investment in fixed assets was $40 billion, giving growth of 300% by 2006 when it reached $120 billion. [115] A simpler, more streamlined tax code adopted in 2001 reduced the tax burden on people, and dramatically increased state revenue. [119] Russia has a flat personal income tax rate of 13 percent. A flat tax (short for flat rate tax is a Tax system with a constant tax rate This ranks it as the country with the second most attractive personal tax system for single managers in the world after the United Arab Emirates, according to a 2007 survey by investment services firm Mercer Human Resource Consulting. Mercer is a Human resource consulting firm headquartered in New York City New York that is recognized as one of the leading business institutions in the world [120][121] The federal budget has run surpluses since 2001 and ended 2007 with a surplus of 6% of GDP. Over the past several years, Russia has used oil revenues from its Stabilization Fund of the Russian Federation to prepay all Soviet-era sovereign debt to Paris Club creditors and the IMF. The Stabilization fund of the Russian Federation (Стабилизационный фонд Российской Федерации wasestablished by resolution of the Government The Paris Club is an informal group of financial officials from 19 of the world's richest countries which provides financial services such as debt restructuring debt relief and debt Oil export earnings have allowed Russia to increase its foreign reserves from $12 billion in 1999 to some $470 billion at the end of 2007, the third largest reserves in the world. [5] The country has also been able to substantially reduce its formerly massive foreign debt. [122]
The economic development of the country though has been uneven geographically with the Moscow region contributing a disproportionately high amount of the country's GDP. [80] Much of Russia, especially indigenous and rural communities in Siberia, lags significantly behind. Nevertheless, the middle class has grown from just 8 million persons in 2000 to 55 million persons in 2006. [123] Russia is home to the second largest number of billionaires in the world after the United States, gaining 50 billionaires in 2007 for a total of 110. [124]
Over the last five years, fixed capital investments have averaged real gains greater than 10% per year and personal incomes have achieved real gains more than 12% per year. During this time, poverty has declined steadily and the middle class has continued to expand. Russia has also improved its international financial position since the 1998 financial crisis. [5] A principal factor in Russia's growth has been the combination of strong growth in productivity, real wages, and consumption. [125] Despite the country's strong economic performance since 1999, however, the World Bank lists several challenges facing the Russian economy including diversifying the economy, encouraging the growth of small and medium enterprises, building human capital and improving corporate governance. The World Bank is an internationally supported Bank that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for development programs (e [24] Inflation grew to about 12% by the end of 2007, up from 9% in 2006. In economics inflation or price inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services over a period of time The upward trend continued in the first quarter of 2008, driven largely by rising food costs. [112][5]
Demographics
| Ethnic composition (2002) [126] | |
|---|---|
| Russians | 79. Russia 's area is about 17 million square kilometers (65 million sq The Russian people (Русские— Russkie) are an East Slavic Ethnic group, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries 8% |
| Tatars | 3. Tatars ( Tatar: Tatarlar/Татарлар sometimes spelled Tartars, are a Turkic -speaking ethnic group or multiple ethnic groups 8% |
| Ukrainians | 2. Ukrainians (Українці Ukrayintsi,) are an East Slavic Ethnic group primarily living in Ukraine, or more broadly— Citizens 0% |
| Chuvash | 1. The Chuvash ( Chuvash Чǎвашсем Russian Чуваши Tatar: Çuaşlar Чуашлар are a Turkic -speaking people 1% |
| Chechen | 0. Chechens ( Chechen: Hохчи / Noxçi) constitute the largest native Ethnic group originating in the North Caucasus region 9% |
| Armenians | 0. The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large 8% |
| Other/unspecified | 10. 3% |
According to preliminary estimates, the resident population of the Russian Federation on 1 January 2008 was 142 million people. In 2007, the population shrank by 237,800 people, or by 0. 17% (in 2006 - by 532,600 people, or by 0. 37%). Migration grew by 50. 2% in 2007[2] to reach 274,000. [128] The vast majority of migrants came from CIS states and were Russians or Russian-speaking. [2] The Russian Federation is a diverse, multi-ethnic society, home to as many as 160 different ethnic groups and indigenous peoples. [129] Though Russia's population is comparatively large, its population density is low because of the country's enormous size. [130] Population is densest in European Russia, near the Ural Mountains, and in the southwest Siberia. Riphean redirects here For the time period see Riphean stage The Ural Mountains (Ура́льские го́ры Uralskiye
73% of the population lives in urban areas. [131] As of the 2002 Census, the two largest cities in Russia are Moscow (10,126,424 inhabitants) and Saint Petersburg (4,661,219). Russian Census of 2002 (Всеросси́йская пе́репись населе́ния 2002 го́да was the first Census of the Russian Federation carried Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River Eleven other cities have between one and two million inhabitants: Chelyabinsk, Kazan, Novosibirsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Omsk, Perm, Rostov-on-Don, Samara, Ufa, Volgograd, and Yekaterinburg. Chelyabinsk (Челя́бинск is a city in Russia, located just to the east of the Ural Mountains, on Miass River. Kazan (Каза́нь Казан tt Qazan) is the capital city of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, and one of Russia's largest cities History The city was founded in 1893 as the future site of the Trans-Siberian Railway bridge crossing the great Siberian river Ob, and was known as Nizhny Novgorod (Ни́жний Но́вгород Nižnij Novgorod) colloquially shortened as Nizhny, is the fourth largest city in Russia Omsk (Омск is a city in southwest Siberia in Russia, the administrative center of Omsk Oblast. Perm (Пермь pʲɛrmʲ is a city and administrative center of Perm Krai, Russia. Rostov-on-Don (Росто́в-на-Дону́ Rostov-na-Donu rɐ'stof nə dɐ'nu is the city and the administrative center of Rostov Oblast and the Samara (Сама́ра ( Kuybyshev (ru Ку́йбышев from 1935 to 1990 is one of the largest cities in Russia. Ufa (Уфа́ Өфө Öfö; Уфа|Ufa Ӗпхӳ Ephü) is the capital of the Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia. Yekaterinburg (Екатеринбу́рг also romanized Ekaterinburg, formerly Sverdlovsk) is a major city in the central part of Russia In 2006, 186,380 migrants arrived to the Russian Federation of which 95% came from CIS countries. [132] There are also an estimated 10 million illegal immigrants from the ex-Soviet states in Russia. The Republics of the Soviet Union were according to the Article 76 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, Sovereign Soviet Socialist states that had united with other [133]
Russia's population peaked in 1991 at 148,689,000. [134] The number of deaths during 2007 was 477,700 greater than the number of births. This is down from 687,100 in 2006. [2] According to data published by the Russian Federal State Statistics Service, the mortality rate in Russia declined 4% in 2007, as compared to 2006, reaching some 2 million deaths, while the birth rate grew 8. 3% year-on-year to an estimated 1. 6 million live births. [128] The primary causes of Russia's population decrease are a high death rate and low birth rate. While Russia's birth-rate is comparable to that of other European countries (11. 3 births per 1000 people in 2007[2] compared to the European Union average of 10. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in 00 per 1000)[135] its population declines at much greater rate due to a substantially higher death rate (In 2007, Russia's death rate was 14. 7 per 1000 people[2] compared to the European Union average of 10. 00 per 1000). [136] However, the Russian health ministry predicts that by 2011, the death rate will equal the birth rate due to increases in fertility and decline in mortality. [137]
| Rank | Core City | Federal Subject | Pop. | Rank | Core City | Federal Subject | Pop. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Moscow | Moscow | 10,126,424 | 11 | Ufa | Bashkortostan | 1,042,437 | |||
| 2 | Saint Petersburg | Saint Petersburg | 4,661,219 | 12 | Volgograd | Volgograd | 1,011,417 | |||
