A rocket or rocket vehicle is a missile, aircraft or other vehicle which obtains thrust by the reaction of the rocket to the ejection of fast moving fluid from a rocket engine. A missile (see also pronunciation differences) is a self-propelled explosive Projectile used as a weapon towards a target Vehicles, derived from the Latin word vehiculum, are non-living Means of transport. Thrust is a reaction force described quantitatively by Newton 's Second and Third Laws. In Classical mechanics, Newton's third law states that Forces occur in pairs one called the Action and the other the Reaction ( actio et FLUID ( F ast L ight '''U'''ser '''I'''nterface D esigner is a graphical editor that is used to produce FLTK Source code A rocket engine is a Jet engine that uses only Propellant mass for forming its high speed propulsive jet. Chemical rockets work by the action of hot gas produced by the combustion of the propellant against the inside of combustion chambers and expansion nozzles. A propellant is a material that is used to move ("propel" an object A combustion chamber is the part of an Engine in which Fuel is burned A rocket engine nozzle is a Propelling nozzle usually of the de Laval type used in a Rocket engine to expand and accelerate the Combustion This generates forces that accelerate the gas to extremely high speed and exerts a large thrust on the rocket (since every action has an equal and opposite reaction). In Aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly Supersonic. Newton's laws of motion are three Physical laws which provide relationships between the Forces acting on a body and the motion of the
The history of rockets goes back to at least the 13th century. [1] By the 20th century, they have enabled human spaceflight to the Moon. Spaceflight is the use of Space technology to fly a Spacecraft into and through Outer space. In the 21st century, they have made commercial space tourism possible. Space tourism is the recent Phenomenon of tourists paying for flights into space pioneered by Russia
Rockets are used for fireworks and weaponry, as launch vehicles for artificial satellites, human spaceflight and exploration of other planets. A firework is classified as a low explosive pyrotechnic device used primarily for aesthetic and entertainment purposes In Spaceflight, a launch vehicle or carrier rocket is a Rocket used to carry a payload from the Earth's surface into Outer space. This article is about artificial satellites For natural satellites also known as moons see Natural satellite. A human spaceflight is a Spaceflight with a human crew, and possibly passengers History First orbital flights The first successful orbital launch was of the Soviet unmanned Sputnik While inefficient for low speed use, they are, compared to other propulsion systems, very lightweight and powerful, capable of attaining extremely high speeds with reasonable efficiency. In Physics, escape velocity is the speed where the Kinetic energy of an object is equal to the magnitude of its Gravitational potential energy
Chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily-released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction, and use minimizes the risks.
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History of rockets
In antiquity
According to the writings of the Roman Aulus Gellius, in c. A firework is classified as a low explosive pyrotechnic device used primarily for aesthetic and entertainment purposes Aulus Gellius (ca 125 AD—after 180 AD Latin author and grammarian possibly of African origin probably born and certainly brought up at Rome. 400 BC, a Greek Pythagorean named Archytas propelled a wooden bird using steam. Events By place Persian Empire Artaxerxes II King of Persia appoints Tissaphernes to take over all the districts in The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Archytas (Ἀρχύτας 428 BC – 347 BC was an Ancient Greek Philosopher, Mathematician, Astronomer, Statesman, and strategist [2] However, the only knowledge that exists of it is in Aulus's writings, which dates from 5 centuries later. No diagrams survive, and whether it was truly propelled by rocket power is unknown.
The availability of black powder (gunpowder) to propel projectiles was a precursor to the development of the first solid rocket. Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes Ninth Century Chinese Taoist alchemists discovered black powder while searching for the Elixir of life; this accidental discovery led to experiments in the form of weapons like bombs, cannon, incendiary fire arrows and rocket-propelled fire arrows. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following A person who resides in and holds citizenship of the People's Republic of China (including Hong Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of The elixir of life, from Arabic الإكسير also known as the elixir of immortality or Dancing Water or Persian: Aab-e-Hayaat آب حیات A bomb is any of a range of devices that typically rely on the Exothermic Chemical reaction of an Explosive material to produce an extremely | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural The Fire Arrow is a projectile weapon that uses Black powder.
Exactly when the first flights of rockets occurred is contested. Some say that the first recorded use of a rocket in battle was by the Chinese in 1232 against the Mongol hordes. There were reports of fire arrows and 'iron pots' that could be heard for 5 leagues (15 miles) when they exploded upon impact, causing devastation for a radius of 2,000 feet, apparently due to shrapnel. [3] The lowering of the iron pots may have been a way for a besieged army to blow up invaders. The fire arrows were either arrows with explosives attached, or arrows propelled by gunpowder, such as the Korean Hwacha. Hwacha or Hwach'a. was an Anti-personnel Gunpowder weapon developed and used in Korea, inspired by Chinese Fire arrows [4]
Less controversially, one of the earliest devices recorded that used internal-combustion rocket propulsion was the 'ground-rat,' a type of firework, recorded in 1264 as having frightened the Empress-Mother Kung Sheng at a feast held in her honor by her son the Emperor Lizong. A firework is classified as a low explosive pyrotechnic device used primarily for aesthetic and entertainment purposes Emperor Lizong 理宗 (1205 - 1264 was the 14th emperor of the Song Dynasty of China, and the fifth emperor of the Southern Song [5]
Subsequently, one of the earliest texts to mention the use of rockets was the Huolongjing, written by the Chinese artillery officer Jiao Yu in the mid-14th century. The Huolongjing ( Wade-Giles: Huo Lung Ching; Traditional Chinese: 火龍經 rendered by its translator into English as Jiao Yu ( Traditional and Simplified Chinese: 焦玉 Wade-Giles: Chiao Yü, Hanyu Pinyin: Jiāo Yù) was a Chinese This text also mentioned the use of the first known multistage rocket, the 'fire-dragon issuing from the water' (huo long chu shui), used mostly by the Chinese navy. [6] Frank H. Winter proposed in The Proceedings of the Twentieth and Twenty-First History Symposia of the International Academy of Astronautics[7] that southern China and the Laotian community rocket festivals might have been key in the subsequent spread of rocketry in the Orient. Laos (ˈlɑːoʊs or /ˈlaʊs/ officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a Landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma This article is about the traditional Rocket Festival of Laos and Thailand for another meaning see Rocket Festival Spain A Rocket Festival
Spread of rocket technology
Rocket technology first became known to Europeans following their use by the Mongols Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan when they conquered parts of Russia, Eastern, and Central Europe. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder Ögedei Khan, (Өгэдэй Ögedei; also Ogotai or Oktay, 窩闊臺 c The Mongolians had acquired the Chinese technology by conquest of the northern part of China and also by the subsequent employment of Chinese rocketry experts as mercenaries for the Mongol military. A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by Reports of the Battle of Sejo in the year 1241 describe the use of rocket-like weapons by the Mongols against the Magyars. Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. [8] Rocket technology also spread to Korea, with the 15th century wheeled hwacha that would launch singijeon rockets. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Hwacha or Hwach'a. was an Anti-personnel Gunpowder weapon developed and used in Korea, inspired by Chinese Fire arrows Singijeon is the world's first multi-launch rocket system whose schematics are still intact These first Korean rockets had an amazingly long range at the time, and were designed and built by Byun Eee-Joong. They were just like arrows but had small explosives attached to the back, and were fired in swarms.
Additionally, the spread of rockets into Europe was also influenced by the Ottomans at the siege of Constantinople in 1453, although it is very likely that the Ottomans themselves were influenced by the Mongol invasions of the previous few centuries. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS They appear in literature describing the capture of Baghdad in 1258 by the Mongols. [8]
In their history of rockets published on the Internet, NASA says “the Arabs adopted the rocket into their own arms inventory and, during the Seventh Crusade, used them against the French Army of King Louis IX in 1268. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program ". [9]
The name Rocket comes from the Italian Rocchetta (i. Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. e. little fuse), a name of a small firecracker created by the Italian artificer Muratori in 1379. [10]
"Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima" ("Great Art of Artillery, the First Part", also known as "The Complete Art of Artillery"), first printed in Amsterdam in 1650, was translated to French in 1651, German in 1676, English and Dutch in 1729 and Polish in 1963. Amsterdam (pronounced) is the capital and largest city of the Netherlands, located in the province of North Holland in the west French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname Year 1729 ( MDCCXXIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. Year 1963 ( MCMLXIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. For over two centuries, this work of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth nobleman Kazimierz Siemienowicz[11] was used in Europe as a basic artillery manual. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic Szlachta ( refers to the noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (since 1569 semi-federal semi-confederal Kazimierz Siemienowicz (Casimirus Siemienowicz Kazimieras Simonavičius Казімір Семяновіч born c The book provided the standard designs for creating rockets, fireballs, and other pyrotechnic devices. The term "pyrotechnics" can also be used for Fireworks events It contained a large chapter on caliber, construction, production and properties of rockets (for both military and civil purposes), including multi-stage rockets, batteries of rockets, and rockets with delta wing stabilizers (instead of the common guiding rods). The delta wing is a Wing Planform in the form of a triangle named after the Greek uppercase delta which is a triangle (Δ For Aircraft, the horizontal stabilizer or tailplane is a fixed or adjustable surface from which an elevator may be hinged
In 1792, iron-cased rockets were successfully used militarily by Tipu Sultan, Ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in India against the larger British East India Company forces during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 The Kingdom of Mysore/State of Mysore (ಮೈಸೂರು ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ was both a Kingdom (1399-1799 CE and a Princely state (1799-1947 India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of wars fought in India over the last three decades of the eighteenth-century between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British The British then took an active interest in the technology and developed it further during the 19th century. The major figure in the field at this time was William Congreve. Sir William Congreve 2nd Baronet ( May 20 1772 &ndash May 16, 1828) was an English Inventor and Rocket artillery [12] From there, the use of military rockets spread throughout Europe. At the Battle of Baltimore in 1814, the rockets fired on Fort McHenry by the rocket vessel HMS Erebus were the source of the rockets' red glare described by Francis Scott Key in The Star-Spangled Banner. In the Battle of Baltimore, one of the turning points in the War of 1812, American forces warded off a British sea invasion of the busy port city of Fort McHenry, in Baltimore Maryland, is a star shaped fort best known A rocket vessel was a ship equipped with Rockets as a weapon The most famous ship of this type was HMS ''Erebus'', which at the Battle of Baltimore HMS Erebus was a Royal Navy Rocket vessel built in 1807, converted to an 18-gun Sloop in 1808, to a Fire ship Francis Scott Key ( August 1, 1779 &ndash January 11, 1843) was an American Lawyer, author and amateur " The Star-Spangled Banner " is the National anthem of the United States of America [13] Rockets were also used in the Battle of Waterloo. In the Battle of Waterloo (Sunday 18 June 1815 near Waterloo Belgium [14]
Accuracy of early rockets
Early rockets were very inaccurate. Without the use of spinning or any gimballing of the thrust, they had a strong tendency to veer sharply off course. A gimbal is a pivoted support that allows the rotation of an object about a single axis The early British Congreve rockets[12] reduced this somewhat by attaching a long stick to the end of a rocket (similar to modern bottle rockets) to make it harder for the rocket to change course. The Congreve Rocket was a British Military Weapon designed by Sir William Congreve in 1804 The largest of the Congreve rockets was the 32-pound (14. 5 kg) Carcass, which had a 15-foot (4. 6 m) stick. Originally, sticks were mounted on the side, but this was later changed to mounting in the center of the rocket, reducing drag and enabling the rocket to be more accurately fired from a segment of pipe.
