- Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China. Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China
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The Qing Dynasty (Chinese: 清朝; pinyin: Qīng cháo; Wade-Giles: Ch'ing ch'ao; Manchu: 
Daicing gurun; Mongolian: Манж Чин Улс), also known as the Manchu Dynasty, was the last ruling dynasty of China from 1644 to 1912. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors ( were mythological rulers of China during the period from c The Xia Dynasty ( of China is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Records of the Grand Historian and The Shang Dynasty ( Chinese: 商[[wiktionary 朝|朝]] or Yin Dynasty ( 殷[[wiktionary 代|代]] was according to traditional sources the The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Spring and Autumn Period ( was a period in Chinese history which roughly corresponds to the first half of the Eastern Zhou dynasty (from the second half of the 8th century BC The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Xin Dynasty ( was a Chinese Dynasty (although strictly speaking it had only one Emperor) which lasted from 9 - 23 AD The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Three Kingdoms period ( is a period in the History of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of Cao Wei ( was one of the empires that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period Shu Han ( Traditional Chinese: 蜀漢 Pinyin: Shǔ Hàn sometimes known as the Kingdom of Shu (蜀 shǔ was one of the Three Kingdoms competing Eastern Wu ( Chinese: 東吳 Pinyin: Dōng Wú also known as Sun Wu ( Traditional Chinese: 孫吳 pinyin Sūn Wú refers to a The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties The Sixteen Kingdoms ( or less commonly the Sixteen States, were a collection of numerous short-lived sovereign states in China proper and its neighboring areas This article is about the Southern and Northern Dynasties in China. The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Wu Zetian ( (625 – December 16, 705 In 705 she was overthrown in a coup and Emperor Zhongzong was returned to the throne Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907-960 was an era of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty. The Liao Dynasty ( 907 - 1125, also known as the Khitan Empire (契丹國 was an empire in northern China that ruled over the regions of Manchuria The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Xi Xia redirects here For a Chinese general whose name may be transliterated as Xi Xia see Xi Qia The Western Xia Dynasty ( or The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led This article discusses history of the state which currently governs Taiwan Area. The history of the People's Republic of China details the history of Mainland China since October 1, 1949, when after a near complete victory See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China Early 1950s Social revolution The People's Republic of China was founded on See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China Power struggles after Mao's death See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China Recovery in the 1990s Post-Tiananmen The Tiananmen Square protests See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China "Fourth Generation" The Hu-Wen Administration Power transition The Republic of China on Taiwan era ( also known as the postwar era ( refers to the period in Taiwan's history, between the end of World War II This article discusses the history of Taiwan (including the Pescadores) The following is a Chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history. China was the largest economy on earth for most of the recorded history of the past two millennia Chinese Historiography refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying Chinese history. Chinese art is Art that whether ancient or modern originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists or performers The history of education in China began with the birth of Chinese civilization. The history of Science and Technology in China is both long and rich with many contributions to science and technology See also Chinese law The origin of the current Law of the People's Republic of China can be traced back to the period of the early 1930s during the establishment of the The recorded military history of China extends from about 1500 BC to the present day The naval history of China dates back thousands of years with archives existing since the late Spring and Autumn Period ( 722 BC - 481 BC) about the The following is a Timeline of the History of China. Between the changing of the dynasties, most dates overlap as ruling periods do not transfer immediately Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin The Mongolian language (mn [[ImageMonggol kelesvg 17px]] Mongɣol kele, Cyrillic: Монгол хэл Mongol khel) is the best-known member of The following is a Chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Year 1912 ( MCMXII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting
The dynasty was founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro in what is today northeast China (Manchuria). The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in Aisin Gioro was the clan name of the Manchu emperors of the Qing dynasty (as well as the later short-lived regime in Manchukuo) Northeast China ( is a geographical region of China. It is separated from Russia largely by the Amur, Argun, and Ussuri rivers from Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast Starting in 1644 it expanded into China proper and its surrounding territories, establishing the Empire of the Great Qing (simplified Chinese: 大清国; traditional Chinese: 大清國; pinyin: dàqīngguó). China proper (also known as Inner China) refers to the historical lands of China where the Han Chinese are the majority Ethnic group, in contrast Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use The Qing Dynasty was the last Imperial dynasty of China. The following is a Chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history.
Originally declared as the Later Jin Dynasty (後金 Hòu Jīn) / Amaga Aisin Gurun (
), in 1616, it changed its name to "Qing", meaning "clear" or "pellucid", in 1636 and captured Beijing in 1644. By 1646 it had come into power over most of present-day China, although complete pacification of China would not be accomplished until 1683.
During its reign, the Qing Dynasty became highly integrated with Chinese culture. The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history However, its military power weakened during the 1800s, and faced with international pressure, massive rebellions and defeats in wars, the Qing Dynasty declined after the mid-19th century. Rebellion is a refusal of obedienceIt may therefore be seen as encompassing a range of Behaviours from Civil disobedience and mass Nonviolent resistance War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units The Qing Dynasty was overthrown following the Xinhai Revolution, when the Empress Dowager Longyu abdicated on behalf of the last emperor, Puyi, on February 12, 1912. The Xinhai Revolution or Shinhai Revolution ( also known as the 1911 Revolution or the Chinese Revolution, began with the Wuchang Uprising Yehenara Empress Xiao Ding Jing (孝定景皇后叶赫那拉氏 is better known as the Empress Dowager Longyu (隆裕皇后 (given name Jingfen 靜芬 (1868 - 1913 Puyi ( ( February 7, 1906 &ndash October 17, 1967) of the Manchu Aisin-Gioro ruling family was the last Emperor Events 1429 - English Forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orleans from attack by the Year 1912 ( MCMXII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting
Formation of the Manchu State
The Dynasty was founded not by the Han Chinese who form the majority of the Chinese population, but the Manchus, who are today an ethnic minority within China. Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Manchus are descended from Jurchens (Zh: 女真, Manchu: 