| 3 | Novosibirsk | Novosibirsk | 1,425,508 | 13 | Perm | Perm | 1,001,653 | |||
| 4 | Nizhny Novgorod | Nizhny Novgorod | 1,311,252 | 14 | Krasnoyarsk | Krasnoyarsk | 909,341 | |||
| 5 | Yekaterinburg | Sverdlovsk | 1,293,537 | 15 | Saratov | Saratov | 873,055 | |||
| 6 | Samara | Samara | 1,157,880 | 16 | Voronezh | Voronezh | 848,752 | |||
| 7 | Omsk | Omsk | 1,134,016 | 17 | Tolyatti | Samara | 702,879 | |||
| 8 | Kazan | Tatarstan | 1,105,289 | 18 | Krasnodar | Krasnodar | 646,175 | |||
| 9 | Chelyabinsk | Chelyabinsk | 1,077,174 | 19 | Ulyanovsk | Ulyanovsk | 635,947 | |||
| 10 | Rostov-on-Don | Rostov | 1,068,267 | 20 | Izhevsk | Udmurtia | 632,140 | |||
| 2002 Census[138] | ||||||||||
Education
Russia has a free education system guaranteed to all citizens by the Constitution,[139] and has a literacy rate of 99. This is a list of cities and towns in Russia with population over 50000 grouped by federal subject and sorted by population This is a list of cities and towns in Russia. According to the data of 2002 Russian Census, there are 1108 cities and towns in Russia Russia is a Federation which consists of 83 subjects. These subjects are of equal federal rights in the sense that they have equal This is a list of cities and towns in Russia with population over 50000 grouped by federal subject and sorted by population This is a list of cities and towns in Russia with population over 50000 grouped by federal subject and sorted by population This is a list of cities and towns in Russia. According to the data of 2002 Russian Census, there are 1108 cities and towns in Russia Russia is a Federation which consists of 83 subjects. These subjects are of equal federal rights in the sense that they have equal This is a list of cities and towns in Russia with population over 50000 grouped by federal subject and sorted by population Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Ufa (Уфа́ Өфө Öfö; Уфа|Ufa Ӗпхӳ Ephü) is the capital of the Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia. Republic of Bashkortostan (Респу́блика Башкортоста́н Башҡортостан Республикаһы or Bashkiria (ru Башки́рия Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River Volgograd Oblast (Волгогра́дская о́бласть Volgogradskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) History The city was founded in 1893 as the future site of the Trans-Siberian Railway bridge crossing the great Siberian river Ob, and was known as Novosibirsk Oblast (Новосиби́рская о́бласть Novosibirskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) Perm (Пермь pʲɛrmʲ is a city and administrative center of Perm Krai, Russia. Perm Krai (Пе́рмский край Permsky kray) is a federal subject of Russia (a Krai) that came into existence on December 1 Nizhny Novgorod (Ни́жний Но́вгород Nižnij Novgorod) colloquially shortened as Nizhny, is the fourth largest city in Russia Nizhny Novgorod Oblast (Нижегоро́дская о́бласть Nizhegorodskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast Krasnoyarsk (Красноя́рск is the administrative center of Krasnoyarsk Krai of Russia, and the third largest city in Siberia. Krasnoyarsk Krai (Красноя́рский край Krasnoyarsky kray; not to be confused with Krasnodar Krai) is a federal subject of Yekaterinburg (Екатеринбу́рг also romanized Ekaterinburg, formerly Sverdlovsk) is a major city in the central part of Russia Sverdlovsk Oblast (Свердло́вская о́бласть Sverdlovskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) located History The Legend of Saratov Gelonus, a legendary Scythian city and the northernmost Greek colony may be conjectured to have been situated in the locality Saratov Oblast (Сара́товская о́бласть Saratovskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) located Samara (Сама́ра ( Kuybyshev (ru Ку́йбышев from 1935 to 1990 is one of the largest cities in Russia. Samara Oblast (Сама́рская о́бласть Samarskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) Voronezh (Воро́неж) is a large city in southwestern Russia not far from Ukraine. Voronezh Oblast (Воро́нежская о́бласть Voronezhskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) Omsk (Омск is a city in southwest Siberia in Russia, the administrative center of Omsk Oblast. Omsk Oblast (О́мская о́бласть Omskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) located in southwestern Tolyatti or Togliatti (Толья́тти tɘlʲ'jati is a city in Samara Oblast, Russia. Samara Oblast (Сама́рская о́бласть Samarskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) Kazan (Каза́нь Казан tt Qazan) is the capital city of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, and one of Russia's largest cities Republic of Tatarstan (Респу́блика Татарста́н Татарстан Республикасы|Tatarstan Respublikası is a federal subject of the Russian Krasnodar (Краснода́р is a city in Southern Russia on the Kuban River. Krasnodar Krai (Краснода́рский край Krasnodarsky kray) is a federal subject of Russia (a Krai) located in the Southern Chelyabinsk (Челя́бинск is a city in Russia, located just to the east of the Ural Mountains, on Miass River. Chelyabinsk Oblast (Челя́бинская о́бласть Chelyabinskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) Ulyanovsk (Улья́новск formerly Simbirsk (ru Симби́рск is a city on the Volga River in Russia, 893 km east from Ulyanovsk Oblast (Улья́новская о́бласть Ulyanovskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) Rostov-on-Don (Росто́в-на-Дону́ Rostov-na-Donu rɐ'stof nə dɐ'nu is the city and the administrative center of Rostov Oblast and the Rostov Oblast (Росто́вская о́бласть Rostovskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) located in the Izhevsk (Иже́вск i'ʐɛfsk Ижкар from 1985 to 1987— Ustinov (ru Усти́нов after Dmitry Ustinov, is the capital city of the Udmurt Republic (Удму́ртская респу́блика Удмурт Республика or Udmurtia (ru Удму́ртия is a federal subject of Russian Census of 2002 (Всеросси́йская пе́репись населе́ния 2002 го́да was the first Census of the Russian Federation carried Education in Russia is provided predominantly by the state and is regulated by the federal Ministry of Education. 4%. [5] The country came first in the world in the 2006 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study conducted by Boston College. PIRLS is the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study For similarly-named academic institutions see Education in Boston MA. [140] Entry to higher education is highly competitive. [141] As a result of great emphasis on science and technology in education, Russian medical, mathematical, scientific, and space and aviation research is still generally of a high order. [142][143]
The Russian Constitution grants a universal right to higher education free of charge and through competitive entry. [144] The Government allocates funding to pay the tuition fees within an established quota, or number of students for each state institution. This is considered crucial because it provides access to higher education to all skilled students, as opposed to only those who can afford it. In addition, students are provided with a small stipend and free housing. However, the institutions have to be funded entirely from the federal and regional budgets; institutions have found themselves unable to provide adequate teachers' salaries, students' stipends, and to maintain their facilities. [145] To address the issue, many state institutions started to open commercial positions, which have been growing steadily since. [146] Many private higher education institutions have emerged to address the need for a skilled work-force for high-tech and emerging industries and economic sectors. [145]
Health
Russia's constitution guarantees free, universal health care for all citizens. For the constitution of the Imperial Russia see Russian Constitution of 1906 The current Constitution of the Russian Federation [147] While Russia has more physicians, hospitals, and health care workers than almost any other country in the world,[148][149] since the collapse of the Soviet Union the health of the Russian population has declined considerably as a result of social, economic, and lifestyle changes. [150] As of 2007, the average life expectancy in Russia is 61. 5 years for males and 73. 9 years for females. [151] The average Russian life expectancy of 67. 7 years at birth is 10. 8 years shorter than the overall figure in the European Union. [152] The biggest factor contributing to this relatively low life expectancy for males is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes (e. g. , alcohol poisoning, stress, smoking, traffic accidents, violent crimes). Mortality among Russian men rose by 60% since 1991, four to five times higher than in Europe. [153] As a result of the large difference in life expectancy between men and women and because of the lasting effect of World War II, where Russia lost more men than any other nation in the world, the gender imbalance remains to this day and there are 0. 859 males to every female. [5]