The British were greatly impressed by the Mysorean Rocket artillery made from iron tubes used by the armies of Tipu Sultan and his father, Haidar Ali. Mysore (maɪˈsɔɚ in English; renamed to Mysuru|ಮೈಸೂರು) (ಮೈಸೂರು is the second largest city in the state of Karnataka, India Rocket artillery is a type of Artillery equipped with rocket launchers instead of conventional guns or mortars. Hyder Ali or Haidar 'Ali (c 1722 - 1782 was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India. Tipu Sultan championed the use of mass attacks with rocket brigades in the army. The effect of these weapons on the British during the Second, Third and Fourth Mysore Wars was sufficiently impressive to inspire William Congreve to develop his own rocket designs. The Second Anglo-Mysore War ( 1780 - 1784) was a conflict in India between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Mysore. The Third Anglo-Mysore War ( 1789 - 1792) was a war in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore and the English East India Company. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War ( 1798 &ndash 1799) was a war in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British East India Company Several Mysore rockets were sent to England, and after thoroughly examining the Indian specimens, from 1801, William Congreve, son of the Comptroller of the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, London, set on a vigorous research and development programme at the Arsenal's laboratory. Congreve prepared a new propellant mixture, and developed a rocket motor with a strong iron tube with conical nose, weighing about 32 pounds (14. 5 kilograms). The Royal Arsenal's first demonstration of solid fuel rockets was in 1805. The rockets were effectively used during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812. Congreve published three books on rocketry.
In 1815, Alexander Dmitrievich Zasyadko began his work on creating military gunpowder rockets. Alexander Dmitrievich Zasyadko (Засядко Александр Дмитриевич Засядько Олександр Дмитрович (1779 &mdash) was a Russian-Ukrainian He constructed rocket-launching platforms, which allowed to fire in salvos (6 rockets at a time), and gun-laying devices. Zasyadko elaborated a tactic for military use of rocket weaponry. In 1820, Zasyadko was appointed head of the Petersburg Armory, Okhtensky Powder Factory, pyrotechnic laboratory and the first Highest Artillery School in Russia. He organized rocket production in a special rocket workshop and created the first rocket sub-unit in the Russian army. [15]
The accuracy problem was mostly solved in 1844 when William Hale[16] modified the rocket design so that thrust was slightly vectored, causing the rocket to spin along its axis of travel like a bullet. William Hale (1797-1870 was a British Inventor and Rocket pioneer Thrust vectoring is the ability of an Aircraft or other vehicle to direct the Thrust from its main Engine (s in a direction other than parallel to The Hale rocket removed the need for a rocket stick, travelled further due to reduced air resistance, and was far more accurate.
Early manned rocketry
According to legend, a manned rocket sled with 47 gunpowder-filled rockets was attempted in China by Wan Hu in the 16th Century[17]. A rocket sled is a test platform that slides along a set of rails propelled by Rockets They were used extensively by the United States early in the Cold War China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National According to legend, Wàn Hǔ or Wàn Hù (萬虎 or 萬戶 (d The alleged flight is said to have been interrupted by an explosion at the start, and the pilot did not seem to have survived (he was never found). There are no known Chinese sources for this event, and the earliest known account is an unsourced reference in a book by an American, Herbert S. Zim in 1945[17]. Herbert Spencer Zim ( July 12, 1909 &ndash December 5, 1994) was a naturalist, author editor and educator best known as the founder Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar
In Ottoman Turkey in 1633, Lagari Hasan Çelebi took off with what was described as a cone-shaped rocket, glided with wings through Bosporus from Topkap Palace, and made a successful landing, winning him a position in the Ottoman army. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Lagari Hasan Çelebi was an Ottoman Turk who was the first person to have made a successful manned Rocket Flight. The Bosporus or Bosphorus, also known as the Istanbul Strait, (İstanbul Boğazı (Βόσπορος is a Strait that forms the boundary between the The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish [18] The flight was accomplished as a part of celebrations performed for the birth of Ottoman Emperor Murat IV's daughter and was rewarded by the sultan. The device was composed of a large winged cage with a conical top with 7 rockets filled with 70 kg of gunpowder. The flight was estimated to have lasted about 200 seconds and the maximum height reached around 300 metres.
Theories of interplanetary rocketry
In 1903, high school mathematics teacher Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) published Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами[19] (The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices), the first serious scientific work on space travel. The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation—the principle that governs rocket propulsion—is named in his honor (although it had been discovered previously[20]). Tsiolkovsky's rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation is named after Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who independently derived it and published in his 1903 work considers His work was essentially unknown outside the Soviet Union, where it inspired further research, experimentation and the formation of the Cosmonautics Society.
In 1920, Robert Goddard published A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes[21], the first serious work on using rockets in space travel after Tsiolkovsky. Robert Hutchings Goddard, PhD ( October 5, 1882 &ndash August 10 1945 U A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes is a book written by Robert Goddard describing his theories of Rocket flight The work attracted worldwide attention and was both praised and ridiculed, particularly because of its suggestion that a rocket theoretically could reach the Moon. A New York Times editorial famously expressed disbelief that it was possible at all as it stated that: "after the rocket quits our air and really starts on its longer journey it will neither be accelerated nor maintained by the explosion of the charges it then might have left" and suggested that Professor Goddard actually: "does not know of the relation of action to reaction, and the need to have something better than a vacuum against which to react" and talked of "such things as intentional mistakes or oversights. "
Goddard, the Times declared, apparently suggesting bad faith, "only seems to lack the knowledge ladled out daily in high schools. "[22]
After these and other scathing criticisms, Goddard began working in isolation, and avoided publicity.
Nevertheless, in Russia, Tsiolkovsky's work was republished in the 1920s in response to Russian interest raised by the work of Robert Goddard. Among other ideas, Tsiolkovsky accurately proposed to use liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen as a nearly optimal propellant pair and determined that building staged and clustered rockets to increase the overall mass efficiency would dramatically increase range.
In 1923, Hermann Oberth[23] (1894-1989) published Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ("The Rocket into Planetary Space"), a version of his doctoral thesis, after the University of Munich rejected it. Hermann Julius Oberth ( June 25, 1894 &ndash December 28, 1989) was a Austro-Hungarian -born German ( Transylvanian
Modern rocketry
Pre-World War II
Modern rockets were born when Goddard attached a supersonic (de Laval) nozzle to a liquid fuelled rocket engine's combustion chamber. A de Laval Nozzle (or convergent-divergent nozzle, CD nozzle or con-di nozzle) is a tube that is pinched in the middle making an hourglass-shape These nozzles turn the hot gas from the combustion chamber into a cooler, hypersonic, highly directed jet of gas, more than doubling the thrust and raising the engine efficiency from 2% to 64%[24][25]. In Aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly Supersonic. Early rockets had been grossly inefficient because of the thermal energy that was wasted in the exhaust gases. In 1926, Robert Goddard launched the world's first liquid-fueled rocket in Auburn, Massachusetts. Auburn is a town in Worcester County, Massachusetts, United States.