Jušen), a Tungusic people who lived around the region now comprising the Russian province of Primorsky Krai and the Chinese provinces of Heilongjiang and Jilin. The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in The Jurchens ( were a Tungus people who inhabited the region of Manchuria ( Northeast China) until the 17th century when they adopted the name Manchu Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin The term Tungusic peoples is used to describe peoples speaking a Tungusic language. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Primorsky Krai (Примо́рский край also known as Primorye (ru Примо́рье is a federal subject of Russia (a Krai) China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ( Postal map spelling: Heilungkiang Manchu: Sahaliyan ula is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern ( Postal map spelling: Kirin; Manchu: Girin ula is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern What was to become the Manchu state was founded by Nurhaci (Zh: 努尔哈赤), the chieftain of a minor Jurchen tribe in Jianzhou (Zh: 建州), in the early 17th century. The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in Nurhaci ( Chinese: 努爾哈赤 or 努爾哈齊; Manchu:) is considered to be the founding father of the Manchu The Jianzhou Jurchens were a grouping of the Jurchens as identified by the Chinese of the Ming Dynasty. Originally a vassal of the Ming emperors, Nurhaci in 1582 embarked on an inter-tribal feud that escalated into a campaign to unify the Jianzhou Jurchen tribes. By 1616 he had sufficiently consolidated Jianzhou region to proclaim himself Khan of "Great Jin" in reference to the previous Jurchen dynasty. Historians refer to this pre-Qing entity as "Later Jin" to distinguish it from the first Jin Dynasty. This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty Two years later Nurhaci openly renounced the sovereignty of Ming overlordship in order to complete the unification of those Jurchen tribes still allied with the Ming emperor. After a series of successful battles he relocated his capital from Hetu Ala to successively bigger captured Ming cities in the province of Liaodong (Zh: 辽东), first Liaoyang (Zh: 辽阳; Ma: dergi hecen) in 1621 and again in 1625 to Shenyang (Zh: 沈阳; later renamed Shengjing; Zh: 盛京; Ma: 
Mukden). The Liáodōng Peninsula ( is a Peninsula in the Liáoníng province of northeastern China, historically known in the west as southern east- Manchuria Liaoyang ( is a city in China Liaoning province located in the middle of the heavily polluted Liaodong Peninsula. Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin Shenyang ( Ch: 沈阳 pinyin Shěnyáng, or Mukden ( in Manchu) is a Sub-provincial city and capital of Liaoning Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin
Relocating his court from Jianzhou to Liaodong provided Nurhaci a bigger power base in terms of human and material resources; geographically it also brought him in close contact with the Mongol domains on the plains of Mongolia. The Liáodōng Peninsula ( is a Peninsula in the Liáoníng province of northeastern China, historically known in the west as southern east- Manchuria Although by this time the once-united Mongol nation under Genghis Khan had long fragmented into individual and at times hostile tribes, these disunited tribes still presented a serious security threat to the Ming borders. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder Nurhaci's policy towards the Mongols was to seek their friendship and cooperation, thus securing the Jurchens' western front from a potential enemy. Furthermore, the Mongols proved a useful ally in the war, lending the Jurchens their traditional expertise as cavalry archers. To cement this new alliance Nurhaci initiated a policy of inter-marriages between Jurchen and those Mongolian nobility compliant to Jurchen leadership, while those who resisted were met with military action. This is a typical example of Nurhaci's many initiatives that eventually became official Qing government policy. Some of Nurhaci's other important contributions include ordering the creation of a written Manchu language based on Mongolian script, and the creation of the civil and military administrative system that eventually evolved into the Manchu Banners the defining element of Manchu identity, thus laying foundation for transforming the loosely knitted Jurchen tribes into a nation. Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin The classic vertical Mongolian script (ɣɣul bičig, cyrillic: Монгол бичиг Mongol bichig) was the first of many writing systems created The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in The Eight Banners (In Manchu: jakūn gūsa, In Chinese: 八旗 baqí were administrative divisions into which all Manchu families were placed
Nurhaci's unbroken series of military successes came to an end in January 1626 when he was dealt his first major military defeat by general Yuan Chonghuan while laying siege to the Ming city of Ningyuan. Yuán Chónghuàn (袁崇煥 Style name: Yuánsù 元素 and Zìrú 自如 6 June 1584 – 22 September 1630) was a famed patriot The Battle of Ningyuan (寧遠之戰 was a battle between the Han Chinese Ming Dynasty and the Manchurian Later Jin in 1626. He died a few months later[1] and was succeeded by his eighth son Hung Taiji who emerged after a short political struggle amongst other potential contenders as the new Khan. Huang Taiji ( November 28 1592 &ndash September 21 1643; reigned 1626 &ndash 1643 also transliterated as Hung Taiji Although he was an experienced general and the commander of two Banners at the time of his succession, Hung Taiji's reign did not start well on the military front. The Jurchens suffered yet another defeat in 1627 at the hands of Yuan Chonghuan. As before, this defeat was the result of the superior firepower of the Ming forces' newly acquired Portuguese cannons. To redress the technological and numerical disparity Hung Taiji in 1634 created his own artillery corps (Zh: 重军, Ma: ujen chooha) from amongst his existing Han troops who casted their own cannons from European design with the help of captured Chinese artisans. Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin In 1635 the Manchu's Mongolian allies were fully incorporated into a separate Banner hierarchy under direct Manchu command. This was followed by the creation of the first (two) Han Banners in 1637 (which eventually increased to eight in 1642). Together these military reforms enabled Hung Taiji to resoundingly defeat Ming forces in a series of battles from 1640 to 1642 for the territories of Songshan (Zh: 松山)) and Jingzhou (Zh: 锦州)). This final victory resulted in the surrender of many of the Mings' most battle hardened troops and the complete permanent withdrawal of remaining Ming forces from lands north of the Great Wall. On a geopolitical level, the victory also gave the Manchus undisputed overlordship over the Mings' Korean vassal the Joseon Dynasty.
On the civil front, Hung Taiji, on the advice of surrendered Ming officials, set up a rudimentary bureaucratic system based on the Ming model of government. Hung Taiji's bureaucracy was staffed with an unprecedented number of Han Chinese, many of them newly surrendered Ming officials. However, the Jurchens' continued dominance in government was ensured by an ethnic quota for top bureaucratic appointments. Hung Taiji's reign also saw a fundamental change of policy towards his Han Chinese subjects. Whereas under Nurhaci all captured Han Chinese were seen as a potential fifth column for the Ming Dynasty and treated as chattel— including those who eventually held important government posts– Hung Taiji in contrast incorporated them into the Jurchen "nation" as full if not first class citizens, who were also obligated to provide military service. A fifth column is a group of people who clandestinely undermine a larger group to which it is expected to be loyal such as a Nation. This change of policy not only increased Hung Taiji's power base and reduced his military dependence on those banners not under his personal control, it also greatly encouraged other Han Chinese subjects of the Ming Dynasty to surrender and accept Jurchen rule when they were defeated militarily. Through these and other measures Hung Taiji was able to centralize power unto the office of the Khan, which in the long run prevented the Jurchen federation from fragmenting after his death.