Heart diseases account for 56. 7% of total deaths, with about 30% involving people still of working age. About 16 million Russians suffer from cardiovascular diseases, placing Russia second in the world, after Ukraine, in this respect. [153] Death rates from homicide, suicide and cancer are also especially high. [154] According to a 2007 survey by Romir Monitoring, 52% of men and 15% of women smoke. More than 260,000 lives are lost each year as a result of tobacco use. [155] HIV/AIDS, virtually non-existent in the Soviet era, rapidly spread following the collapse, mainly through the explosive growth of intravenous drug use. [156] According to official statistics, there are currently more than 364,000 people in Russia registered with HIV, but independent experts place the number significantly higher. [157] In increasing efforts to combat the disease, the government increased spending on HIV control measures 20-fold in 2006, and the 2007 budget doubled that of 2006. [158] Since the Soviet collapse, there has also been a dramatic rise in both cases of and deaths from tuberculosis, with the disease being particularly widespread amongst prison inmates. [159]
In an effort to stem Russia’s demographic crisis, the government is implementing a number of programs designed to increase the birth rate and attract more migrants to alleviate the problem. The government has doubled monthly child support payments and offered a one-time payment of 250,000 Rubles (around US$10,000) to women who had a second child since 2007. [160] In 2007, Russia saw the highest birth rate since the collapse of the USSR. [161] The First Deputy PM also said about 20 billion rubles (about US$1 billion) will be invested in new prenatal centres in Russia in 2008–2009. Immigration is increasingly seen as necessary to sustain the country's population. [162]
Language
Russia's 160 ethnic groups speak some 100 languages. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages History Russian was the sole official language of the Russian Empire which existed until 1917 [12] According to the 2002 census, 142. 6 million people speak Russian, followed by Tatar with 5. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The Tatar language (,, Татар теле, Татарча) is a Turkic Language spoken by the Tatars. 3 million and German with 2. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. 9 million speakers. [163] Russian is the only official state language, but the Constitution gives the individual republics the right to make their native language co-official next to Russian. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The Russian Federation is divided into 83 federal subjects (constituent units 21 of which are Republics. [164] Despite its wide dispersal, the Russian language is homogeneous throughout Russia. Russian is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken Slavic language. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages) a group of closely related Languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup of Indo-European languages [165] Russian belongs to the Indo-European language family and is one of three (or, according to some authorities, four) living members of the East Slavic languages; the others being Belarusian and Ukrainian (and possibly Rusyn). The East Slavic languages constitute one of three regional subgroups of Slavic languages, currently spoken in Eastern Europe. The Belarusian language, or Belorussian,(беларуская мова BGN/PCGN: byelaruskaya mova, Scientific: belaruskaja mova Ukrainian (in Ukrainian украї́нська мо́ва ukrayins'ka mova,) is a language of the East Slavic subgroup of the Slavic languages. Rusyn (ry русинськый язык) is an East Slavic language (along with Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian, with which it shares Written examples of Old East Slavic (Old Russian) are attested from the 10th century onwards. Old East Slavic, also known as Old Russian (древнерусский or Old Ruthenian, was a vernacular literary language used from the 10th to the 14th centuries [166]
Over a quarter of the world's scientific literature is published in Russian. Russian is also applied as a means of coding and storage of universal knowledge—60–70% of all world information is published in English and Russian languages. [167] The language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security
Religion
Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism are Russia’s traditional religions, deemed part of Russia's "historical heritage" in a law passed in 1997. Orthodox Christianity ( Russian: Православие Pravoslavije) is Russia’s traditional religion deemed part of Russia's "historical The Cathedral of Christ the Saviour (Хра́м Христа́ Спаси́теля is the tallest Eastern Orthodox Church in the world Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut [168] Estimates of believers widely fluctuate among sources, and some reports put the number of non-believers in Russia as high as 16–48% of the population. [169] Russian Orthodoxy is the dominant religion in Russia. See also Eastern Orthodox Church Structure and organization The Slavic Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure [170] 95% of the registered Orthodox parishes belong to the Russian Orthodox Church while there are a number of smaller Orthodox Churches. See also Eastern Orthodox Church Structure and organization The Slavic Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure Orthodox Christianity ( Russian: Православие Pravoslavije) is Russia’s traditional religion deemed part of Russia's "historical [171] However, the vast majority of Orthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis. Nonetheless, the church is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as a symbol of Russian heritage and culture. [172] Smaller Christian denominations such as Roman Catholics, Armenian Gregorian and various Protestants exist. The Armenian Apostolic Church (Հայաստանեայց Առաքելական Եկեղեցի Hayasdaneaytz Arakelagan Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation.
The ancestors of many of today’s Russians adopted Orthodox Christianity in the 10th century. [172] The 2007 International Religious Freedom Report published by the US Department of State said that approximately 100 million citizens consider themselves Russian Orthodox Christians. [173] According to a poll by the Russian Public Opinion Research Center, 63% of respondents considered themselves Russian Orthodox, 6% of respondents considered themselves Muslim and less than 1% considered themselves either Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant or Jewish. VCIOM is the Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VTsIOM Founding of VTsIOM The founding and development of the agency was intertwined with the career of A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Another 12% said they believe in God, but did not practice any religion, and 16% said they are non-believers. [174]
It is estimated that Russia is home to some 15–20 million Muslims. [175][176] However, surveys say that there are only 7 to 9 million people who adhere to the Islamic faith in Russia. [177] Russia also has an estimated 3 million to 4 million Muslim migrants from the ex-Soviet states. [178] Most Muslims live in the Volga-Ural region, as well as in the North Caucasus, Moscow, Saint Petersburg and western Siberia. [179] Buddhism is traditional for three regions of the Russian Federation: Buryatia, Tuva and Kalmykia. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Buryat Republic (Респу́блика Буря́тия Буряад Республика is a federal subject of Russia (a Republic) Tyva Republic (Респу́блика Тыва́ Respublika Tyva, rʲɪˈspublʲɪkə tɨˈva Тыва Республика Tyva Respublika) or Tuva The Republic of Kalmykia (Респу́блика Калмы́кия Kalmyk: Хальмг Таңһч is a federal subject of the Russian Federation (a [180] Some residents of the Siberian and Far Eastern regions, Yakutia, Chukotka, etc. The Sakha Republic (Yakutia (Респу́блика Саха́ (Яку́тия Саха Республиката is a federal subject of Russia (a Republic Chukotka Autonomous Okrug (Чуко́тский автоно́мный о́круг tr , practice pantheistic and pagan rites, along with the major religions. Induction into religion takes place primarily along ethnic lines. Slavs are overwhelmingly Orthodox Christian. Turkic speakers are predominantly Muslim, although several Turkic groups in Russia are not. [181]
Culture
Classical music and ballet