During the 1920s, a number of rocket research organizations appeared in America, Austria, Britain, Czechoslovakia, France, Italy, Germany, and Russia. The 1920s is sometimes referred to as the " Jazz Age " or the " Roaring Twenties " when speaking about the United States and Canada In the mid-1920s, German scientists had begun experimenting with rockets which used liquid propellants capable of reaching relatively high altitudes and distances. The 1920s is sometimes referred to as the " Jazz Age " or the " Roaring Twenties " when speaking about the United States and Canada The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 1927 the German car manufacturer Opel began to research with rockets together with Mark Valier and the rocket builder Friedrich Wilhelm Sander. Adam Opel GmbH (commonly known as Opel) is a German automaker part of General Motors. In 1928, Fritz von Opel drove with a rocket car, the Opel RAK1 on the Opel raceway in Rüsselsheim, Germany. In 1929 von Opel started at the Frankfurt-Rebstock airport with the Opel-Sander RAK 1-airplane. This was maybe the first flight with a manned rocket-aircraft. In 1927 and also in Germany, a team of amateur rocket engineers had formed the Verein für Raumschiffahrt (German Rocket Society, or VfR), and in 1931 launched a liquid propellant rocket (using oxygen and gasoline). The Verein für Raumschiffahrt (VfR - "Spaceflight Society" was an association of amateur Rocket enthusiasts active in Germany from 1927 to 1933 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the [26]
From 1931 to 1937, the most extensive scientific work on rocket engine design occurred in Leningrad, at the Gas Dynamics Laboratory. Well-funded and staffed, over 100 experimental engines were built under the direction of Valentin Glushko. The work included regenerative cooling, hypergolic propellant ignition, and fuel injector designs that included swirling and bi-propellant mixing injectors. Regenerative cooling is a method of Cooling Gases in which compressed gas is cooled by allowing it to expand and and thereby taking heat from the surroundings the A hypergolic propellant is either of the two Rocket propellants used in a hypergolic Rocket engine, which spontaneously ignite when they come into contact Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an Internal combustion engine. However, the work was curtailed by Glushko's arrest during Stalinist purges in 1938. Great Purge (Большая чистка transliterated Bolshaya chistka) was a series of campaigns of Political repression and Persecution Similar work was also done by the Austrian professor Eugen Sänger who worked on rocket powered spaceplanes such as Silbervogel (sometimes called the 'antipodal' bomber. Eugen Sänger ( September 22, 1905 - February 10, 1964) was an Austrian German Aerospace engineer best known for Silbervogel, German for Silverbird, was a design for a Rocket -powered Sub-orbital Bomber aircraft produced by Eugen Sänger )[27]
On November 12, 1932 at a farm in Stockton NJ, the American Interplanetary Society's attempt to static fire their first rocket (based on German Rocket Society designs) fails in a fire. [28]
In 1932, the Reichswehr (which in 1935 became the Wehrmacht) began to take an interest in rocketry. The Reichswehr ( German for "National Defence" formed the military organisation of Germany from 1919 until 1935 when it was Wehrmacht (literally "defense force" was the name of the unified Armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 Artillery restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles limited Germany's access to long distance weaponry. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. Seeing the possibility of using rockets as long-range artillery fire, the Wehrmacht initially funded the VfR team, but seeing that their focus was strictly scientific, created its own research team, with Hermann Oberth as a senior member. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine At the behest of military leaders, Wernher von Braun, at the time a young aspiring rocket scientist, joined the military (followed by two former VfR members) and developed long-range weapons for use in World War II by Nazi Germany, notably the A-series of rockets, which led to the infamous V-2 rocket (initially called A4). Wernher Magnus Maximilian Freiherr von Braun (March 23 1912 &ndash June 16 1977 a German rocket physicist and astronautics engineer became one of the leading figures in Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Aggregate series was a set of rocket designs developed in 1933&ndash1945 by a research program of Nazi Germany 's army See also Vergeltungswaffe The V-2 rocket ( Vergeltungswaffe 2 was the first Ballistic missile and first man-made object to achieve [29]
World War II
.svg/180px-V-2_rocket_diagram_(with_English_labels).svg.png)
In 1943, production of the V-2 rocket began. See also Vergeltungswaffe The V-2 rocket ( Vergeltungswaffe 2 was the first Ballistic missile and first man-made object to achieve The V-2 had an operational range of 300 km (185 miles) and carried a 1000 kg (2204 lb) warhead, with an amatol explosive charge. Amatol is a highly Explosive material made from a mixture of TNT and Ammonium nitrate. Highest point of altitude of its flight trajectory is 90 km. The vehicle was only different in details from most modern rockets, with turbopumps, inertial guidance and many other features. As the name suggests a turbopump comprises basically two main components a rotodynamic Pump and a driving Turbine, both mounted on the same shaft A guidance system is a device or group of devices used to navigate a Ship, Aircraft, Missile, Rocket, Satellite, or other Thousands were fired at various Allied nations, mainly England, as well as Belgium and France. In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose While they could not be intercepted, their guidance system design and single conventional warhead meant that the V-2 was insufficiently accurate against military targets. The later versions however, were more accurate, sometimes within metres, and could be devastating. [30] 2,754 people in England were killed, and 6,523 were wounded before the launch campaign was terminated. While the V-2 did not significantly affect the course of the war, it provided a lethal demonstration of the potential for guided rockets as weapons.
Under Projekt Amerika Nazi Germany also tried to develop and use the first submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBMs) and the first intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) A9/A10 Amerika-Raketen[31] to bomb New York and other American cities. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Submarine-launched ballistic missiles or SLBM s are Ballistic missiles delivering Nuclear weapons that are launched from Submarines Modern variants The Aggregate series was a set of rocket designs developed in 1933&ndash1945 by a research program of Nazi Germany 's army The tests of SLBM-variants of the A4 rocket was achieved with U-boat submarines towing launch platforms. U-boat is the anglicized version of the German word, itself an abbreviation of Unterseeboot ( undersea boat) and refers The second stage of the A9/A10 rocket was tested a few times in January, February and March 1945.
In parallel with the guided missile programme in Nazi Germany, rockets were also being used for aircraft, either for rapid horizontal take-off (JATO) or for powering the aircraft (Me 163,etc) and for vertical take-off (Bachem Ba 349 "Natter"). JATO may also refer to the group Jews Against the Occupation. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Bachem Ba 349 Natter ( Colubrid) was a World War II era German experimental Point-defense Rocket -powered
Post World War II
At the end of World War II, competing Russian, British, and U. S. military and scientific crews raced to capture technology and trained personnel from the German rocket program at Peenemünde. Peenemünde (peːnəˈmʏndə is a village in the northeast of the German (Western part of the Usedom island Russia and Britain had some success, but the United States benefited the most. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The US captured a large number of German rocket scientists (many of whom were members of the Nazi Party, including von Braun) and brought them to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip[32]. The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 Operation Paperclip (also Project Paperclip) was the code name for the O In America, the same rockets that were designed to rain down on Britain were used instead by scientists as research vehicles for developing the new technology further. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The V-2 evolved into the American Redstone rocket, used in the early space program. First launched in 1953 the American Redstone Rocket (Redstone missile was a direct descendant of the German V-2.
After the war, rockets were used to study high-altitude conditions, by radio telemetry of temperature and pressure of the atmosphere, detection of cosmic rays, and further research; notably for the Bell X-1 to break the sound barrier. Telemetry (synonymous with Telematics) is a Technology that allows the remote measurement and reporting of Information of interest to the system designer For the 1962 Bruce Conner film see Cosmic Ray (film Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from space that impinge on WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout This continued in the U. S. under von Braun and the others, who were destined to become part of the U. S. scientific complex.
Independently, research continued in the Soviet Union under the leadership of the chief designer Sergei Korolev[33]. Vostok 8K72K specifications Stage Number 1 - Strap-on Boosters 4 x Vostok 8K72K-0 Gross Mass 43300 kg Empty Mass 3710 kg The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Sergey Pavlovich Korolyov (often Transliterated as Sergei Korolev) (Серге́й Па́влович Королёв Сергій Павлович Корольов With the help of German technicians, the V-2 was duplicated and improved as the R-1, R-2 and R-5 missiles. The R-1 rocket ( NATO reporting name SS-1 Scunner was a copy of the German V-2 rocket manufactured by the Soviet Union. The R-2 rocket ( NATO reporting name SS-2 Sibling was developed based on R-1 design German designs were abandoned in the late 1940s, and the foreign workers were sent home. A new series of engines built by Glushko and based on inventions of Aleksei Mihailovich Isaev formed the basis of the first ICBM, the R-7. Aleksei Mihailovich Isaev ( October 24, 1908, Saint Petersburg&ndash June 10, 1971, Moscow was a Russian Rocket Engineer The R-7 Semyorka (Р-7 "Семёрка" was the world's first true Intercontinental ballistic missile and was deployed by the Soviet Union during the [34] The R-7 launched the first satellite, and Yuri Gagarin, the first man into space and the first lunar and planetary probes, and is still in use today. These events attracted the attention of top politicians, along with more money for further research.