One of the defining events of Hung Taiji's reign was the official adoption of the name Manchu (Zh: 满族; Ma: 
) for all Jurchen people in November 1635. Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin And when the imperial seal of the Yuan emperors was presented to Hung Taiji by Ejei Khan the son of Lingdan Khan, the last grand-Khan of the Mongols, Hung Taiji in 1636 renamed the state from "Later Jin" to "Great Qing" and elevated his position from Khan to Emperor, suggesting imperial ambitions beyond unifying Manchu territories. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Ejei Khongghor or Ejei Khan (? -1661 was the son of Lingdan Khan, the last in the Borjigin clan of Mongol Khans, who once ruled over China Ligdan qutuɣtu qan, also Ligden or Lindan (ruled 1604-1634 was the last in the Borjigin clan of Mongol Khans who ruled from Čaqar An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of Some sources suggested that the name "Qing" was chosen in reaction to that of the Ming Dynasty (明) which consists of the Chinese characters for sun (日) and moon (月), which are associated with the fire element. The character Qing (清) is composed of the water (水) radical and the character for blue-green (青), which are both associated with the water element. Other suggested that the name change went a long way to rehabilitate the Manchu state in the eyes of the Ming-era Han Chinese, who, being heavily influenced by a Neo-Confucian education system, had regarded the former Jurchen Jin dynasty as foreign invaders.
Claiming the Mandate of Heaven
Hung Taiji died suddenly in September 1643 without a designated heir. Because Jurchens had traditionally "elected" their leader through a council of nobles, the Qing state did not have in place a clear succession system until the reign of Emperor Kangxi. The Kangxi Emperor ( Mongolian Enkh Amgalan Khaan, May 4, 1654 &ndash December 20, 1722) was the third Emperor of The leading contenders for power at this time were Hung Taiji’s eldest son Hooge and Hung Taiji’s agnate half brother Dorgon. Hooge ( Manchu:; Chinese: 豪格 1609 - 1648) was the eldest son of Emperor Huang Taiji of the Manchu Qing Dynasty Dorgon ( Manchu:;) ( November 17, 1612 &ndash December 31, 1650) also known as Hošoi Mergen Cin Wang, the Prince In the ensuing political impasse between two bitter political rivals a compromise candidate in the person of Hung Taiji’s five-year-old son Fulin was installed as Emperor Shunzhi, with Dorgon as regent and de facto leader of the Manchu nation. The Shunzhi Emperor ( March 15, 1638 &ndash February 5, 1661) was the second emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty The Shunzhi Emperor ( March 15, 1638 &ndash February 5, 1661) was the second emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty Fortunately the Manchus' nemesis the Ming Dynasty was fighting for its own survival against a long peasant rebellion and was unable to capitalise on the Qing court’s political uncertainty over the succession dispute and installation of a minor as Emperor. The Ming Dynasty's internal crisis came to a head in April 1644, when the capital at modern day Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official turned leader of the peasant revolt. April holidays and events National Poetry Month - in United States National Sexual Assault Awareness Month - in United Li Zicheng ( ( September 22, 1606 - 1644 born Lĭ Hóngjī (鴻基 was one of the major figures in the rebellion that brought down the Ming Dynasty China The last Ming, Emperor Chongzhen committed suicide when the city fell, marking the official end of the dynasty. The Chongzhen Emperor ( Pinyin: Chóngzhēn WG: Ch'ung-chen ( February 6, 1611 - April 25, 1644) was the 16th and
After easily taking Beijing, Li Zicheng led a coalition of rebel forces numbering 200,000[2] to confront Wu Sangui, the general commanding the Ming garrison at Shanhaiguan (Zh:山海關). Wu Sangui ( styled Changbai 長白 or Changbo 長伯 (1612 &ndash October 2, 1678) was a Ming Chinese general who was Garrison (various spellings (from the French garnison, itself from the verb garnir, "to equip" is the collective term for a body of Troops Shanhaiguan or Shanhai Pass ( literally "Mountain and Sea Pass" is a part of the city of Qinhuangdao, in Hebei province People's Republic Shanhaiguan is a pivotal pass of the Great Wall of China located fifty miles northeast of Beijing, and for years its defenses were what kept the Manchus from directly raiding the Ming capital. In a range of hills or especially of mountains, a pass (also gap, notch, col, saddle, bwlch, The Great Wall of China ( or ( is a series of stone and earthen Fortifications in China, built rebuilt and maintained between the 6th century BC and the 16th Defence Wu, caught between a rebel army twice his size and a foreign enemy he had fought for years, decided to cast his lot with the Manchus with whom he was familiar, and made an alliance with Dorgon to fight the rebels. Some sources suggested that Wu's actions were influenced by news of mistreatment of his family and his concubine Chen Yuanyuan at the hands of the rebels when the capital fell. Chen Yuanyuan (Chinese 陈圆圆 1624–1681 born Xing Yuan (邢沅 lived near the end of the Ming Dynasty, and was a Concubine of Wu Sangui Regardless of the actual reasons for his decision,[3] this awkward and some would say cynical alliance between Wu and his former sworn enemy was ironically made in the name of avenging the death of Emperor Chongzhen. The Chongzhen Emperor ( Pinyin: Chóngzhēn WG: Ch'ung-chen ( February 6, 1611 - April 25, 1644) was the 16th and Together, the two former enemies met and defeated Li Zicheng's rebel forces in battle on May 27, 1644. Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed After routing Li's forces, the Manchus captured Beijing on June 6, where Emperor Shunzhi was installed as the "Son of Heaven" on October 30. Li Zicheng ( ( September 22, 1606 - 1644 born Lĭ Hóngjī (鴻基 was one of the major figures in the rebellion that brought down the Ming Dynasty China The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year The Shunzhi Emperor ( March 15, 1638 &ndash February 5, 1661) was the second emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty Chinese sovereign is the ruler of a particular period in ancient China. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge. The Manchus who had positioned themselves as political heir to the Ming Emperor by defeating Li Zicheng, completed the symbolic act of transition by holding a formal funeral for Emperor Chongzhen. The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Li Zicheng ( ( September 22, 1606 - 1644 born Lĭ Hóngjī (鴻基 was one of the major figures in the rebellion that brought down the Ming Dynasty China The Chongzhen Emperor ( Pinyin: Chóngzhēn WG: Ch'ung-chen ( February 6, 1611 - April 25, 1644) was the 16th and However the process of conquest took another seventeen years of battling Ming loyalists, pretenders and rebels. In general a loyalist is one who maintains loyalty to an established government political party or sovereign especially during war or revolutionary change A pretender is a claimant to an abolished throne or to a throne already occupied by somebody else The last Ming pretender, Prince Gui, sought refuge with the King of Burma, a vassal of the Ming Dynasty, but was turned over to a Qing expeditionary army commanded by Wu, who had him brought back to Yunnan province and executed in early 1662. The Prince of Gui (桂王 or the Yongli Emperor, was an emperor of the Southern Ming Dynasty in China. Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia.