Russia's large number of ethnic groups have distinctive traditions of folk music. Russian culture is one that is rich and colorful Russians have a rich cuisine. Russian ballet is a form of Ballet characteristic of or originating from Russia. Folk music can have a number of different meanings including Traditional music: The original meaning of the term "folk music" was synonymous Music in 19th century Russia was defined by the tension between classical composer Mikhail Glinka and his followers, who embraced Russian national identity and added religious and folk elements to their compositions, and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein, which was musically conservative. Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka (Михаи́л Ива́нович Гли́нка ( –) was the first Russian composer to gain wide recognition inside his own country The Five, also known as The Mighty Handful (Могучая кучка Moguchaya kuchka) refers to a circle of Composers who met in Saint Petersburg The Russian Musical Society (RMS was an organisation founded in 1859 by the Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna (a German-born aunt of Tsar Alexander II) and This article is about the 19th century Russian pianist and composer Nikolai Grigoryevich Rubinstein ( 2 June 1835 &ndash 23 March 1881) was a Russian Pianist and Composer. The later Romantic tradition of Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era whose music has come to be known and loved for its distinctly Russian character as well as its rich harmonies and stirring melodies, was brought into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff, one of the last great champions of the Romantic style of European classical music. Romantic Music is a Musicological term referring to a particular period theory compositional practice and canon in European music history from about 1815 to 1910 WikipediaWikiProject Composers#Lead section --> Sergei Vasilievich Rachmaninoff (Сергей Васильевич Рахманинов
World-renowned composers of the 20th century included Scriabin, Stravinsky, Rachmaninoff, Prokofiev, and Shostakovich. Alexander Nikolayevich Scriabin (Алекса́ндр Никола́евич Скря́бин Aleksandr Nikolaevič Skrjabin; sometimes transliterated as Skriabin Igor Fyodorovich Stravinsky (Игорь Фёдорович Стравинский) ( &ndash 6 April 1971 was a Russian born Composer, considered by many to WikipediaWikiProject Composers#Lead section --> Sergei Vasilievich Rachmaninoff (Сергей Васильевич Рахманинов Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev (Серге́й Серге́евич Проко́фьев Sergéj Sergéjevič Prokófjev) ( - 5 March 1953 was a Russian composer who Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich ( Russian: ru Дмитрий Дмитриевич Шостакович ( &ndash 9 August 1975 was a Russian Composer During most of the Soviet Era, music was highly scrutinized and kept within a conservative, accessible idiom in conformity with the Stalinist policy of socialist realism. Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists David Oistrakh and Gidon Kremer, cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, pianists Vladimir Horowitz, Sviatoslav Richter and Emil Gilels, and vocalist Galina Vishnevskaya. David Fyodorovich Oistrakh (Russian Давид Фёдорович Ойстрах) David Fiodorovič Ojstrah; &ndash October 24, 1974 Gidon Kremer (Gidons Krēmers (born February 27, 1947) is a Latvian Violinist and conductor. WikipediaWikiProject Classical music#Biographical_infoboxes --> Mstislav Leopoldovich Rostropovich KBE ( Russian: Мстисла́в Vladimir Samoylovich Horowitz (ולדימיר הורוביץ Владимир Самойлович Горовиц Vladimir Samojlovič Gorovits; Володимир Самійлович Sviatoslav Teofilovich Richter (Святосла́в Теофи́лович Рихтер Svjatoslav Teofilovič Rikhter) ( &ndash August 1, 1997) was Emil Grigoryevich Gilels (Эми́ль Григо́рьевич Ги́лельс ru-Latn Emi'li Grego'rievič Gi'lelis; October 19 1916 – October Galina Pavlovna Vishnevskaya (Гали́на Па́вловна Вишне́вская (born 25 October, 1926) is a Russian Soprano
Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky composed the world's most famous works of ballet—Swan Lake, The Nutcracker, and Sleeping Beauty. Swan Lake ( Лебединое Озеро, Lebedinoye Ozero) is a Ballet, op The Nutcracker (Щелкунчик Shchelkunchik) Op 71 is a Fairy tale - Ballet in two acts three scenes by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky The Sleeping Beauty ( Спящая Красавица, Spyashchaya Krasavitsa) is a Ballet in a prologue and three acts Opus 66 by Pyotr During the early 20th century, Russian dancers Anna Pavlova and Vaslav Nijinsky rose to fame, and impresario Sergei Diaghilev and his Ballets Russes' travels abroad profoundly influenced the development of dance worldwide. Anna Pavlovna Pavlova (А́нна Па́вловна Па́влова (&ndash 23 January, 1931) was a famous Russian Ballerina of the late Nijinsky redirects here For other uses of the name see Nijinsky (disambiguation. Sergei Pavlovich Diaghilev (Серге́й Па́влович Дя́гилев / Sergei Pavlovich Dyagilev) also referred to as Serge, ( March 31, See also Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, The Ballets Russes ( French for The Russian Ballets) was a Ballet company established [183] Soviet ballet preserved the perfected 19th century traditions,[184] and the Soviet Union's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star after another, including Maya Plisetskaya, Rudolf Nureyev, and Mikhail Baryshnikov. Maya Mikhailovna Plisetskaya (Майя Михайловна Плисецкая born November 20, 1925) is a retired Russian Ballet dancer Rudolf Khametovich Nureyev ( Tatar: Rudolf Xämät ulı Nuriev, Russian: Рудольф Хаметович Нуриев Mikhail Nikolaevich Baryshnikov (Михаил Николаевич Барышников (born January 27, 1948) is a Soviet -born Russian The Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow and the Kirov in Saint Petersburg remain famous throughout the world. The Bolshoi Theatre (Большой театр Bol'shoy Teatr Great Theatre) is a historic theatre in Moscow, Russia, designed by famed architect The Mariinsky Ballet, is an internationally renowned Classical ballet company based at the Mariinsky Theatre in St Petersburg, Russia. [185]
Literature
Russian literature is considered to be among the most influential and developed in the world, contributing much of the world's most famous literary works. This article is about literature from Russia For the song by Maxïmo Park, see Our Earthly Pleasures. This article is about literature from Russia For the song by Maxïmo Park, see Our Earthly Pleasures. [186] Russia's literary history dates back to the 10th century and by the early 19th century a native tradition had emerged, producing some of the greatest writers of all time. This period began with Alexander Pushkin, considered to be the founder of modern Russian literature and often described as the "Russian Shakespeare". [187] Amongst Russia's most renowned poets and writers of the 19th century are Anton Chekhov, Mikhail Lermontov, Leo Tolstoy, Nikolai Gogol, Ivan Turgenev and Fyodor Dostoevsky. Anton Pavlovich Chekhov ( –) (Анто́н Па́влович Че́хов) was a Russian short-story writer and Playwright, considered to be one Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (Михаи́л Ю́рьевич Ле́рмонтов) ( –) a Russian Romantic Writer and Poet, sometimes Leo Tolstoy, or Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy ( –) (Лев Никола́евич Толсто́й, was a Russian Writer widely regarded Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol (Никола́й Васи́льевич Го́голь Nikolai Vasilevich Gogol;; Микола Васильович Гоголь Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev ( ɪˈvan sʲɪrˈgʲeɪvʲɪtɕ turˈgʲenʲɪf ( &ndash) was a Russian novelist and playwright Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский, sometimes transliterated Dostoyevsky, Dostoievsky, Ivan Goncharov, Mikhail Saltykov, Aleksey Pisemsky, and Nikolai Leskov made lasting contributions to Russian prose. Ivan Aleksandrovich Goncharov (Ива́н Алекса́ндрович Гончаро́в (– was a Russian novelist best known as the author of Oblomov Mikhail Yevgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin (Михаил Евграфович Салтыков-Щедрин in Spas-Ugol village Tver guverniya &ndash - in Aleksey Feofilaktovich Pisemsky (Алексей Феофилактович Писемский in Russian) (1821 - 1881 was a Russian Novelist who was regarded Nikolai Semyonovich Leskov (Николай Семёнович Лесков &mdash) was a Russian Journalist, Novelist and short story Writer Tolstoy and Dostoevsky in particular were titanic figures to the point that many literary critics have described one or the other as the greatest novelist ever. [188][189]