Rockets became extremely important militarily in the form of modern intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) when it was realised that nuclear weapons carried on a rocket vehicle were essentially not defensible against once launched, and ICBM/Launch vehicles such as the R-7, Atlas and Titan became the delivery platform of choice for these weapons. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Atlas is a family of US space Launch vehicles The original Atlas missile was designed in the late 1950s Titan was a family of US expendable Rockets used between 1959 and 2005
Fueled partly by the Cold War, the 1960s became the decade of rapid development of rocket technology particularly in the Soviet Union (Vostok, Soyuz, Proton) and in the United States (e. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the Vostok 8K72K specifications Stage Number 1 - Strap-on Boosters 4 x Vostok 8K72K-0 Gross Mass 43300 kg Empty Mass 3710 kg The Soyuz launch vehicle (Western designation A-2 is an Expendable launch system manufactured by TsSKB-Progress in Samara Russia. The Proton rocket g. the X-15[35] and X-20 Dyna-Soar[36] aircraft). WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout There was also significant research in other countries, such as Britain, Japan, Australia, etc. and their growing use for Space exploration, with pictures returned from the far side of the Moon and unmanned flights for Mars exploration. History First orbital flights The first successful orbital launch was of the Soviet unmanned Sputnik The exploration of Mars has been an important part of the Space exploration programs of the Soviet Union (later Russia) the United
In America the manned programmes, Project Mercury, Project Gemini and later the Apollo programme culminated in 1969 with the first manned landing on the moon via the Saturn V, causing the New York Times to retract their earlier editorial implying that spaceflight couldn't work:
"Further investigation and experimentation have confirmed the findings of Isaac Newton in the 17th century and it is now definitely established that a rocket can function in a vacuum as well as in an atmosphere. Team The Gemini program was managed by the Manned Spacecraft Center Houston Texas under direction of the Office of Manned Space Flight NASA Headquarters Washington A moon landing is the arrival of an intact manned or unmanned Spacecraft on the surface of a Planet 's Natural satellite. The Saturn V (pronounced 'Saturn Five' popularly known as the Moon Rocket was a multistage liquid-fuel expendable Rocket used by NASA 's The Times regrets the error. "[37]
In the 1970s America made further lunar landings, before abandoning the Apollo launch vehicle. The replacement vehicle, the partially reusable 'Space Shuttle' was intended to be cheaper, but this large reduction in costs was largely not achieved. NASA 's Space Shuttle, officially called the Space Transportation System ( STS) is the Spacecraft currently used by the United States Meanwhile in 1973, the expendable Ariane programme was begun, a launcher that by the year 2000 would capture much of the geosat market. This article is about the rocket developed by the European Space Agency.
Current day
Rockets remain a popular military weapon. The use of large battlefield rockets of the V-2 type has given way to guided missiles. A missile (see also pronunciation differences) is a self-propelled explosive Projectile used as a weapon towards a target However rockets are often used by helicopters and light aircraft for ground attack, being more powerful than machine guns, but without the recoil of a heavy cannon. History Since 400 AD Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. For other uses of the phrase see Machine Gun (disambiguation. | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural In the 1950s there was a brief vogue for air-to-air rockets, ending with the AIR-2 'Genie' nuclear rocket,[38] but by the early 1960s these had largely been abandoned in favor of air-to-air missiles. The 1950s Decade refers to the years of 1950 to 1959 inclusive An air-to-air rocket or air interception rocket is an unguided projectile fired from aircraft to engage other flying targets The Douglas Genie ( MB-1 Ding-Dong, AIR-2) was an unguided Air-to-air rocket with a 1 A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. The 1960s decade refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969 An air-to-air missile ( AAM) is a guided Missile fired from an Aircraft for the purpose of destroying another aircraft
Economically, rocketry is the enabler of all space technologies particularly satellites, many of which impact people's everyday lives in almost countless ways, satellite navigation,[39] communications satellites and even things as simple as weather satellites. Space technology is Technology that is related to entering space, maintaining and using systems during Spaceflight and returning people and things Basic concept of GPS operation A GPS receiver calculates its position by carefully timing the signals sent by the constellation of GPS Satellites high above the Earth A communications satellite (sometimes abbreviated to comsat) is an artificial Satellite stationed in space for the purposes of Telecommunications. A weather satellite is a type of Satellite that is primarily used to monitor the Weather and Climate of the Earth.
Scientifically, rocketry has opened a window on our universe, allowing the launch of space probes to explore our solar system, satellites to view the Earth itself, and space-based telescopes to obtain a clearer view of the rest of the universe. A space probe is a scientific Space exploration mission in which a Robotic spacecraft leaves the Gravity well of Earth and approaches the The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. Earth observation satellites are Satellites specifically designed to observe Earth from Orbit, similar to Reconnaissance satellites but intended A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy [40]
However, in the minds of much of the public, the most important use of rockets is perhaps manned spaceflight. A human spaceflight is a Spaceflight with a human crew, and possibly passengers Vehicles such as the Space Shuttle for scientific research, the Soyuz for orbital tourism and SpaceShipOne for suborbital tourism may show a trend towards greater commercialisation of manned rocketry,[41] away from government funding, and towards more widespread access to space. NASA 's Space Shuttle, officially called the Space Transportation System ( STS) is the Spacecraft currently used by the United States Design A Soyuz spacecraft consists of three parts (from front to back A Spheroid Orbital module, which provides accommodation for the crew during SpaceShipOne is a Spaceplane that completed the first privately funded Human spaceflight on June 21, 2004. Space advocacy can be described as the general position supporting pleading or arguing forthe idea or cause of space exploration and settlements
Types
There are many different types of rockets, and a comprehensive list of the basic engine types can be found in rocket engine — the vehicles themselves range in size from tiny models such as water rockets or small solid rockets that can be purchased at a hobby store, to the enormous Saturn V used for the Apollo program, and in many different vehicle types such as rocket cars and rocket planes. A rocket engine is a Jet engine that uses only Propellant mass for forming its high speed propulsive jet. A Model rocket is a small Rocket capable of being launched vertically by a hobbyist or amateur to generally low altitudes (usually to around 300-500 m (1000-1500 ft for A water rocket is a type of Model rocket using Water as its Reaction mass. A hobby store is a place dedicated to the selling of things that people usually employ for their personal satisfaction The Saturn V (pronounced 'Saturn Five' popularly known as the Moon Rocket was a multistage liquid-fuel expendable Rocket used by NASA 's A rocket car is a land Vehicle powered by a Rocket engine. Because rockets have the highest thrust/weight ratio of any jet engine very large accelerations and A rocket-powered aircraft or rocket plane is an Aircraft that uses a Rocket for propulsion sometimes in addition to airbreathing Jet engines
Most current rockets are chemically powered rockets (usually internal combustion engines[42], but some employ a decomposing monopropellant) that emit a hot exhaust gas. The Saturn V (pronounced 'Saturn Five' popularly known as the Moon Rocket was a multistage liquid-fuel expendable Rocket used by NASA 's The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a Monopropellants are Propellants composed of chemicals or mixtures of chemicals which can be stored in a single container with some degree of safety Exhaust gas is Flue gas which occurs as a result of the Combustion of fuels such as Natural gas, Gasoline /petrol Diesel, Fuel A chemical rocket engine can use gas propellant, solid propellant, liquid propellant, or a hybrid mixture of both solid and liquid. A rocket engine is a Jet engine that uses only Propellant mass for forming its high speed propulsive jet. Solid rocket boosters (SRB (or motors SRM are used to provide the main Thrust in spacecraft launches from the launchpad up to burnout of the SRBs A liquid rocket is a Rocket with an engine that uses Propellants in Liquid form A hybrid rocket propulsion system comprises propellants of two different states of matter the most common configuration being a rocket engine composed of a solid propellant lining With combustive propellants a chemical reaction is initiated between the fuel and the oxidizer in the combustion chamber, and the resultant hot gases accelerate out of a nozzle (or nozzles) at the rearward-facing end of the rocket. Fuel is any material that is burned or altered in order to obtain energy An oxidizing agent or oxidising agent (also called an oxidant, oxidizer or oxidiser) can be defined as either a Chemical compound Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of Exothermic chemical reactions between a Fuel and an Oxidant accompanied by the production of A nozzle is a mechanical device or Orifice designed to control the characteristics of a Fluid flow as it exits (or enters an enclosed chamber or Pipe. The acceleration of these gases through the engine exerts force ("thrust") on the combustion chamber and nozzle, propelling the vehicle (in accordance with Newton's Third Law). See rocket engine for details. A rocket engine is a Jet engine that uses only Propellant mass for forming its high speed propulsive jet.