The first seven years of Shunzhi’s reign was dominated by the regent prince Dorgon, who, because of his own political insecurity within the Manchu power structure, followed Hung Taiji’s example of centralizing power unto himself in the name of the Emperor at the expense of other contending Manchu princes, many of whom eventually were demoted or imprisoned under one pretext or another. The Shunzhi Emperor ( March 15, 1638 &ndash February 5, 1661) was the second emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty Although the period of his regency was relatively short, Dorgon cast a long shadow over the Qing Dynasty. Firstly the Manchus were able to enter "China Proper" only because of Dorgon’s timely decision to act on Wu Sangui’s appeal for military assistance. After capturing Beijing instead of sacking the city as the rebels had done before them, Dorgon insisted over other Manchu princes on making it Qing’s capital and largely reappointed Ming officials back to their posts. Setting the Qing capital in Beijing may seem a straightforward move in hindsight, but it was then an act of innovation because historically no major Chinese dynasty had ever "inherited" its immediate predecessor’s capital. Keeping the Ming capital and bureaucracy intact helped quickly stabilize the country and greatly sped up the Manchu process of conquest. However, not all of Dorgon’s policies were equally popular nor easily implemented.
One of Dorgon's most controversial decisions was his 1646 imperial edict (the "Queue Order") which forced all Han Chinese men, on pain of death, to adopt the Manchu style of dress, including shaving the front of their heads and combing the remaining hair into a queue. The queue or cue is a hairstyle in which the hair is worn long and gathered up into a pigtail To the Manchus this policy might both be a symbolic act of submission and in practical terms an aid in identification of friend from foe, however for the Han Chinese it totally went against their traditional Confucian values[4]. Unsurprisingly it was deeply unpopular and, together with other policies unfavourable towards the Han Chinese, might account for the increasingly steep resistance met by Qing forces after 1646. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed before all of China was brought into compliance.
Dorgon died suddenly while on a hunting expedition in 1651[5] marking the official start of Emperor Shunzhi’s personal rule. However, because the Emperor was only twelve years old at that time, most decisions were made on his behalf by his mother, the Empress Dowager Xiao-Zhuang, who turned out to be a skilled political operator. Empress Dowager ( Chinese: 皇太后 Chinese, Korean Pronunciation: Hwang Tae Hu Japanese Pronunciation: Kōtaigō Vietnamese Pronunciation Although Dorgon’s “support” was essential to Shunzhi’s ascent and rule in the early years of the his reign, Dorgon had through the years centralised so much power unto his office as imperial regent to become a direct threat to the throne, so much so that upon his death Dorgon was extraordinarily bestowed the posthumous title of Emperor Yi (Zh: 義皇帝), the only instance in Qing history of a Manchu "prince of the blood" (Zh: 亲王) was so honoured. Prince, from the Latin root Princeps, is a general term for a Monarch, for a member of a monarch's or former monarch's family and is a However two months into Shunzhi’s personal rule Dorgon was not only stripped of his titles, but his corpse was disinterred and mutilated[6] to atone for multiple "crimes"—one of which was persecuting to death Shunzhi’s agnate eldest brother Hooge. Hooge ( Manchu:; Chinese: 豪格 1609 - 1648) was the eldest son of Emperor Huang Taiji of the Manchu Qing Dynasty More importantly Dorgon’s symbolic fall from grace also signalled a political purge of his family and associates in court thus reverting power back to the person of the Emperor. However, from a promising start, Shunzhi’s reign was cut short by his early death in 1661 at the age of twenty-four from smallpox[7]. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. He was succeeded by his third son Xuan-Ye, who became Emperor Kangxi. The Kangxi Emperor ( Mongolian Enkh Amgalan Khaan, May 4, 1654 &ndash December 20, 1722) was the third Emperor of
Kangxi emperor and consolidation
At sixty one years, Kangxi had the longest reign of any Chinese Emperor. The Kangxi Emperor ( Mongolian Enkh Amgalan Khaan, May 4, 1654 &ndash December 20, 1722) was the third Emperor of The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of But more importantly, apart from its length, Kangxi’s reign is also celebrated as the beginning of an era called “Kang-Qian Golden Age” (Zh: 康乾盛世) during which Qing Dynasty reached the zenith of its social, economic and military power. The Kangxi Emperor ( Mongolian Enkh Amgalan Khaan, May 4, 1654 &ndash December 20, 1722) was the third Emperor of Kangxi’s long reign started when he was eight years old upon the untimely demise of his father. The Kangxi Emperor ( Mongolian Enkh Amgalan Khaan, May 4, 1654 &ndash December 20, 1722) was the third Emperor of In order to prevent a repeat of Dorgon's dictatorial monopolizing of imperial powers during the period of regency, Emperor Shunzhi on his deathbed hastily appointed four senior cabinet ministers to govern on behalf of his young son. Dorgon ( Manchu:;) ( November 17, 1612 &ndash December 31, 1650) also known as Hošoi Mergen Cin Wang, the Prince The Shunzhi Emperor ( March 15, 1638 &ndash February 5, 1661) was the second emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty The four ministers—Sonin, Ebilun, Suksaha, and Oboi—were chosen for their long service to the crown, but also to counteract each others' influences. Sonin, (1601-1667 also known as Soni, and rarely Sony ( Manchu:;) was a senior regent during Chinese Kangxi Emperor 's minority Ebilun ( Manchu:;) was an assistant minister appointed by the Chinese Shunzhi Emperor for his successor Kangxi during the Qing Dynasty Suksaha ( Manchu:;) was a Regent during the early reign of the Chinese Kangxi Emperor in the Qing Dynasty. Oboi ( Manchu:;) ( c 1610?-1669 was a highly decorated Manchurian military commander and courtier who served in various military and administrative posts Most importantly, the four were not closely related to the imperial family and laid no claim to the throne. However as time passed, through chance and machination, Oboi—the most junior of the four ministers—was able to achieve political dominance to such an extent as to become a potential threat to the crown. Oboi ( Manchu:;) ( c 1610?-1669 was a highly decorated Manchurian military commander and courtier who served in various military and administrative posts Even though Oboi's loyalty was never an issue, his personal arrogance and political conservatism led him to come into ever escalating conflict with the young Emperor. Oboi ( Manchu:;) ( c 1610?-1669 was a highly decorated Manchurian military commander and courtier who served in various military and administrative posts The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of In 1669 Kangxi, through trickery, disarmed and imprisoned Oboi—a not insignificant victory for the fifteen-year-old Emperor, as Oboi was not only a wily old politician but also an experienced military commander. The Kangxi Emperor ( Mongolian Enkh Amgalan Khaan, May 4, 1654 &ndash December 20, 1722) was the third Emperor of Oboi ( Manchu:;) ( c 1610?-1669 was a highly decorated Manchurian military commander and courtier who served in various military and administrative posts The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of Oboi ( Manchu:;) ( c 1610?-1669 was a highly decorated Manchurian military commander and courtier who served in various military and administrative posts
The Manchus found controlling the "Mandate of Heaven" a daunting task. The Mandate of Heaven (天命 Pīnyīn: Tiānmìng is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers The vastness of China's territory meant that there were only enough banner troops to garrison key cities forming the backbone of a defence network that relied heavily on surrendered Ming soldiers. In addition, three surrendered Ming generals were singled out for their contributions to the establishment of the Qing dynasty, ennobled as feudal princes (藩王), and given governorships over vast territories in Southern China. The chief of these was Wu Sangui (吳三桂), who was given the provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou, while generals Shang Kexi (尚可喜) and Geng Zhongming (耿仲明) were given the Guangdong and Fujian provinces, respectively. Wu Sangui ( styled Changbai 長白 or Changbo 長伯 (1612 &ndash October 2, 1678) was a Ming Chinese general who was ( also spelled Kweichow) is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country Guangdong ( EFEO: Kouangtong; Pinyin Guǎngdōng; Postal map spelling: Kwangtung) is a province on the This article is about the People's Republic of China province
As the years went by, the three feudal lords and their territories inevitably became increasingly autonomous. Finally, in 1673, Shang Kexi petitioned Kangxi Emperor, stating his desire to retire to his hometown in Liaodong (遼東) province and nominating his son as his successor. The young emperor granted his retirement, but denied the heredity of his fief. In reaction, the two other generals decided to petition for their own retirements to test Kangxi's resolve, thinking that he would not risk offending them. The move backfired as the young emperor called their bluff by accepting their requests and ordering all three fiefdoms to be reverted back to the crown.