By the 1880s Russian literature had begun to change. Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский, sometimes transliterated Dostoyevsky, Dostoievsky, The age of the great novelists was over and short fiction and poetry became the dominant genres of Russian literature for the next several decades which became known as the "Silver Age". Previously dominated by realism, symbolism dominated Russian literature in the years between 1893 and 1914. Leading writers of this age include Valery Bryusov, Andrei Bely, Vyacheslav Ivanov, Aleksandr Blok, Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Fyodor Sologub, Anna Akhmatova, Osip Mandelstam, Leonid Andreyev, Ivan Bunin and Maxim Gorky. Valery Yakovlevich Bryusov (Вале́рий Я́ковлевич Брю́сов ( &ndash October 9 1924) was a Russian poet prose writer dramatist translator Andrei Bely (Андрей Белый was the pseudonym of Boris Nikolaevich Bugaev ( &ndash January 8, 1934) a Russian novelist poet Vyacheslav Ivanovich Ivanov (Вячеслав Иванович Иванов ( February 16 ( 28) 1866&ndash July 16, 1949) was a Russian Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Blok (Александр Александрович Блок &ndash August 7, 1921 waswas one of the most gifted lyrical poets produced by Russia Dmitry Sergeyevich Merezhkovsky, Дмитрий Сергеевич Мережковский ( August 14, 1865, St Petersburg - December 9, Fyodor Sologub (Фёдор Сологу́б born Fyodor Kuzmich Teternikov, Фёдор Кузьми́ч Тете́рников - December 5, 1927) was Anna Akhmatova (А́нна Ахма́това real name А́нна Андре́евна Горе́нко ( — March 5 1966 was the Pen name of Anna Andreevna Gorenko Osip Emilyevich Mandelstam (also spelled Mandelshtam) (О́сип Эми́льевич Мандельшта́м ( &ndash December 27, 1938) was a Leonid Nikolaievich Andreev (Леонид Николаевич Андреев – September 12, 1919) was a Russian playwright and short-story writer Ivan Alekseyevich Bunin ( Ива́н Алексе́евич Бу́нин) (— November 8, 1953) was the first Russian writer to win the Aleksey Maksimovich Peshkov ( In Алексе́й Макси́мович Пешко́в ( &ndash June 18, 1936) better known as Maxim Gorky (Максим
Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing civil war, Russian cultural life in was left in chaos. Some established writers left Russia while a new generation of talented writers who had at least some sympathy for the ideals of the revolution was emerging. The most ardent of these joined together in writers organizations with the aim of creating a new and distinctive proletarian (working-class) culture appropriate to the new state. Throughout the 1920s writers enjoyed broad tolerance. In the 1930s censorship over literature was tightened in line with Joseph Stalin's policy of socialist realism. Socialist realism is a teleologically -oriented style of realistic art which has as its purpose the furtherance of the goals of Socialism and Communism After his death several thaws took place and restrictions on literature were eased. By the 1970s and 1980s, writers were increasingly ignoring the guidelines of socialist realism. The leading writers of the Soviet era included Yevgeny Zamiatin, Isaac Babel, Ilf and Petrov, Yury Olesha, Vladimir Nabokov, Mikhail Bulgakov, Boris Pasternak, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Mikhail Sholokhov, Yevgeny Yevtushenko and Andrey Voznesensky. Yevgeny Ivanovich Zamyatin (Евге́ний Ива́нович Замя́тин) ( February 1, 1884 – March 10, 1937) was a Russian Isaac Emmanuilovich Babel, Исаак Эммануилович Бабель ( – January 27, 1940) was a Soviet journalist playwright and short story writer who Ilya Ilf (Ilya Arnoldovich Faynzilberg (Илья Арнольдович Файнзильберг 1897&ndash1937 and Evgeny or Yevgeny Petrov Yury Olesha (Юрий Карлович Олеша &ndash May 10, 1960) was a Russian novelist This page is about the novelist For his father the politician see Vladimir Dmitrievich Nabokov. Mikhail Afanasievich Bulgakov (Михаил Афанасьевич Булгаков, Kiev &ndash March 10, 1940, Moscow) was a Russian Boris Leonidovich Pasternak (Бори́с Леони́дович Пастерна́к ( — May 30, 1960) was a Nobel Prize -winning Soviet Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn ( Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын) (December 11 1918 – August 3 2008 was a Russian Novelist Vladimir Vladimirovich Mayakovsky (Влади́мир Влади́мирович Маяко́вский ( &ndash April 14, 1930) was a Russian poet and Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov ( Russian: Михаи́л Алекса́ндрович Шо́лохов mʲɪxɐˈil əlʲɪˈksandrəvʲɪtɕ ˈʂoləxəf ( – Yevgeny Aleksandrovich Yevtushenko (Евге́ний Алекса́ндрович Евтуше́нко (born July 18, 1933) is a Russian poet Andrey Andreyevich Voznesensky (Андре́й Андре́евич Вознесе́нский (b
Motion pictures
While in the industrialized nations of the West, motion pictures had first been accepted as a form of cheap recreation and leisure for the working class, Russian filmmaking came to prominence following the 1917 revolution when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression. The cinema of Russia began in the Russian Empire, widely developed under the Soviet and in the years following the fall of the Soviet system the Russian film The Battleship Potemkin ( Броненосец «Потёмкин», ru '''''Bronyenosyets Potyomkin''''' sometimes rendered as The Battleship [190] Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention in the period immediately following the 1917 revolution, resulting in world-renowned films such as Battleship Potemkin. The Battleship Potemkin ( Броненосец «Потёмкин», ru '''''Bronyenosyets Potyomkin''''' sometimes rendered as The Battleship [191] Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would become some of the world's most innovative and influential directors. Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein (Сергей Михайлович Эйзенштейн January 23, 1898 &ndash February 11, 1948) was Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky (Андре́й Арсе́ньевич Тарко́вский (April 4 1932 - December 29 1986 was a Soviet Film director, writer and opera director
Eisenstein also was a student of filmmaker and theorist Lev Kuleshov, who formulated the groundbreaking editing process called montage at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography in Moscow. Lev Vladimirovich Kuleshov ( Лев Владимирович Кулешов; in Tambov - 29 March 1970 in Moscow) was a Russian Soviet montage theory is an approach to understanding and creating cinema that relies heavily upon editing ( montage is French for "putting together" The All-Russian State University of Cinematography named after S Dziga Vertov, whose kino-glaz (“film-eye”) theory—that the camera, like the human eye, is best used to explore real life—had a huge impact on the development of documentary film making and cinema realism. Dziga Vertov (Дзига Вертов Дзиґа Вертов January 15, 1896 &ndash February 12, 1954) was a Soviet pioneer In 1932, Stalin made socialist realism the state policy; this stifled creativity but many Soviet films in this style were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying and Ballad of a Soldier. Socialist realism is a teleologically -oriented style of realistic art which has as its purpose the furtherance of the goals of Socialism and Communism Chapaev («Чапаев» is a 1934 Soviet Film. It was directed by the Vasilyev brothers on Lenfilm. The Cranes are Flying ( Russian: Летят журавли Letyat zhuravli) is a Soviet film about World War II. Ballad of a Soldier, ( Баллада о солдате, Ballada o soldate) is a 1959 Soviet film directed by Grigori Chukhrai [191] Leonid Gaidai's comedies of the 1960s and 1970s were immensely popular, with many of the catch phrases still in use today. Leonid Iovich Gaidai (Леони́д И́ович Гайда́й ( January 30 1923 in Slobodny (Oblast Amur † November 19 1993, Moscow In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, starting a genre known as 'osterns'. Vladimir Yakovlevich Motyl (Владимир Яковлевич Мотыль (b White sun of the desert ( Белое солнце пустыни; Beloye solntse pustyni) ( 1969) a classic 'Eastern' or Ostern "Ostern" is also an alternative spelling of Ostara and German for Easter The film is watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space. An astronaut or cosmonaut (космона́вт) is a person trained [192]
The 1980s and 1990s were a period of crisis in Russian cinema. Although Russian filmmakers became free to express themselves, state subsidies were drastically reduced, resulting in fewer films produced. The early years of the 21st century have brought increased viewership and subsequent prosperity to the industry on the back of the economy's rapid development, and production levels are already higher than in Britain and Germany. [193] Russia's total box-office revenue in 2007 was $565 million, up 37% from the previous year[194] (by comparison, in 1996 revenues stood at $6 million). [193] Russian cinema continues to receive international recognition. Russian Ark (2002) was the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take. Russian Ark (Русский ковчег is a 2002 movie by Russian director Alexander Sokurov.