Rockets in which the heat is supplied from a source other than a propellant, such as solar thermal rockets, can be classed as external combustion engines. Solar thermal propulsion is a form of Spacecraft propulsion that makes use of solar power to directly heat Reaction mass, and therefore does not require an electrical An external combustion engine (EC engine is a Heat engine where an (internal working Fluid is heated by combustion of an external source through the Engine Other examples of external combustion rocket engines include most designs for nuclear powered rocket engines. Use of hydrogen as the propellant for such engines gives very high exhaust velocities (around 6-10 km/s). Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 [43]
Steam rockets, are another example of non chemical rockets. A hot water rocket, or steam rocket uses water held in a pressure vessel at a high temperature such that its Saturated vapor pressure is significantly greater than These rockets release very hot water through a nozzle[44] where, due to the lower pressure there, it instantly flashes to high velocity steam, propelling the rocket. The efficiency of steam as a rocket propellant is relatively low, but it is simple and reasonably safe, and the propellant is cheap and widely available. Uses A Steam engine uses the expansion of steam in order to drive a Piston or Turbine to perform Mechanical work. Most steam rockets have been used for propelling land-based vehicles but a small steam rocket was tested in 2004 on board the UK-DMC satellite, as an alternative, with higher performance, to cold gas thrusters for attitude jets. This article is about artificial satellites For natural satellites also known as moons see Natural satellite. A cold gas thruster is a rocket engine/thruster that uses a (typically inert gas as the reaction mass There are even proposals to use steam rockets for interplanetary transport using either nuclear or solar heating as the power source to vaporize water collected from around the solar system, at system costs that are claimed to be greatly lower than hydrogen-based systems. The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. [45]
Uses
Rockets or other similar reaction devices carrying their own propellant must be used when there is no other substance (land, water, or air) or force (gravity, magnetism, light) that a vehicle may usefully employ for propulsion, such as in space. A reaction engine is an engine which provides propulsion by expelling Reaction mass, in accordance with Newton's third law of motion. Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another In Physics, magnetism is one of the Phenomena by which Materials exert attractive or repulsive Forces on other Materials. Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 Vehicles, derived from the Latin word vehiculum, are non-living Means of transport. In these circumstances, it is necessary to carry all the propellant to be used. A propellant is a material that is used to move ("propel" an object
However, they are also useful in other situations:
Weaponry
In many military weapons, rockets are used to propel payloads to their targets. A surface to air missile ( SAM) or ground-to-air missile ( GTAM) is a Missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy Aircraft A missile (see also pronunciation differences) is a self-propelled explosive Projectile used as a weapon towards a target Typically a warhead is the Explosive material and Detonator that is delivered by a Missile, Rocket, or Torpedo. A rocket and its payload together are generally referred to as a missile, especially when the weapon has a guidance system. A guidance system is a device or group of devices used to navigate a Ship, Aircraft, Missile, Rocket, Satellite, or other
Science
- See also: Space probe
Sounding rockets[46] are commonly used to carry instruments that take readings from 50 kilometers (30 mi) to 1,500 kilometers (930 mi) above the surface of the Earth, the altitudes between those reachable by weather balloons and satellites. After a July 1946 suggestion by Colonel Holger N Toftoy to combine the V-2 rocket and Wac Corporal, the US Bumper Program was inaugurated on June 20 1947 A sounding rocket, sometimes called a research rocket, is an instrument-carrying Rocket designed to take measurements and perform scientific experiments during A space probe is a scientific Space exploration mission in which a Robotic spacecraft leaves the Gravity well of Earth and approaches the A weather or sounding balloon is a Balloon (specifically a type of High altitude balloon) which carries instruments aloft to send back information
Launch
Due to their high exhaust velocity (Mach ~10+), rockets are particularly useful when very high speeds are required, such as orbital speed (Mach 25+). In Spaceflight, a launch vehicle or carrier rocket is a Rocket used to carry a payload from the Earth's surface into Outer space. Indeed, rockets remain the only way to launch spacecraft into orbit. A spacecraft is a Vehicle or machine designed for Spaceflight. [47] They are also used to rapidly accelerate spacecraft when they change orbits or de-orbit for landing. Landing is the last part of a Flight, where a flying Animal, Aircraft, or Spacecraft returns to the ground Also, a rocket may be used to soften a hard parachute landing immediately before touchdown (see Soyuz spacecraft). Design A Soyuz spacecraft consists of three parts (from front to back A Spheroid Orbital module, which provides accommodation for the crew during Spacecraft delivered into orbital trajectories become artificial satellites. This article is about artificial satellites For natural satellites also known as moons see Natural satellite.
Hobby, sport and entertainment
Hobbyists build and fly Model rockets of various types and rockets are used to launch both commercially available fireworks and professional fireworks displays. A Model rocket is a small Rocket capable of being launched vertically by a hobbyist or amateur to generally low altitudes (usually to around 300-500 m (1000-1500 ft for A firework is classified as a low explosive pyrotechnic device used primarily for aesthetic and entertainment purposes
Hydrogen peroxide rockets are used to power jet packs,[48] and have been used to power cars and a rocket car holds the all time drag racing record. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2 is a very pale blue liquid which appears colorless in a dilute solution slightly more Viscous than water For other meanings see Jetpack (disambiguation. The Martin Jetpack, despite its name has no jets or rockets but is a small helicopter and A rocket car is a land Vehicle powered by a Rocket engine. Because rockets have the highest thrust/weight ratio of any jet engine very large accelerations and Drag racing is a competition in which objects compete to be the first to cross a set finish mark usually from a dead stop and in a straight line [49]
Components of a rocket
Rockets at minimum have a place to put propellant (such as a propellant tank), one or more rocket engines and nozzle, directional stabilization device(s) (such as fins, attitude jets or engine gimbals) and a structure (typically monocoque) to hold these components together. A propellant tank is a container which is part of a vehicle where propellant is stored prior to use A rocket engine is a Jet engine that uses only Propellant mass for forming its high speed propulsive jet. A rocket engine nozzle is a Propelling nozzle usually of the de Laval type used in a Rocket engine to expand and accelerate the Combustion The attitude of a body is its orientation as perceived in a certain Frame of reference; providing a vector along which a spacecraft is pointing is a description of its attitude fin is a surface used to produce lift and Thrust or to steer while traveling in Water, air or other Fluid media A vernier thruster is a Thruster used on a Spacecraft for Attitude control. A gimbal is a pivoted support that allows the rotation of an object about a single axis Monocoque, from the French for single ( mono) and shell ( coque) is a construction technique that supports structural load by using an object's external Rockets intended for high speed atmospheric use also have an aerodynamic fairing such as a nose cone. The term nose cone is used to refer to the forwardmost section of a Rocket, guided Missile or Aircraft.
As well as these components, rockets can have any number of other components, such as wings (rocketplanes), wheels (rocket cars), even, in a sense, a person (rocket belt). Rocketplane Limited Inc is an Aerospace design and development company headquartered in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, with facilities in Guthrie Oklahoma A rocket car is a land Vehicle powered by a Rocket engine. Because rockets have the highest thrust/weight ratio of any jet engine very large accelerations and For other meanings see Jetpack (disambiguation. The Martin Jetpack, despite its name has no jets or rockets but is a small helicopter and
Noise
For all but the very smallest sizes, rocket exhaust compared to other engines is generally very noisy. As the hypersonic exhaust mixes with the ambient air, shock waves are formed. In Aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly Supersonic. For the music album by Converter see Shock Front For the 1977 horror film see Shock Waves A shock wave (also called The sound intensity from these shock waves depends on the size of the rocket. The sound intensity, I, (acoustic intensity is defined as the Sound power Pac per unit area A. The sound intensity of large rockets could potentially kill at close range. [50]
The Space Shuttle generates over 200 dB(A) of noise around its base. NASA 's Space Shuttle, officially called the Space Transportation System ( STS) is the Spacecraft currently used by the United States A Saturn V launch was detectable on seismometers a considerable distance from the launch site. The Saturn V (pronounced 'Saturn Five' popularly known as the Moon Rocket was a multistage liquid-fuel expendable Rocket used by NASA 's Seismometers (from Greek Seism - "the shakes" - and Metro - "I measure" are instruments that measure and record motions of the ground including
Generally speaking, noise is most intense when a rocket is close to the ground, since the noise from the engines radiates up away from the plume, as well as reflecting off the ground. This noise can be reduced somewhat by flame trenches with roofs, by water injection around the plume and by deflecting the plume at an angle. [50]
For manned rockets various methods are used to reduce the sound intensity for the passengers as much as possible, and typically the placement of the astronauts far away from the rocket engines helps significantly. For the passengers and crew, when a vehicle goes supersonic the sound cuts off as the sound waves are no longer able to keep up with the vehicle. [50]
Physics
Operation
In all rockets, the exhaust is formed from propellants carried within the rocket prior to use. A rocket engine is a Jet engine that uses only Propellant mass for forming its high speed propulsive jet. A propellant is a material that is used to move ("propel" an object [51] Rocket thrust is due to the rocket engine, which propels the rocket forwards by exhausting the propellant rearwards at extreme high speed.
In a closed chamber, the pressures are equal in each direction and no acceleration occurs. If an opening is provided at the bottom of the chamber then the pressure is no longer acting on that side. The remaining pressures give a resultant thrust on the side opposite the opening; as well as permitting exhaust to escape. Using a nozzle increases the forces further, in fact multiplies the thrust as a function of the area ratio of the nozzle, since the pressures also act on the nozzle. As a side effect the pressures act on the exhaust in the opposite direction and accelerate this to very high speeds (in accordance with Newton's Third Law). Newton's laws of motion are three Physical laws which provide relationships between the Forces acting on a body and the motion of the [51]
If propellant gas is continuously added to the chamber then this disequilibrium of pressures can be maintained for as long as propellant remains. [51]
It turns out (from conservation of momentum) that the speed of the exhaust of a rocket determines how much momentum increase is created for a given amount of propellant, and this is termed a rocket's specific impulse. In Classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta SI unit kg · m/s, or equivalently N · s) is the product Specific impulse (usually abbreviated I sp is a way to describe the efficiency of rocket and jet engines [51]
As the remaining propellant decreases, the vehicle's becomes lighter and acceleration tends to increase until eventually it runs out of propellant, and this means that much of the speed change occurs towards the end of the burn when the vehicle is much lighter. [51]
Forces on a rocket in flight
The general study of the forces on a rocket or other spacecraft is called astrodynamics. Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of Celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of Rockets and other Spacecraft
Flying rockets are primarily affected by the following:[52]
- Thrust from the engine(s)
- Gravity from celestial bodies
- Drag if moving in the atmosphere
- Lift; usually relatively small effect except for rocket-powered aircraft
In addition, the inertia/centrifugal pseudo-force can be significant due to the path of the rocket around the center of a celestial body; when high enough speeds in the right direction and altitude are achieved a stable orbit or escape velocity is obtained. Thrust is a reaction force described quantitatively by Newton 's Second and Third Laws. Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. In Fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called fluid resistance) is the force that resists the movement of a Solid object through a Fluid (a In the context of a Fluid flow relative to a body the lift force is the component of the Aerodynamic force that is Perpendicular to the flow A rocket-powered aircraft or rocket plane is an Aircraft that uses a Rocket for propulsion sometimes in addition to airbreathing Jet engines In Physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object around a point or another body for example the gravitational orbit of a planet around a star In Physics, escape velocity is the speed where the Kinetic energy of an object is equal to the magnitude of its Gravitational potential energy
During a rocket launch, there is a point of maximum aerodynamic drag called Max Q. In Aerospace engineering, max Q is the point of maximum Dynamic pressure, the point at which aerodynamic stress on a spacecraft in atmospheric flight is maximized This determines the minimum aerodynamic strength of the vehicle.