Faced with the stripping of their powers, Wu Sangui felt he had no choice but to rise up in revolt. He was joined by Geng Zhongming and by Shang Kexi's son Shang Zhixin (尚之信). The ensuing rebellion lasted for eight years. At the peak of the rebels' fortunes, they managed to extend their control as far north as the Yangtze River (長江). Ultimately, though, the Qing government was able to put down the rebellion and exert control over all of southern China. The rebellion would be known in Chinese history as the Revolt of the Three Feudatories. The Three Feudatories ( were territories in southern China bestowed by the early Manchu rulers on three Chinese generals ( Wu Sangui, Geng Jingzhong
To consolidate the empire, Kangxi Emperor personally led China on a series of military campaigns against Tibet, the Dzungars, and later Russia. The Kangxi Emperor ( Mongolian Enkh Amgalan Khaan, May 4, 1654 &ndash December 20, 1722) was the third Emperor of Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European Dzungar (also Jungar or Zungar; Mongolian: Зүүнгар Züüngar) is the collective identity of several Oirat tribes that Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending He arranged the marriage of his daughter to the Mongol Khan Gordhun to avoid a military conflict. Gordhun's military campaign against the Qing failed, further strengthening the Empire. Taiwan was also conquered by Qing Empire forces in 1683 from Zheng Keshuang, grandson of Koxinga. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Zheng Keshuang (鄭克塽 1669 &ndash 1707 Pinyin: Zhèng Kèshuǎng was the son of Zheng Jing and a grandson of Koxinga. Koxinga ( Pe̍h-oē-jī: Kok-sèng-iâ/Kok-sìⁿ-iâ Lord with the Imperial Surname) is the traditional Western spelling of the popular appellation of Koxinga had conquered Taiwan from the Dutch colonists to use it as a base against the Qing Dynasty. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. By the end of the 17th century, China was at its greatest height of power since the early Ming Dynasty. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led
Kangxi Emperor also handled many Jesuit missionaries that came to China. The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order A series of missionaries, including Matteo Ricci, Martino Martini, Johann Adam Schall von Bell, Ferdinand Verbiest and Antoine Thomas, also held significant positions as mathematicians, astronomers and advisors to the Emperor. Matteo Ricci SJ ( October 6 1552 &ndash May 11 1610;; Courtesy name: 西泰 Xītài was an Italian Jesuit priest Martino Martini (, Jitai) ( 20 September 1614, Trento, Italy - 6 June 1661, Hangzhou China) was an Italian Johann Adam Schall von Bell (湯若望 ( 1591 - 15 August 1666) was a German Jesuit Missionary to China Father Ferdinand Verbiest ( October 9 1623 – January 28 1688) was a Flemish Jesuit Missionary in China Antoine Thomas ( January 25, 1644 - June 29, 1709) was a Belgian Jesuit priest missionary and astronomer in China Together they played a significant role in correcting the Chinese calendar and advancing knowledge of astronomy, science and the geography of the Chinese empire.
Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors
The reigns of the Yongzheng Emperor (r. The Yongzheng Emperor (雍正帝 → yōngzhèngdì) (born Yinzhen (胤禛 → yìnzhēn) December 13, 1678 - October 8 1723–1735) and his son the Qianlong Emperor (r. Emperor Qianlong (Chinese 乾隆 Qiánlóng, Wade-Giles' Ch'ien-Lung', Mongolian Tengeriig Tetgesen Khaan, born Hongli (弘历 September 1735–1796) marked the height of Qing's power. During this period, the Qing Dynasty ruled over 13 million square kilometres of territory.
After the Kangxi Emperor's death in the winter of 1722, his fourth son Prince Yong (雍親王) succeeded him as the Yongzheng Emperor. The Yongzheng Emperor (雍正帝 → yōngzhèngdì) (born Yinzhen (胤禛 → yìnzhēn) December 13, 1678 - October 8 Yongzheng remained a controversial character because of rumours about him usurping the throne, and in the late Kangxi years, he was involved in great political struggles with his brothers. Yongzheng was a hardworking administrator who ruled with an iron hand. His first big step towards a stronger regime came when he brought the State Examination System back to its original standards. The Imperial examinations ( in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's Bureaucracy. In 1724, he cracked down on illegal exchange rates of coins, which was being manipulated by officials to fit their financial needs. Those who were found in violation of new laws on finances were removed from office, or in extreme cases, executed.