Visual arts
Early Russian painting focused on icon painting and vibrant fresco's inherited by Russians from Byzantium. Iconography is the branch of Art history which studies the identification description and the interpretation of the content of images Fresco (plural either frescos or frescoes) is any of several related Painting types done on Plaster on walls or This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM As Moscow rose to power, Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev are vital names associated with the beginning of a distinctly Russian art. Theophanes the Greek (sometimes "Feofan Grek" from the Феофан Грек Greek: Θεοφάνης c Andrei Rublev (Andrew Rublev Andrey Rublev Andrey Roublyov Russian: Андре́й Рублёв (c The Russian Academy of Arts was created in 1757, aimed to give Russian artists an international role and status. The Russian Academy of Arts, informally known as the St Petersburg Academy of Arts, was opened by Count Ivan Shuvalov under the name Academy Notable portrait painters from the Academy include Ivan Argunov, Fyodor Rokotov, Dmitry Levitzky and Vladimir Borovikovsky. Ivan Petrovich Argunov (Иван Петрович Аргунов 1727–1802 was a Russian painter one of the founders of the Russian school of portrait painting Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov ( Fedor Rokotov) (Фёдор Степа́нович Ро́котов (1736&ndash1809 was a distinguished Russian painter who specialized Dmitry Levitzky ( Dmitry Grigoryevich Levitsky) (Russian Дмитрий Григорьевич Левицкий, 1735-1822 was a Russian Ukrainian Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky (Владимир Лукич БоровиковскийВолодимир Лукич Боровиковський July 24 O Realism flourished in the 19th century and the realists captured Russian identity. Realism is a visual art style that depicts the actuality of what the eyes can see Russian landscapes of wide rivers, forests, and birch clearings, as well as vigorous genre scenes and robust portraits of their contemporaries asserted a sense of identity. Other artists focused on social criticism, showing the conditions of the poor and caricaturing authority while critical realism flourished under the reign of Alexander II. Social criticism analyzes Social structures which are seen as flawed and aims at practical solutions by specific measures radical Reform or even Revolutionary In the Philosophy of perception, critical realism is the theory that some of our Sense-data (for example those of primary qualities can and do accurately represent
After the abolition of serfdom in 1861 some artists made the circle of human suffering their focus. Artists sometimes created wide canvasses to depict dramatic moments in Russian history. The Peredvizhniki (wanderers) group of artists broke with Russian Academy and initiated a school of art liberated from Academic restrictions. Peredvizhniki (Передвижники often called The Wanderers or The Itinerants in English were a group of Russian realist artists Their paintings had deep social and political meaning. Leading realists include Ivan Shishkin, Arkhip Kuindzhi, Ivan Kramskoi, Vasily Polenov, Isaac Levitan, Vasily Surikov, Viktor Vasnetsov, and Ilya Repin. Ivan Ivanovich Shishkin (Иван Иванович Шишкин 25 January 1832 – 20 March 1898) was a Russian Landscape Arkhip Ivanovich Kuindzhi (or Arkhip Kuinji, Архип Иванович Куинджи ( January 27, 1842 (? – July 24, 1910 Ivan Nikolaevich Kramskoi ( June 8 (OS May 27 1837 - April 6 (O Vasily Dmitrievich Polenov (Russian Поленов Василий Дмитриевич 1 June 1844, St Isaac Ilyich Levitan ( Russian: Исаак Ильич Левитан, August 30, 1860 &ndash) was a classical Russian Landscape Vasily Ivanovich Surikov (Василий Иванович Суриков ( January 24[[ 848]] ( Julian calendar: January 12) &ndash March 19 Viktor Mikhailovich Vasnetsov (Виктор Михайлович Васнецов ( Lop'jal, May 15 ( N Ilya Yefimovich Repin (Илья́ Ефи́мович Ре́пин Ілля Юхимович Рєпін ( Chuhuiv, Russian Empire (now in Ukraine By the 1830s the Academy was sending painters overseas to learn. The most gifted of these were Aleksander Ivanov and Karl Briullov, both of whom were noted for the Romantic historical canvasses. Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov ( Russian: Алекса́ндр Андре́евич Ива́нов; July 28 ( July 16 [OS]) 1806 &ndash Karl Pavlovich Briullov (Russian Карл Павлович Брюллов) called by his friends the Great Karl ( December 12, 1799 – June Uniquely Russian styles of painting emerged by the late 19th century that was intimately engaged with the daily life of Russian society.
The Russian avant-garde is an umbrella term used to define the large, influential wave of modernist art that flourished in Russia from approximately 1890 to 1930. The Russian avant-garde is an umbrella term used to define the large influential wave of Modern art that flourished in Russia from approximately 1890 to History of Modern art Roots in the 19th century Although modern Sculpture and Architecture are reckoned to have emerged at the end of the nineteenth The term covers many separate, but inextricably related, art movements that occurred at the time; namely neo-primitivism, suprematism, constructivism, rayonism and futurism. Neo-primitivism was a Russian Art movement which took its name from the book Neo-primitivizm (1913 by Aleksandr Shevchenko. This term is not to be confused with Supremacism. black circle Constructivism was an Artistic and architectural movement in Russia from 1919 onward which rejected the idea of " Art for art's sake " Rayonism (or Rayonnism) is a style of Abstract art that developed in Russia in 1911 "Russian Futurists" redirects here For the band see The Russian Futurists. Notable artists from this era include El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich, Wassily Kandinsky, Vladimir Tatlin, Alexander Rodchenko, and Marc Chagall amongst others. (Лазарь Маркович Лисицкий על ליסיצקי November 23 1890 – December 30 1941 better known as El Lissitzky (Эль Лисицкий was a Kazimir Severinovich Malevich (Казимир Северинович Малевич Kazimierz Malewicz Ukrainian Казимир Северинович Малевич sɛʋɛˈrɪnoʋɪtʃ Wassily Kandinsky (Russian Василий Кандинский first name pronounced as) ( – 13 December 1944 was a Russian painter, Printmaker Vladimir Yevgrafovich Tatlin ( Russian: Владимир Евграфович Татлин) ( – May 31, 1953) worked as a painter and architect Aleksander Mikhailovich Rodchenko (Александр Михайлович Родченко – December 3, 1956) was a Russian Artist, sculptor Marc Chagall (מאַרק שאַגאַל&lrm Belarusian: Мойша Захаравіч Шагалаў Mojša Zaharavič Šagałaŭ; Russian: Марк The Russian avant-garde reached its creative and popular height in the period between the Russian Revolution of 1917 and 1932, at which point the ideas of the avant-garde clashed with the newly emerged conservative Stalinist direction of socialist realism. See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them Avant-garde (avɑ̃gaʁd in French) means "advance guard" or "vanguard Socialist realism is a teleologically -oriented style of realistic art which has as its purpose the furtherance of the goals of Socialism and Communism
By the late 1920s the rigid policy of socialist realism enveloped the visual arts as it did literature and motion pictures and soon the avant-garde had faded from sight. The Motherland Calls, (Родина-мать зовёт! "Rodina Mat' Zovyot!" also called Mother Motherland, Mother Motherland Is Calling, or simply Some artists combined innovation with socialist realism including Ernst Neizvestny, Ilya Kabakov, Mikhail Shemyakin, Erik Bulatov and Vera Mukhina. Ernst Iosifovich Neizvestny (Эрнст Иосифович Неизвестный (born on 9 April, 1925 in Sverdlovsk) is a famous Russian-Jewish Ilya Kabakov, Russian Илья Иосифович Кабаков ( September 30 1933) is an American conceptual artist of Russian Jewish Mikhail Mikhaylovich Shemyakin (Михаи́л Михайлович Шемя́кин born 4 May 1943, Moscow) is a Russian (ethnic Erik Bulatov (Эрик Булатов is a Russian artist born in Sverdlovsk in 1933 and raised in Moscow. Vera Ignatyevna Mukhina (Вера Игнатьевна Мухина Latvian: Vera Muhina; July 1 1889 Style and New Style dates|O They employed techniques as varied as primitivism, hyperrealism, grotesque, and abstraction, but they shared a common distaste for the canons of socialist realism. Primitivism refers to a an artistic movement in particular which originated as a reaction to the Enlightenment, or b the general tendency to idealize any social behavior In Semiotics and Postmodern philosophy, the term hyperreality characterizes the inability of Consciousness to distinguish Reality from Fantasy When used in conversation grotesque commonly means strange fantastic ugly or bizarre and thus is often used to describe weird shapes and distorted forms such as Halloween --> Abstraction is the process or result of generalization by reducing the information Soviet artists produced works that were furiously patriotic and anti-fascist in the 1940s. Events and battles from the Great Patriotic War were depicted with stirring patriotism and after the war sculptors made many monuments to the war dead, the greatest of which have a great restrained solemnity. In the 20th century many Russian artists made their careers in Western Europe, due in part to the traumas of the Revolution. Russian artists such as Wassily Kandinsky, Marc Chagall, and Naum Gabo spread their work and ideas internationally. Wassily Kandinsky (Russian Василий Кандинский first name pronounced as) ( – 13 December 1944 was a Russian painter, Printmaker Marc Chagall (מאַרק שאַגאַל&lrm Belarusian: Мойша Захаравіч Шагалаў Mojša Zaharavič Šagałaŭ; Russian: Марк Naum Gabo KBE, born Naum Neemia Pevsner ( August 5 1890 - August 23 1977) was a prominent Russian sculptor These Russian artists studied internationally in Paris and Munich and their involuntary exile spread the impact of Russian art globally.