These forces, with a stabilizing tail present will, unless deliberate control efforts are made, to naturally cause the vehicle to follow a trajectory termed a gravity turn, and this trajectory is often used at least during the initial part of a launch. A gravity turn or zero-lift turn is a maneuver (see Trajectory optimization) used in launching a spacecraft into or descending from an Orbit around a A rocket launch is the first phase of the flight of a Rocket. This means that the vehicle can maintain low or even zero angle of attack. Angle of attack ( AOA, \alpha Greek letter alpha) is a term used in Aerodynamics to describe the Angle between the This minimizes transverse stress on the launch vehicle; allowing for a weaker, and thus lighter, launch vehicle. Stress is a measure of the average amount of Force exerted per unit Area. [53][54]
Net thrust
The thrust of a rocket is often deliberately varied over a flight, to provide a way to control the airspeed of the vehicle so as to minimize aerodynamic losses but also so as to limit g-forces that would otherwise occur during the flight as the propellant mass decreases, which could damage the vehicle, crew or payload. g-force (also G-force, g-load) is a measurement of an object's Acceleration expressed in g s
Below is an approximate equation for calculating the gross thrust of a rocket:
where:
propellant flow (kg/s or lb/s)
jet velocity at nozzle exit plane (m/s or s)
flow area at nozzle exit plane (m2 or ft2)
static pressure at nozzle exit plane (Pa or lb/ft2)
ambient (or atmospheric) pressure (Pa or lb/ft2)
Since, unlike a jet engine, a conventional rocket motor lacks an air intake, there is no 'ram drag' to deduct from the gross thrust. Consequently the net thrust of a rocket motor is equal to the gross thrust.
The 
term represents the momentum thrust, which remains constant at a given throttle setting, whereas the 
term represents the pressure thrust term. At full throttle, the net thrust of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude, because the reducing atmospheric pressure increases the pressure thrust term.
Specific impulse
As can be seen from the thrust equation the effective speed of the exhaust, Ve, has a large impact on the amount of thrust produced from a particular quantity of fuel burnt per second. The thrust-seconds (impulse) per unit of propellant is called Specific Impulse (Isp) or effective exhaust velocity and this is one of the most important figures that describes a rocket's performance. In Classical mechanics, an impulse is defined as the Integral of a Force with respect to Time: \mathbf{I} = \int \mathbf{F}\ Specific impulse (usually abbreviated I sp is a way to describe the efficiency of rocket and jet engines
Vacuum Isp
Due to the specific impulse varying with pressure, a quantity that is easy to compare and calculate with is useful. Because rockets choke at the throat, and because the supersonic exhaust prevents external pressure influences travelling upstream, it turns out that the pressure at the exit is ideally exactly proportional to the propellant flow 
, provided the mixture ratios and combustion efficiencies are maintained. Choked flow of a fluid is a fluid dynamic condition caused by the Venturi effect. It is thus quite usual to rearrange the above equation slightly:
and so define the vacuum Isp to be:
- Vevac = Cfc *
Where:
the speed of sound constant at the throat
the thrust coefficient constant of the nozzle (typically between 0. 8 and 1. 9)
And hence:
Delta-v (rocket equation)
The delta-v capacity of a rocket is the theoretical total change in velocity that a rocket can achieve without any external interference (without air drag or gravity or other forces). In Astrodynamics, the term delta-v, literally "change in velocity" (see symbol delta) has a specific meaning it is a Scalar which takes Tsiolkovsky's rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation is named after Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who independently derived it and published in his 1903 work considers In Astrodynamics, the term delta-v, literally "change in velocity" (see symbol delta) has a specific meaning it is a Scalar which takes
The delta-v that a rocket vehicle can provide can be calculated from the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation[60]:
where:
- m0 is the initial total mass, including propellant, in kg (or lb)
- m1 is the final total mass in kg (or lb)
- ve is the effective exhaust velocity in m/s or (ft/s) or
is the delta-v in m/s (or ft/s)
Delta-v can also be calculated for a particular manoeuvre; for example the delta-v to launch from the surface of the Earth to Low earth orbit is about 9. Tsiolkovsky's rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation is named after Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who independently derived it and published in his 1903 work considers A Low Earth Orbit (LEO is generally defined as an Orbit within the locus extending from the Earth’s surface up to an altitude of 2000 km 7 km/s, which leaves the vehicle with a sideways speed of about 7. 8 km/s at an altitude of around 200 km. In this manoeuvre about 1. 9 km/s is lost in air drag, gravity drag and gaining altitude.
Mass ratios
Mass ratio is the ratio between the initial fuelled mass and the mass after the 'burn'. [61] Everything else being equal, a high mass ratio is desirable for good performance, since it indicates that the rocket is lightweight and hence performs better, for essentially the same reasons that low weight is desirable in sports cars.
Rockets as a group have the highest thrust-to-weight ratio of any type of engine; and this helps vehicles achieve high mass ratios, which improves the performance of flights. Thrust-to-weight ratio is as its name suggests the ratio of instantaneous Thrust to Weight (where weight means weight at the Earth ’s surface In Aerospace engineering, mass ratio is a measure of the efficiency of a Rocket. The higher this ratio, the less engine mass is needed to be carried and permits the carrying of even more propellant, this enormously improves performance.
Achievable mass ratios are highly dependent on many factors such as propellant type, the design of engine the vehicle uses, structural safety margins and construction techniques.
| Vehicle | Takeoff Mass | Final Mass | Mass ratio | Mass fraction |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ariane 5 (vehicle + payload) | 746,000 kg [62] | 2,700 kg + 16,000 kg[62] | 39. In Aerospace engineering, mass ratio is a measure of the efficiency of a Rocket. See also Mass fraction (chemistry In Aerospace engineering, the propellant mass fraction is a measure of a vehicle's performance determined as the portion Ariane 5 is a European Expendable launch 9 | 0. 975 |
| Titan 23G first stage | 258,000 lb (117,020 kg) | 10,500 lb (4,760 kg) | 24. The Titan II was an Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM and space launcher developed by the Glenn L 6 | 0. 959 |
| Saturn V | 3,038,500 kg[63] | 13,300 kg + 118,000 kg[63] | 23. The Saturn V (pronounced 'Saturn Five' popularly known as the Moon Rocket was a multistage liquid-fuel expendable Rocket used by NASA 's 1 | 0. 957 |
| Space Shuttle (vehicle + payload) | 2,040,000 kg | 104,000 kg + 28,800 kg | 15. NASA 's Space Shuttle, officially called the Space Transportation System ( STS) is the Spacecraft currently used by the United States 4 | 0. 935 |
| Saturn 1B (stage only) | 448,648 kg[64] | 41,594 kg[64] | 10. The Saturn IB was an uprated version of the Saturn I, which featured a much more powerful second stage the S-IVB. 7 | 0. 907 |
| V2 | 12. See also Vergeltungswaffe The V-2 rocket ( Vergeltungswaffe 2 was the first Ballistic missile and first man-made object to achieve 8 ton (13000 kg) | 3. 85 | 0. 74 [65] | |
| X-15 | 34,000 lb (15,420 kg) | 14,600 lb (6,620 kg) | 2. 3 | 0. 57[66] |
| Concorde | 400,000 lb [66] | 2 | 0. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout 5[66] | |
| 747 | 800,000 lb[66] | 2 | 0. Events By Place Asia Abu Muslim unites the Abbasid Empire against the Umayyads Ibrahim the Imam leader 5[66] |
Staging
Often, the required velocity (delta-v) for a mission is unattainable by any single rocket because the propellant, tankage, structure, guidance, valves and engines and so on, take a particular minimum percentage of take-off mass. A propellant is a material that is used to move ("propel" an object A guidance system is a device or group of devices used to navigate a Ship, Aircraft, Missile, Rocket, Satellite, or other
The mass ratios that can be achieved with a single set of fixed rocket engines and tankage varies depends on acceleration required, construction materials, tank layout, engine type and propellants used, but for example the first stage of the Saturn V, carrying the weight of the upper stages, was able to achieve a mass ratio of about 10.
This problem is frequently solved by staging — the rocket sheds excess weight (usually empty tankage and associated engines) during launch to reduce its weight and effectively increase its mass ratio. In Aerospace engineering, mass ratio is a measure of the efficiency of a Rocket. Staging is either serial where the rockets light after the previous stage has fallen away, or parallel, where rockets are burning together and then detach when they burn out. [67]
Typically, the acceleration of a rocket increases with time (if the thrust stays the same) as the weight of the rocket decreases as propellant is burned. Discontinuities in acceleration will occur when stages burn out, often starting at a lower acceleration with each new stage firing.
Energy efficiency
Rocket launch vehicles take-off with a great deal of flames, noise and drama, and it might seem obvious that they are grievously inefficient. In Aircraft and rocket design overall propulsive efficiency \eta is the efficiency in percent with which the energy contained in a vehicle's propellant is converted However while they are far from perfect, their energy efficiency is not as bad as might be supposed.