Yongzheng showed a great amount of trust in Han officials, and appointed many of his proteges to prestigious positions. Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. Nian Gengyao was appointed to lead a military campaign in place of his brother Yinti in Qinghai. Nian Gengyao (年羹堯 Styled Lianggong 亮功 1679 - January 13, 1726) was a Chinese military commander of the Yinti the Prince Xun (恂郡王胤禵 Pinyin: Yìntí Wade-Giles: Yin-t'i Posthumous name: Qín 勤 born Yìnzhēn 胤祯 Yunti (青海 qīnghǎi is a province of the People's Republic of China, named after Qinghai Lake. Nian's arrogant actions, however, led to his downfall in 1726. Yongzheng's reign saw consolidation of imperial power at its height in Chinese history. More territory was incorporated in the Northwest. A toughened stance was directed towards corrupt officials, and Yongzheng led the creation of a Grand Council, which grew to become the de facto Cabinet for the rest of the dynasty. The Grand Council or Junjichu ( Manchu: coohai nashūn i ba; literally "Office of Military Secrets" was an important policy-making body
The Yongzheng Emperor died in 1735. This was followed by the succession of his son Prince Bao (寶親王) as the Qianlong Emperor. Emperor Qianlong (Chinese 乾隆 Qiánlóng, Wade-Giles' Ch'ien-Lung', Mongolian Tengeriig Tetgesen Khaan, born Hongli (弘历 September Qianlong was known as an able general. Succeeding the throne at the age of 24, Qianlong personally led the military in campaigns near Xinjiang and Mongolia. Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East Revolts and uprisings in Sichuan and parts of southern China were successfully put down. ( Postal map spelling: Szechwan and Szechuan) is a province in western China with its capital in Chengdu.
Around forty years into Qianlong's reign, the Qing government saw a return of rampant corruption. The official Heshen was arguably one of the most corrupt in the entire Qing Dynasty. Heshen ( ( 1750 - February 22, 1799) from the Manchu Niohuru clan was a Manchu official of He was eventually forced into committing suicide by Qianlong's son, the Jiaqing Emperor (r. The Jiaqing Emperor ( November 13, 1760 – September 2, 1820) was the sixth emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty 1796–1820).
In 1796 open rebellion by the White Lotus Society against the Qing government broke out. White Lotus (白蓮教 Pinyin: báiliánjiào Wade-Giles: Pai-lien chiao) was a type of Buddhist sectarianism that appealed to many The White Lotus Rebellion continued for eight years, until 1804, and shattered the myth of the military invincibility of the Manchus. The White Lotus Rebellion (川楚白莲教起义 was a Chinese anti- Manchu uprising that occurred during the Qing Dynasty.
Rebellion, unrest and external pressure
- See also: Taiping Rebellion, Dungan revolt, Panthay Rebellion, and Nien Rebellion
A common view of 19th century China is that it was an era in which Qing control weakened and prosperity diminished. The Taiping Rebellion or Rebellion of Great Peace was a large-scale Revolt against the authority and forces of the Qing Government in China The Dungan Revolt was a religious war It also known as the Hui Minorities' War and the Muslim Rebellion. The Panthay Rebellion (known in PRC as the Du Wenxiu Qiyi 杜文秀起义 1856&ndash1873 was a separatist movement of the Hui people and Chinese Muslims The Nien Rebellion ( Western historians have traditionally used the Wade-Giles transcription "Nien" rather than Hanyu Pinyin "Nian" was an epic armed uprising that Indeed, China suffered massive social strife, economic stagnation, and explosive population growth which placed an increasing strain on the food supply. Historians offer various explanations for these events, but the basic idea is that Qing power was, over the course of the century, faced with internal problems and natural disasters which were simply too much for the antiquated Chinese government, bureaucracy, and economy to deal with.
The Taiping Rebellion[8] in the mid-19th century was the first major instance of anti-Manchu sentiment threatening the stability of the Qing dynasty, a phenomenon that would only increase in the following years. The Taiping Rebellion or Rebellion of Great Peace was a large-scale Revolt against the authority and forces of the Qing Government in China However, the horrific number of casualties of this rebellion—as many as 30 million people—and the complete devastation of a huge area in the south of the country have to a large extent been overshadowed by another significant conflict. Although not nearly as bloody, the outside world and its ideas and technologies had a tremendous and ultimately revolutionary impact on an increasingly weak and uncertain Qing state. The Qing government would go on to face more revolts, this time by Muslims who would fight the Panthay Rebellion (1856–1873) and the Dungan revolt (1862–1877). A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Panthay Rebellion (known in PRC as the Du Wenxiu Qiyi 杜文秀起义 1856&ndash1873 was a separatist movement of the Hui people and Chinese Muslims The Dungan Revolt was a religious war It also known as the Hui Minorities' War and the Muslim Rebellion.
One of the major issues affecting nineteenth-century China was the question of how to deal with other countries. Prior to the nineteenth-century, the Chinese empire was the hegemonic power in Asia. Under its imperial theory, the Chinese emperor had the rights to rule "all under heaven". All under heaven, or literally "heaven under" ( is a phrase in the Chinese language and a cultural concept in China. Depending on the period and dynasty, it either ruled territories directly or neighbors fell under its hierarchical tributary system. Historians often refer to the underlying concept of the Chinese empire as "an empire with no boundary". However, the 18th century saw the European empires gradually expand across the world, as European states developed stronger economies built on maritime trade. Shipping is physical process of Transporting goods and Cargo. Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. European colonies had been established in nearby India and on the islands that are now part of Indonesia, whilst the Russian Empire had annexed the areas north of China. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya In 1793, Great Britain attempted to forge an alliance with China, sending the Macartney Embassy to Hong Kong with gifts for the Emperor, including examples of the latest European technologies and art. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands The Macartney Embassy, also called the Macartney Mission, was a British Embassy to China in 1793 Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders When the British delegation received a letter from Beijing explaining that China was unimpressed with European achievements, and that George III was welcome to pay homage to the Chinese court, the deeply offended British government aborted all further attempts to reconcile relations with the Qing regime. George III (George William Frederick 4 June 1738 George III's long reign was marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdom much of the rest of Europe and places
When the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815, world trade rapidly increased, and as China's vast population offered limitless markets for European goods, trade between Chinese and European merchants expanded during the early years of the 19th century. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions This increased trade, though, led to increasing hostility between European governments and the Qing regime.
In 1793, the Qianlong Emperor stated to the British Ambassador Lord Macartney that China had no use for European manufactured products. George Macartney should not be confused with Sir George McCartney, a later British statesman [9] Consequently, leading Chinese merchants only accepted bar silver as payment for their goods. Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen The huge demand in Europe for Chinese goods such as silk, tea, and ceramics could only be met if European companies funnelled their limited supplies of silver into China. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Tea refers to the cured agricultural product of the leaves leaf buds and internodes of Camellia sinensis, which have been prepared and cured for the market Ceramics and ceramic art in the art world means artwork made out of clay bodies and fired to form a ceramic. By the late 1830s, the governments of Great Britain and France were deeply concerned about their stockpiles of precious metals and sought alternate trading schemes with China—the foremost of which was addicting China to opium. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. When the Qing regime tried to ban the Opium Trade in 1838, Great Britain declared war on China.