Sports
Russians have been successful at a number of sports and continuously finishing in the top rankings at the Olympic Games. Russia, is a keen sporting country successful at a number of sports and continuously finishing in the top rankings at the Olympic games. Megasport Arena (formerly Khodynka Arena or Ise Sport Palase on the Khodynka Field, Ледовый дворец спорта на Ходынском поле Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Championship See also 2007 IIHF World Championship;Final standings The Olympic Games is an international Multi-sport event established for both summer and winter games During the Soviet era, the national team placed first in the total number of medals won at 14 of its 18 appearances;[195] with these performances, the USSR was the dominant Olympic power of its era. [196] Since the 1952 Olympic Games, Soviet and later Russian athletes have always been in the top three for the number of gold medals collected at the Summer Olympics. The 1952 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XV Olympiad, were an International Multi-sport event held in Helsinki, Finland The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow while the 2014 Winter Olympics will be hosted by Sochi. The 1980 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXII Olympiad, were an International Multi-sport event held in Moscow in the Soviet Sochi (Сочи ˈsotɕɪ is a Russian Resort city, situated in Krasnodar Krai just north of the southern Russian border
Soviet gymnasts, track-and-field athletes, weight lifters, wrestlers, cross country skiers, and boxers were consistently among the best in the world. Even since the collapse of the Soviet empire, Russian athletes have continued to dominate international competition in these areas. As in most of the world, Association football enjoys wide popularity in Russia. Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a Team sport played between two teams of eleven players and is widely considered Although ice hockey was only introduced during the Soviet era, the national team soon dominated the sport internationally, winning gold at almost all the Olympics and World Championships they contested, most recently in the 2008 World Championship. Ice hockey, often referred to simply as hockey, is a team Sport played on Ice. Ice hockey tournaments have been staged at the Olympic Games since the 1920 Summer Olympics. The Ice Hockey World Championship is an annual event organized by the International Ice Hockey Federation. [197]
Figure skating is another popular sport; in the 1960s, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant power in figure skating, especially in pair skating and ice dancing. Pair skating is a Figure skating discipline International Skating Union (ISU regulations describe pair teams as consisting of "one lady and one man Ice dancing is a form of Figure skating which draws from the world of Ballroom dancing. At every Winter Olympics from 1964 until the present day, a Soviet or Russian pair has won gold, often considered the longest winning streak in modern sports history. The Winter Olympic Games are a winter Multi-sport event held every four years [198] Since the end of the Soviet era, tennis has grown in popularity and Russia has produced a number of famous tennis players. Tennis is a sport played between two players ( singles) or between two teams of two players each ( doubles) Chess is a widely popular pastime; from 1927, Soviet and Russian chess grandmasters have held the world championship almost continuously. Chess is a recreational and competitive Game played between two players. The title Grandmaster is awarded to extremely strong Chess masters by the world chess organization FIDE. See also Development of the World Chess Championship The World Chess Championship is played to determine the World Champion in the Board game Chess
See also
References
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- ^ Sokolov, Vsevolod (Spring 2004). "From Guns to Briefcases: The Evolution of Russian Organized Crime". World Policy Journal XXI (No 1).
- ^ Sahadi, Jeanne. Moscow remains the world’s most expensive city while London moves up from fifth to second place. CNN. Retrieved on 2008-03-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia.
- ^ Showdown in Moscow: The Overview; Yeltsin sends troops to oust armed foes from parliament; Fierce battle rages in capital. New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-05-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors.
- ^ Margaret Shapiro. Yeltsin Dissolves Parliament, Orders New vote. Washington Post. Retrieved on 2008-05-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors.
- ^ a b c Nuffield Poultry Study Group—Visit to Russia. pg 7. The BEMB Research and Education Trust. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Aslund, Anders. Russia's Capitalist Revolution. Retrieved on 2008-03-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate.
- ^ Treisman, Daniel. Is Russia's Experiment with Democracy Over?. UCLA International Institute. Retrieved on 2007-12-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia.
- ^ Stone, Norman. No wonder they like Putin. The Times. Retrieved on 2007-12-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia.
- ^ Time's Person of the Year 2007. Time Inc. . Retrieved on 2008-03-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate.
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 80, para. 1). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 110, para. 1). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 94). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 19, para. 1). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 120, para. 1). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 123, para. 1). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 81, para. 1). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 81, para. 3). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 95, para. 3). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 65, para. 1) In 1993, when the Constitution was adopted, there were 89 subjects listed. Some of them were later merged. Russia is a Federation which consists of 83 subjects. These subjects are of equal federal rights in the sense that they have equal Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 95, para. 2). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ "Общероссийский классификатор экономических регионов" (ОК 024–95) введённый 1 января 1997 г. , в ред. Изменения № 05/2001. Секция I. Федеральные округа (Russian Classificaton of Economic Regions (OK 024–95) of January 1, 1997 as amended by the Amendments #1/1998 through #5/2001. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Section I. Federal Districts)
- ^ "News From Russia", Issue No. 4. The Embassy of the Russian Federation in the Republic of India. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Kosachev, Konstantin. Russian Foreign Policy Vertical. Russia In Global Affairs. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ (Russian) Interview of official Ambassador of Russian Foreign Ministry on relations with the EU
- ^ NATO-Russia relations. NATO. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Chapter 2—Investing In Russian Defense Conversion: Obstacles and Opportunities. Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ a b "Overview of the major Asian Powers (page 31)" . International Institute for Strategic Studies.
- ^ Status of Nuclear Powers and Their Nuclear Capabilities. Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ US drives world military spending to record high. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russia arms exports could exceed $7 bln in 2007 - Ivanov. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2008-01-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 98 - Trajan becomes Roman Emperor after the death of Nerva.
- ^ Russia: Assessment, Adam Baltin Interview, Opinion Poll on State of Armed Forces, FBIS: Informatsionno-Analiticheskoye Agentstvo Marketing i Konsalting, 14 March 2006
- ^ Russian defense spending to grow 20% in 2008, to $40 bln. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2008-03-13. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1138 - Cardinal Gregorio Conti is elected Antipope as Victor IV, succeeding Anacletus II.
- ^ Rice: Russia's Military Moves 'a Problem'. ABC News. Retrieved on 2008-01-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1066 - Harold Godwinson is crowned King of England. 1205 - Philip of Swabia becomes King
- ^ World Wide Military Expenditures. Global Security. Retrieved on 2008-01-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1066 - Harold Godwinson is crowned King of England. 1205 - Philip of Swabia becomes King
- ^ Big rise in Russian military spending raises fears of new challenge to west. Guardian. Retrieved on 2008-01-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1066 - Harold Godwinson is crowned King of England. 1205 - Philip of Swabia becomes King
- ^ Russians weigh an enigma with Putin’s protégé. MSNBC. Retrieved on 2008-05-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of
- ^ a b Russia’s economy under Vladimir Putin: achievements and failures. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2008-05-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of
- ^ Russia's unemployment rate down 10% in 2007 - report. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2008-05-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of
- ^ Russia — Unemployment rate (%). indexmundi. com. Retrieved on 2008-05-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of
- ^ a b Russia fixed asset investment to reach $370 bln by 2010 - Kudrin. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russia: How Long Can The Fun Last?. BusinessWeek. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ CEE Biweekly (page 6). UNESCO Institute for Statistics, UniCredit New Europe Research Network. Retrieved on 2008-03-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate.