The energy density of rocket propellant is around 1/3 that of conventional hydrocarbon fuels; the bulk of the mass is in the form of (often relatively inexpensive) oxidiser. Nevertheless, at take-off the rocket has a great deal of energy in the form of fuel and oxidiser stored within the vehicle, and it is of course desirable that as much of the energy stored in the propellant ends up as kinetic or potential energy of the body of the rocket as possible. The kinetic energy of an object is the extra Energy which it possesses due to its motion Potential energy can be thought of as Energy stored within a physical system
Energy from the fuel is lost in air drag and gravity drag and is used to gain altitude. In Astrodynamics and Rocketry, gravity drag (or gravity losses) is the difference between the Delta-v expended and the actual change in speed However, much of the lost energy ends up in the exhaust. [68]
100% efficiency within the engine (ηc) would mean that all of the heat energy of the combustion products is converted into kinetic energy of the jet. This is not possible, but the high expansion ratio nozzles that can be used with rockets come surprisingly close: when the nozzle expands the gas, the gas is cooled and accelerated, and an energy efficiency of up to 70% can be achieved. A heat engine is a physical or theoretical device that converts Thermal energy to mechanical output A rocket engine nozzle is a Propelling nozzle usually of the de Laval type used in a Rocket engine to expand and accelerate the Combustion Most of the rest is heat energy in the exhaust that is not recovered. [68] This compares very well with other engine designs. The high efficiency is a consequence of the fact that rocket combustion can be performed at very high temperatures and the gas is finally released at much lower temperatures, and so giving good Carnot efficiency. A heat engine is a physical or theoretical device that converts Thermal energy to mechanical output
However, engine efficiency is not the whole story. In common with many jet-based engines, but particularly in rockets due to their high and typically fixed exhaust speeds, rocket vehicles are extremely inefficient at low speeds irrespective of the engine efficiency. specific --->A jet engine is a Reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of Fluid to The problem is that at low speeds, the exhaust carries away a huge amount of kinetic energy rearward. The kinetic energy of an object is the extra Energy which it possesses due to its motion This phenomenon is termed propulsive efficiency (ηp). In Aircraft and rocket design overall propulsive efficiency \eta is the efficiency in percent with which the energy contained in a vehicle's propellant is converted [68]
However, as speeds rise, the resultant exhaust speed goes down, and the overall vehicle energetic efficiency rises, reaching a peak of around 100% of the engine efficiency when the vehicle is travelling exactly at the same speed that the exhaust is emitted. In this case the exhaust would ideally stop dead in space behind the moving vehicle, taking away zero energy, and from conservation of energy, all the energy would end up in the vehicle. The efficiency then drops off again at even higher speeds as the exhaust ends up travelling forwards behind the vehicle.
From these principles it can be shown that the propulsive efficiency ηp for a rocket moving at speed u with an exhaust velocity c is:
And the overall energy efficiency η is:
- η = ηpηc
Since the energy ultimately comes from fuel, these joint considerations mean that rockets are mainly useful when a very high speed is required, such as ICBMs or orbital launch, and they are rarely if ever used for general aviation. An orbital spaceflight (or orbital flight is a Spaceflight in which a Spacecraft is placed on a trajectory where it could remain in space for at least For example, from the equation, with an ηc of 0. 7, a rocket flying at Mach 0. 85 (which most aircraft cruise at) with an exhaust velocity of Mach 10, would have a predicted overall energy efficiency of 5. 9%, whereas a conventional, modern, air breathing jet engine achieves closer to 30% or more efficiency. Thus a rocket would need about 5x more energy; and allowing for the ~3x lower specific energy of rocket propellant than conventional air fuel, roughly 15x more mass of propellant would need to be carried for the same journey.
Thus jet engines which have a better match between speed and jet exhaust speed such as turbofans (in spite of their worse ηc) dominate for subsonic and supersonic atmospheric use while rockets work best at hypersonic speeds. A turbofan is a type of Jet engine, similar to a Turbojet. It essentially consists of a Ducted fan with a smaller diameter turbojet engine On the other hand rockets do also see many short-range relatively low speed military applications where their low-speed inefficiency is outweighed by their extremely high thrust and hence high accelerations.
Safety, reliability and accidents
Space Shuttle Challenger was torn apart 73 seconds after launch when hot gases escaped the SRBs
Rockets are not inherently highly dangerous. Space accidents, either during operations or training for Spaceflights have killed 22 Astronauts (five percent of all people who have been in space two percent Space Shuttle Challenger ( NASA Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-099 was NASA's second Space Shuttle orbiter to be put into service Srb is a village located in the southeastern part of Lika, Croatia. In military usage quite adequate reliability is obtained.
Because of the enormous chemical energy in all useful rocket propellants (greater energy per weight than explosives, but lower than gasoline), accidents can and have happened. Rocket propellant is mass that is stored usually in some form of Propellant tank prior to being used as the propulsive mass that is ejected from a rocket engine in the form The number of people injured or killed is usually small because of the great care typically taken, but this record is not perfect.
See also
Lists
- List of spaceflights
- Timeline of rocket and missile technology
- Chronology of Pakistan's rocket tests
- List of rockets
- Sounding rocket
- Spacecraft propulsion - describes many different propulsion systems for spacecraft
General rocketry
- Bipropellant rocket - two-part liquid or gaseous fuelled rocket
- Tripropellant rocket - variable propellant mixes can improve performance
- Hot Water rocket - powered by boiling water
- Hybrid rocket - solid rocket burnt by second fluid propellant
- Pulsed Rocket Motors - solid rocket that burns in segments
- Rocket fuel
- Rocket launch
- Rocket launch site
- Rocket engine nozzles - De Laval nozzles
- Solid rocket
- Tsiolkovsky rocket equation - equation describing rocket performance
Recreational rocketry
- Model rocket - small hobby rocket
- High-powered rocket
- Water rocket - toy rocket launched for recreational purposes using water as propellant
- Balloon rocket
Recreational pyrotechnic rocketry
- Bottle rocket - small firework type rocket often launched from bottles
- Skyrocket - fireworks that typically explode at apogee
Weaponry
- Rocket propelled grenade - military use of rockets
- Fire Arrow - one of the earliest types of rocket
- Shin Ki Chon Korean variation of the Chinese fire arrow
- Katyusha rocket launcher - rack mounted rocket
- VA-111 Shkval - Russian rocket propelled supercavitation torpedo
Rockets for Research
- Disappearing rocket - rocket that disintegrate if fired from the ground for safety reasons
- Rocket plane - winged aircraft powered by rockets
- Rocket sled - used for high speeds along ground
- Sounding rocket - suborbital rocket used for atmospheric and other research
Misc
- Rocket mail - an ill-fated attempt to commercialise rocketry
- Pulse jet engine - an airbreathing jet engine
External links
- Governing agencies
- FAA Office of Commercial Space Transportation
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
- National Association of Rocketry (USA)
- Tripoli Rocketry Association
- United Kingdom Rocketry Association
- Canadian Association of Rocketry
- Indian Space Research Organisation
- Information sites
- Encyclopedia Astronautica - Rocket and Missile Alphabetical Index
- Gunter's Space Page - Complete Rocket and Missile Lists
- Rocketdyne Technical Articles
- Relativity Calculator - Learn Tsiolkovsky's rocket equations
Notes
- Harford, James (1997). This is a timeline of known Spaceflights, both manned and unmanned sorted chronologically by launch date This article gives a concise Timeline of Rocket and Missile Technology. These are tables showing all the tests of rockets that have been carried out in Pakistan since the early 1960s The following is a list of Rockets Launch systems Known as "space rockets" these vehicle families have had launch attempts A sounding rocket, sometimes called a research rocket, is an instrument-carrying Rocket designed to take measurements and perform scientific experiments during Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to change the velocity of Spacecraft and artificial Satellites There are many different methods A bipropellant rocket engine is a Rocket engine that uses two propellants (very often liquid propellants) which are kept separately prior to reacting to form a hot A tripropellant rocket is a Rocket that uses three Propellants, as opposed to the more common Bipropellant rocket or Monopropellant rocket designs A hot water rocket, or steam rocket uses water held in a pressure vessel at a high temperature such that its Saturated vapor pressure is significantly greater than A hybrid rocket propulsion system comprises propellants of two different states of matter the most common configuration being a rocket engine composed of a solid propellant lining A pulsed rocket motor is typically defined as a multiple Pulse solid Propellant Rocket motor. Rocket propellant is mass that is stored usually in some form of Propellant tank prior to being used as the propulsive mass that is ejected from a rocket engine in the form A rocket launch is the first phase of the flight of a Rocket. A rocket launch site or launch complex is a facility at which Rocket launches are conducted A rocket engine nozzle is a Propelling nozzle usually of the de Laval type used in a Rocket engine to expand and accelerate the Combustion A solid rocket or a solid-fuel rocket is a Rocket with a motor that uses solid propellants ( Fuel / Oxidizer) Tsiolkovsky's rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation is named after Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who independently derived it and published in his 1903 work considers A Model rocket is a small Rocket capable of being launched vertically by a hobbyist or amateur to generally low altitudes (usually to around 300-500 m (1000-1500 ft for High-power rocketry is a hobby similar to model rocketry, with the major difference being that higher impulse range motors are used A water rocket is a type of Model rocket using Water as its Reaction mass. A balloon rocket is a Balloon filled with Air. Besides being simple toys balloon rockets are a widely used teaching device to demonstrate physical principles and Bottle Rocket is a 1996 film directed by Wes Anderson. It was co-written by Anderson and Owen Wilson. A skyrocket is a type of Firework that uses a Solid rocket motor to rise quickly into the sky RPG or rocket-propelled grenade, is a loose term describing hand-held shoulder-launched Anti-tank weapons capable of firing an unguided The Fire Arrow is a projectile weapon that uses Black powder. Singijeon is the world's first multi-launch rocket system whose schematics are still intact Katyusha multiple rocket launchers (Катюша are a type of Rocket artillery originally built and fielded by the Soviet Union in the Second World War The VA-111 Shkval (from Russian: шквал - Squall) torpedo and its descendants are supercavitating torpedoes developed Supercavitation is the use of Cavitation effects to create a large Bubble of Gas inside a Liquid, allowing an object to travel at great A disappearing rocket is a Rocket, usually a Sounding rocket, which is designed so that parts of the rocket body which usually fall back to the ground first explode A rocket-powered aircraft or rocket plane is an Aircraft that uses a Rocket for propulsion sometimes in addition to airbreathing Jet engines A rocket sled is a test platform that slides along a set of rails propelled by Rockets They were used extensively by the United States early in the Cold War A sounding rocket, sometimes called a research rocket, is an instrument-carrying Rocket designed to take measurements and perform scientific experiments during Rocket mail is the delivery of Mail by Rocket or Missile. The rocket would land by deploying an internal parachute upon arrival A pulse jet engine (or pulsejet) is a very simple form of Internal combustion engine based Jet engine where combustion occurs in Pulses The Encyclopedia Astronautica is a reference web site on space travel. Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-14853-9.