The First Opium War revealed the outdated state of the Chinese military. The First Opium War or the First Anglo-Chinese War was fought between the British East India Company and the Qing Dynasty in China from 1839 The Qing navy, composed entirely of wooden sailing junks, was severely outclassed by the modern tactics and firepower of the Royal Navy at its apex. -HK CityHall Seaview 51217 5png|thumb|300px|A modern junk in Hong Kong]]A junk is a Chinese sailing vessel. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) British soldiers, using modern rifles and artillery, easily outmanoeuvred and outgunned Qing forces in ground battles. A rifle is a Firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of grooves ("rifling" cut into the barrel walls Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a decisive, humiliating blow to China. The Treaty of Nanking, which demanded reparation payments, allowed unrestricted European access to Chinese ports, and ceded the island of Hong Kong to Great Britain. The Treaty of Nanking (Treaty of Nanjing signed 29 August, 1842, was the unequal treaty which marked the end of the First Opium War between War reparations refer to the monetary compensation intended to cover damage or injury during a war Hong Kong Island ( is an island in the southern part of Hong Kong, China. It revealed many inadequacies in the Qing government and provoked widespread rebellions against the already hugely unpopular regime.
The Western powers, largely unsatisfied with the Treaty of Nanking, only gave grudging support to the Qing government during the Taiping and Nien Rebellions. The Taiping Rebellion or Rebellion of Great Peace was a large-scale Revolt against the authority and forces of the Qing Government in China The Nien Rebellion ( Western historians have traditionally used the Wade-Giles transcription "Nien" rather than Hanyu Pinyin "Nian" was an epic armed uprising that China's income fell sharply during the wars as vast areas of farmland were destroyed, millions of lives lost, and countless armies raised and equipped to fight the rebels. In 1854, Great Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanking, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Peking. This last clause outraged the Qing regime, who refused to sign, provoking another war with Britain. The Second Opium War ended in another crushing Chinese defeat, whilst the Treaty of Tianjin contained clauses deeply insulting to the Chinese, such as a demand that all official Chinese documents be written in English and a proviso granting British warships unlimited access to all navigable Chinese rivers. The Second Opium War, the Second Anglo-Chinese War, the Arrow War, or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a war of the United Kingdom Several documents titled " Treaty of Tien-tsin " ( Traditional Chinese: 天津條約 Simplified Chinese: 天津条约 Pinyin: Tiānjīn Tiáoyuē English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States
Rule of Empress Dowager Cixi
In the late 19th century, a new leader emerged. The Empress Dowager Cixi, concubine to the Emperor Xianfeng (r. Empress Dowager Cixi 1 ( ( November 29 1835 – November 15 1908) popularly known in China as the Concubinage is the state of a woman or youth in an ongoing quasi-matrimonial relationship with a man of higher social status The Xianfeng Emperor, born Yizhu, ( July 17, 1831 - August 22, 1861) was the eighth Emperor of the Manchu 1850–1861), the mother of child emperor Tongzhi, and Aunt of Guangxu successfully controlled the Qing government and was the de facto leader of China for 47 years. The Tongzhi Emperor, born Zaichun ( April 27, 1856 &ndash January 12, 1875) was the ninth emperor of the Manchu The Guangxu Emperor (光緒帝 (14 August 1871&ndash14 November 1908 born Zaitian (載湉 was the tenth emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty She staged a coup d'état to oust the regency led by Sushun appointed by the late Emperor. Sushun ( Styled: Yuting ( (26 November 1816– 1861 was born in the Manchu Aisin-Gioro Clan as the sixth son of Wurgongga She was known for "ruling from behind the curtain" (垂簾聽政).
By the 1860s, the Qing dynasty had put down the rebellions with the help of militia organized by the gentry. This is a list of Revolutions and Rebellions BC 499 BC - 493 BC: Ionian Revolt. The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service The Qing government then proceeded to deal with problem of modernization, which it attempted with the Self-Strengthening Movement. Self-Strengthening Movement ( c 1861–1895 was a period of institutional reforms initiated during the late Qing Dynasty following a series of military defeats and concessions Several modernized armies were formed, including the much renowned Beiyang Army; however, the fleets of "Beiyang" were annihilated in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), which produced calls for greater and more extensive reform. The Beiyang Army ( meaning "North Western Army" was a powerful Western-style Chinese military force created by the Qing Dynasty government The First Sino-Japanese War ( 日清戦争 Romaji: Nisshin Sensō ( 1 August 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a war fought between After the start of the 20th century, the Qing Dynasty was in a dilemma. It could proceed with reform and thereby alienate the conservative gentry or it could stall reform and thereby alienate the progressive reformers. The Qing Dynasty tried to follow a middle path, and thus managed to alienate everyone.
Ten years into the reign of Guangxu (r. The Guangxu Emperor (光緒帝 (14 August 1871&ndash14 November 1908 born Zaitian (載湉 was the tenth emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty 1875–1908), western pressure on China was so great that she forcefully gave up all sorts of power. In 1898 Guangxu attempted the Hundred Days' Reform (百日維新/戊戌變法), in which new laws were put in place and some old rules were abolished. The Hundred Days' Reform ( or) was a failed 104-day national cultural political and educational reform movement from 11 June to 21 September 1898 undertaken by the young Guangxu Newer, more progressive-minded thinkers like Kang Youwei were trusted and recognized conservative-minded people like Li Hongzhang were removed from high positions. > Kang Youwei Li Hongzhang, Marquis Suyi of the First Class, GCVO, ( February 15, 1823 &ndash November 7, 1901) was a Chinese But the ideals were stifled by Cixi and Guangxu was jailed in his own palace. Cixi concentrated on centralizing her own power base. At the occasion of her sixtieth Birthday, she spent over 30 million taels of silver for the decorations & events, funds that were originally to improve the weaponry of the Beiyang Navy. Tael can refer to any one of several Weight measures of the Far East. The Beiyang Fleet ( was one of the four modernised Chinese navies in the late Qing Dynasty.