- ^ Mayor says foreign investment in Moscow to double in 2007. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Tavernise, Sabrina (March 23, 2002). Russia Imposes Flat Tax on Income, and Its Coffers Swell. The New York Times. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Rabushka, Alvin. The Flat Tax at Work in Russia: Year Three. Hoover Institution. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Global personal taxation comparison survey – market rankings. Mercer (consulting firms). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russia's foreign debt down 31.3% in Q3—finance ministry. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russia: How Long Can The Fun Last?. BusinessWeek. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Robin Paxton. A billion dollars not enough for Russian rich list. Forbes. Retrieved on 2008-04-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer
- ^ Lipsky, John. Statement by John Lipsky, First Deputy Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund. Press Release No. 07/126. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russian Census of 2002. 4. 1. National composition of population. Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved on 2008-01-16. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate.
- ^ Demographics. Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ a b Russia's population down 0.17% in 2007 to 142 mln. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2008-03-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty
- ^ June 1, 2007: A great number of children in Russia remain highly vulnerable. United Nations Children's Fund. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ See List of countries by population density
- ^ Resident population. List of countries and dependencies by Population density in inhabitants/km² Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ International Migration. Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved on 2008-01-13. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 532 - Nika riots in Constantinople. 888 - Odo Count of Paris becomes King of the Franks
- ^ Russia cracking down on illegal migrants. International Herald Tribune (January 15, 2007).
- ^ Demographics. Library of Congress. Retrieved on 2008-01-16. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate.
- ^ The World Factbook. Rank Order — Birth rate. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The World Factbook. Rank Order — Death rate. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russia's birth, mortality rates to equal by 2011 - ministry. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2008-02-10. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1355 - The St Scholastica's Day riot breaks out in Oxford, England, leaving 63 scholars and perhaps 30 locals dead
- ^ Russian Census of 2002. 1. 4. Cities and towns with population of 50 thousand people and over. Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved on 2008-01-16. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate.
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 43 para. 1). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russia tops, South Africa last, in literacy study. Reuters. This article is primarily about Reuters prior to its 2008 merger with Thomson Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Smolentseva, Anna. Bridging the Gap Between Higher and Secondary Education in Russia. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russia Country Guide. EUbusiness. com. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Background Note: Russia. U. S. Department of State. Retrieved on 2008-01-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 366 - The Alamanni cross the frozen Rhine River in large numbers invading the Roman Empire.
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 43 para. 3). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ a b Higher education structure. State University Higher School of Economics. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Higher Education Institutions. Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved on 2008-01-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 41). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Field, M. G. . The health and demographic crisis in post-Soviet Russia: a two-phase development in "Russia’s Torn Safety Nets", edited by Field M. G. , Twigg J. L. (eds). 2000:11–42: St. Martin’s Press.
- ^ Highlights on Health in the Russian Federation. World Health Organization (November 1999). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Leonard, William R (April 2002). Declining growth status of indigenous Siberian children in post-Soviet Russia. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Продолжительность жизни россиян возросла с 2005 по 2007 г на 2,4 года, до 67,7 года. United Russia. Retrieved on 2008-05-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor.
- ^ European Union. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 2008-01-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 250 - Emperor Decius begins a widespread persecution of Christians in Rome.
- ^ a b Heart disease kills 1.3 million annually in Russia — chief cardiologist. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Corruption Pervades Russia's Health System. CBS News. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Third of Russians smoke, but half welcome public smoking ban. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ HIV/AIDS in the Russian Federation. The World Bank. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russian regional HIV vaccine center seeks $40–50 mln from budget. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russian Federation AIDS information Russian Federation. UNAIDS: The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. Retrieved on 2008-03-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty
- ^ 119,000 TB cases in Russia — health official. RIA Novosti. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Country Profile: Russia. Library of Congress—Federal Research Division (October 2006). The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russian policies ignite unprecedented birth rate in 2007. The Economic Times. Retrieved on 2008-03-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty
- ^ United Nations Expert Group Meeting On International Migration and Development. Population Division; Department of Economic and Social Affairs; United Nations Secretariat (6–8 July 2005). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russian Census of 2002. 4. 3. Population by nationalities and knowledge of Russian; 4. 4. Spreading of knowledge of languages (except Russian). Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved on 2008-01-16. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate.
- ^ The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (Article 68, para. 2). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russian. University of Toronto. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007. Russian language. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russian language course. Russian Language Centre — Official Website, Moscow State University. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Bell, Imogen. Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Zuckerman, Phil (2005). Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns, chapter in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Religion In Russia. Embassy of the Russian Federation. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ (Russian)Сведения о религиозных организациях, зарегистрированных в Российской Федерации По данным Федеральной регистрационной службы (December 2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ a b Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007. Russia. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russia. Retrieved on 2008-04-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian
- ^ (Russian)Опубликована подробная сравнительная статистика религиозности в России и Польше. religare. ru (6 June 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Fact Box: Muslims In Russia. Radio Free Europe. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Page, Jeremy. The rise of Russian Muslims worries Orthodox Church. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ 20Mln Muslims in Russia and mass conversion of ethnic Russians are myths — expert. Interfax. Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne
- ^ Russia's Islamic rebirth adds tension. Financial Times. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Mainville, Michael (November 19, 2006). Russia has a Muslim dilemma. Page A - 17. San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Nettleton, Steve. Prayers for Ivolginsky. CNN. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russia::Religion. Encyclopædia Britannica Online (2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Gelder, Lawrence V. Saving Bolshoi Theater. The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-06-13. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1525 - Martin Luther marries Katharina von Bora, against the Celibacy rule decreed by the Roman Catholic Church for
- ^ Garafola, Lynn. Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. Oxford University Press, 576. ISBN 0195057015.
- ^ Cashin, Kathryn Karrh. Alexander Pushkin's Influence on Russian Ballet — Chapter Five: Pushkin, Soviet Ballet, and Afterward. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ A Tale of Two Operas. Petersburg City. Retrieved on 2008-01-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1055 - Theodora is crowned Empress of the Byzantine Empire.
- ^ Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007. Russian Literature. Retrieved on 2008-01-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1325 - Alfonso IV becomes King of Portugal. 1558 - France takes Calais, the last continental
- ^ Kelly, Catriona. Russian Literature: A Very Short Introduction (Very Short Introductions) (Paperback). Oxford Paperbacks. ISBN 0192801449.
- ^ Russian literature; Leo Tolstoy. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved on 2008-04-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 491 - Flavius Anastasius becomes Byzantine Emperor, with the name of Anastasius I.
- ^ Otto Friedrich. Freaking-Out with Fyodor. Time Magazine. Retrieved on 2008-04-10. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 879 - Louis III becomes King of the Western Franks. 1407 - the lama
- ^ History of the motion picture: The Soviet Union. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved on 2008-01-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1325 - Alfonso IV becomes King of Portugal. 1558 - France takes Calais, the last continental
- ^ a b Russia::Motion pictures. Encyclopædia Britannica (2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ White Sun of the Desert / Beloe solntse pustyni. Film Society of Lincoln Center. Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
- ^ a b Dzieciolowski, Zygmunt. Kinoeye: Russia's reviving film industry. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russian Entertainment & Media Industry worth $27.9 bn by 2011. PricewaterhouseCoopers. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Summer Olympics Through The Years. Information Please. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ The main game in a dragon's lair. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Russia::Sports and recreation. Encyclopædia Britannica (2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Winter Olympics Through The Years. Information Please. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
External links
Wikimedia Atlas of Russia- Russia The Great
- Interfax.com—News agency based in Moscow
- Daily-press—Newspapers and magazines in Russia
- Russia Profile English-language information service
- RussGUS Bibliographic database of German publications on Russia (about 175 000 positions)
- Government resources
- Russian News Agency Ria Novosti
- Duma—Official site of the parliamentary lower house (Russian)
- Federative Council—Official site of the parliamentary upper house
- Kremlin—Official presidential site
- Gov.ru—Official governmental portal (Russian)
- Russian Federal Customs Service
- Central Bank of Russia
Dictionary
Russia
-proper noun
- A country in Eastern Europe and Asia. Official name Russian Federation, formerly the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR).
- (historical, informal) The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (a very common name, although more formally Russia, the RSFSR, was one of several constituent republics of the USSR).
- (historical) The Russian Empire.
- (historical, dated) Rus, the medieval East Slavic state.
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