References
- ^ Rockets in Ancient Times (100 B.C. to 17th Century)
- ^ Leofranc Holford-Strevens, Aulus Gellius: An Antonine Author and his Achievement (Oxford University Press; revised paperback edn. 2005)
- This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone
- ^ A Brief History of Rocketry
- ^ （正大九年）其守城之具有火砲名「震天雷」者，铁罐盛药，以火点之，砲起火发，其声如雷，闻百里外，所爇围半亩之上，火点著甲铁皆透。（蒙古）大兵又为牛皮洞，直至城下，掘城为龛，间可容人，则城上不可奈何矣。人有献策者，以铁绳悬「震天雷」者，顺城而下，至掘处火发，人与牛皮皆碎迸无迹。又「飞火枪」，注药以火发之，辄前烧十余步，人亦不敢近。（蒙古）大兵惟畏此二物云。(Rough Translation: [Year 1232] Among the weaponry at the defense city [Kaifeng] are the "thundercrash", which were made of iron pot, and filled with drugs [black powder], when lighted with fire, it exploded, making a noise like thunder. It could be heard over 100 li, and could toasted more than a third of an acre, moreover it could penetrate the armours and iron. The [Mongol] soldiers employed a siege carriage cloaked with cowskin and advance to the city below, they grubbed a niche on the city-wall, which could spare a man between. The [Jin] defenders atop did not know what to do, later an advice had offered. The pot was then dropped with an iron string from the fortress, it reached to the niche area and exploded, men and carriage were blown to pieces without trace. They also have the "flying fire-lance", which was infused with drug [black powder] and ignited it, it flames within a range of over ten paces on the front, men are not dare to near. It is say that the [Mongol] soldiers only terrify by these two objects. ) History of Jin ch. 113
- ^ Crosby, Alfred W. (2002). Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 100–103. ISBN 0521791588.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 510.
- ^ Frank H. Winter, "The `Boun Bang Fai' Rockets of Thailand and Laos:," in Lloyd H. Cornett, Jr. , ed. , History of Rocketry and Astronautics - Proceedings of the Twentieth and Twenty-First History Symposia of the International Academy of Astronautics, AAS History Series, Vol. 15 (Univelt Inc. : San Diego, 1993), pp. 3-24.
- ^ a b NASA Spacelink - "A brief history of rocketry". Retrieved on 2006-08-19. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul.
- ^ A Brief History of Rocketry
- ^ Von Braun, Wernher & Frederick I. Ordway, III. HISTORY OF ROCKETRY AND SPACE TRAVEL, 1966
- ^ Tadeusz Nowak "Kazimierz Siemienowicz, ca. 1600-ca. 1651", MON Press, Warsaw 1969, p. Warsaw (Warszawa; also known by other names) is the Capital and Largest city of Poland. Year 1969 ( MCMLXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. 182
- ^ a b Stephen Leslie (1887) Dictionary of National Biography, Vol. XII, p. 9, Macmillan & Co. , New York Congreve, Sir William,
- ^ British Rockets at the US National Parks Service, Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine. Accessed February 2008.
- ^ History of the Rocket - 1804 to 1815 by Gareth Glover
- ^ Marine Corps Artillery Rockets: Back Through The Future
- ^ Smithsonian article on Hale rockets.
- ^ a b Rockets and Jets by American author Herbert S. Zim in 1945
- ^ Winter, Frank H. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Herbert Spencer Zim ( July 12, 1909 &ndash December 5, 1994) was a naturalist, author editor and educator best known as the founder Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar (1992). "Who First Flew in a Rocket?", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 45 (July 1992), p. 275-80
- ^ Tsiolkovsky's Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами - The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices (Russian paper)
- ^ Johnson W. , "Contents and commentary on William Moore's a treatise on the motion of rockets and an essay on naval gunnery", International Journal of Impact Engineering, Volume 16, Number 3, June 1995, pp. 499-521
- ^ A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes- Goddard 1919
- ^ "Topics of the Times", New York Times, January 13, 1920. Events 532 - Nika riots in Constantinople. 888 - Odo Count of Paris becomes King of the Franks Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Retrieved on 2007-06-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 524 - Godomar, King of the Burgundians defeats the Franks at the Battle of Vézeronce. "As a method of sending a missile to the higher, and even highest, part of the earth's atmospheric envelope, Professor Goddard's multiple-charge rocket is a practicable, and therefore promising device. Such a rocket, too, might carry self-recording instruments, to be released at the limit of its flight, and conceivable parachutes would bring them safely to the ground. It is not obvious, however, that the instruments would return to the point of departure; indeed, it is obvious that they would not, for parachutes drift exactly as balloons do. And the rocket, or what was left of it after the last explosion, would have to be aimed with amazing skill, and in dead calm, to fall on the spot where it started. "
- ^ (Romanian) Jürgen Heinz Ianzer, Hermann Oberth, pǎrintele zborului cosmic ("Hermann Oberth, Father of the Cosmic Flight"), p. 3, 11, 13, 15.
- ^ Goddard, Robert H. , Rockets [Mineola, N. Y. : Dover Publications, 2002], pp. 2, 15.
- ^ Clary, David A. , Rocket Man: Robert H. Goddard and the Birth of the Space Age [N. Y. , N. Y. : Hyperion, 2003], pp. 44-45.
- ^ HISTORY OF ROCKETRY: Verein für Raumschiffahrt (VfR)
- ^ A Rocket Drive For Long Range Bombers by E. Saenger and J. Bredt, August 1944
- ^ van der Linden, Frank H (November 2007), “Out of the Past”, Aerospace America: p39
- ^ The V-2 ballistic missile
- ^ A4/V2 Mobile Firing Operations 1944-45
- ^ A9/A10
- ^ http://www.archives.gov/iwg/declassified-records/rg-330-defense-secretary/ Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency. U. S. National Archives and Records Administration]
- ^ International Space Hall of Fame: Sergei Korolev
- ^ Rocket R-7. S. P. Korolev RSC Energia.
- ^ (PDF) Hypersonics Before the Shuttle: A Concise History of the X-15 Research Airplane (NASA SP-2000-4518, 2000)
- ^ Houchin, Roy (2006). U. S. Hypersonic Research and Development: The Rise and Fall of Dyna-Soar, 1944–1963. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-36281-4.
- ^ New York Times 17 June 1969 - A Correction
- ^ Mcdonnell Douglas AIR-2A "Genie" rocket
- ^ GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS WING
- ^ NASA's great observatories
- ^ Futron report
- ^ Concise Britannica- internal combustion engines
- ^ Nuclear Rocket Technologies
- ^ tecaeromex- steam rockets
- ^ Neofuel-new fuel: Near Earth Object fuel
- ^ Marconi, Elaine M. (April 12, 2004). Events 467 - Anthemius is elevated to Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " What is a Sounding Rocket?. Research Aircraft. NASA. Retrieved on October 10, 2006. Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Spaceflight Now-worldwide launch schedule
- ^ THE ROCKET BELT
- ^ Sammy Miller
- ^ a b c NASA CR-566
- ^ a b c d e [Rocket Propulsion Elements - 7th edition, chapter 1]
- ^ NASA- Four forces on a model rocket
- ^ Glasstone, Samuel (1965). Sourcebook on the Space Sciences. D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc, 209 or §4. 97.
- ^ Callaway, David W. (March 2004). "Coplanar Air Launch with Gravity-Turn Launch Trajectories". Masters Thesis.
- ^ Huzel, D. K. and Huang, D. H. (1971). NASA SP-125, Design of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines, 2nd Edition, NASA.
- ^ Rocket Propulsion Elements seventh edition eq-2-14
- ^ Rocket Propulsion Elements seventh edition eq-3-33
- ^ table of cislunar/mars delta-vs
- ^ cislunar delta-vs
- ^ Choose Your Engine
- ^ Rocket Mass Ratios
- ^ a b Astronautix- Ariane 5g
- ^ a b Astronautix - Saturn V
- ^ a b Astronautix- Saturn IB
- ^ Astronautix- V2
- ^ a b c d e AIAA2001-4619 RLVs
- ^ Rocket staging
- ^ a b c d Rocket Propulsion elements- seventh edition, pg 37-38
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