In 1901, following the murder of the German Ambassador, the Eight-Nation Alliance (八國聯軍) entered China as a united military force for the second time. The Eight-Nation Alliance ( was an alliance of 8 nations ( Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, Cixi reacted by declaring war on all eight nations, only to lose Beijing under their control within a short period of time. Along with the Guangxu Emperor, she fled to Xi'an. UserEl_C --> Xi'an ( Postal map spelling: Sian is the Capital of the Shaanxi province in the As a military compensation, the Alliance listed scores of demands on the Qing Government, including an initial hit list which had Cixi as No. 1. Li Hongzhang was sent to negotiate and the Alliance backed down from several of the demands. Li Hongzhang, Marquis Suyi of the First Class, GCVO, ( February 15, 1823 &ndash November 7, 1901) was a Chinese
Qing government and society
Administrative Divisions
- Outer Mongolia - 4 aimags
- Inner Mongolia - 6 leagues
- Dariganga - special region designated as Emperor's pasture
- Köbsgöl
- Tannu Urianhai
- Köke Nuur league
- Alshaa khoshuu-league (League-level khoshuu)
- Ejine khoshuu-league
- Kobdo league
- Tianshanbei
- Tianshannan
- China proper provinces
- Zhili
- Henan
- Shandong
- Shanxi
- Shaanxi
- Gansu
- Hubei
- Hunan
- Guangdong
- Guangxi
- Sichuan
- Yunnan
- Guizhou
- Jiangsu
- Jiangxi
- Zhejiang
- Fujian (incl. Outer Mongolia (Ar Mongol Manchu: Tulergi Monggo) was the main part of the Bogdo Khanate of Mongolia which proclaimed its independence on 29 December 1911 Inner Mongolia ( Mongolian:, Öbür mongɣul; occasionally romanized to Nei Mongol is the Mongol China proper (also known as Inner China) refers to the historical lands of China where the Han Chinese are the majority Ethnic group, in contrast ( Postal map spelling: Hopeh) is a northern province of the People's Republic of China. Henan ( is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country ( is a coastal province of eastern People's Republic of China. ( Postal map spelling: Shansi) is a province in the northern part of the People's Republic of China. ( Postal map spelling: Shensi) is a north-central province of the People's Republic of China, and includes portions of the Loess ( is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. ( Postal map spelling: Hupeh) is a central province of the People's Republic of China. ( is a province of China, located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting (hence the name Hunan, meaning Guangdong ( EFEO: Kouangtong; Pinyin Guǎngdōng; Postal map spelling: Kwangtung) is a province on the Guangxi (or Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region;) is a Zhuang autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. ( Postal map spelling: Szechwan and Szechuan) is a province in western China with its capital in Chengdu. ( also spelled Kweichow) is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country ( Postal map spelling: Kiangsu) is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country ( Postal map spelling: Kiangsi is a southern province of the People's Republic of China, spanning from the banks of the Yangtze River Zhejiang ( is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. This article is about the People's Republic of China province Taiwan until 1885)
- Anhui
Politics
The Qing were astute in stabilizing the government. Anhui (in Chinese: 安徽 Ānhuī) is a province of the People's Republic of China. The most important administrative body of the Qing dynasty was the Trung Council which was a body composed of the emperor and high officials. The Qing dynasty was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han assigned to it. The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, for example, members of his family were distinguished by garments with a small circular emblem on the back, whereas a Han wears clothing with a square emblem; this meant effectively that any guard in the court could immediately distinguish family members from the back view alone. Emperor Qianlong (Chinese 乾隆 Qiánlóng, Wade-Giles' Ch'ien-Lung', Mongolian Tengeriig Tetgesen Khaan, born Hongli (弘历 September
With respect to Mongolia, Tibet, and eastern Turkestan, like other dynasties before it the Qing maintained imperial control, with the emperor acting as Mongol khan, patron of Tibetan Buddhism and protector of Muslims. However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of Xinjiang province in 1884. Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk In response to British and Russian military action in Xinjiang and Tibet, the Qing sent Army units which performed remarkably well against British units.
The abdication of the Qing emperor inevitably led to controversy about the status of territories in Tibet and Mongolia. It was and remains the position of Mongols and Tibetans that, because they owed allegiance to the Qing monarch, with the abdication of the Qing they owed no allegiance to the new Chinese state. This position was rejected by the Republic of China and subsequent People's Republic of China, which claim that these areas were integral parts of Chinese dynasties even before the Qing, and that Han, Manchus, Mongols, or other ethnic groups all established Sinocentric-based dynasties, thus claiming legitimacy and history as part of imperial China over two thousand years. Sinocentrism is any Ethnocentric perspective that regards China to be central or unique relative to other countries The Western powers accepted the latter theory for their own political reasons, partly in order to prevent a scramble for China.
Bureaucracy
The Qing Dynasty inherited many important institutions from the preceding Ming dynasty. The formal structure of the Qing government centered around the Emperor as the absolute ruler, who presided over six ministries (or boards), each headed by two presidents (Ch: Shàngshū, 尚書; Ma: 
Aliha amban) and assisted by four vice presidents (Ch: Shìláng, 侍郎; Ma: 
Ashan i amban). Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin In contrast to the Ming system, however, Qing ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han officials who had passed the highest levels of the state examinations. The Imperial examinations ( in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's Bureaucracy. The Grand Secretariat (Ch: Nèigé 內閣; Ma: 
Dorgi yamun), which had been an important policy making body during Ming, lost its importance during Qing and evolved into an imperial chancery. The institutions which had been inherited from the Ming dynasty formed the core of the Qing "outer court", which handled routine matters and was located in the southern part of the Forbidden City.
In order not to let the routine administration take over the running of the empire, the Manchu Qing emperors made sure that all important matters were decided in the "Inner Court", which was dominated by the imperial family and Manchu nobility and which was located in the northern part of the Forbidden City. A central part of the inner court was the Grand Council, a body initially in charge of military and intelligence matters, but which later assumed the role of supervising all government departments. The Grand Council or Junjichu ( Manchu: coohai nashūn i ba; literally "Office of Military Secrets" was an important policy-making body Ministers posted to the Grand Council served as the emperor's privy council and they were collectively known as privy councillors. A privy council is a body that advises the Head of state of a nation on how to exercise their executive authority, typically but not always in the context of a [10]
The six ministries and their respective areas of responsibilities were as follows:
- Board of Civil Appointments (Ch: Lìbù, 吏部; Ma:
Hafan i jurgan)
- The personnel administration of all civil officials - including evaluation, promotion, and dismissal. It was also in charge of the 'honours list'.
- Board of Finance (Ch: Hùbù, 户部; Ma:
Boigon i jurgan)
- The literal translation of the Chinese word 'hù'（户）is 'household'. For much of the Qing Dynasty's history, the government's main source of revenue came from taxation on landownership supplemented by official monopolies on essential household items such as salt and tea. Thus, in the predominantly agrarian Qing dynasty, the 'household' was the basis of imperial finance. The department was charged with revenue collection and the financial management of the government.
- Board of Rites (Ch: Lǐbù, 禮部; Ma:
Dorolon i jurgan)
- This was responsible for all matters concerning protocol at court, which included not just the periodic worshiping of ancestors and various gods by the Emperor—in his capacity as the "Son of Heaven" (Tiānzǐ, 天子), to ensure the smooth running of the empire—but also looking after the welfare of visiting ambassadors from tributary nations. The Chinese concept of courtesy (lǐ, 禮), as taught by Confucius, was considered an integral part of education. An intellect was said to "know of books and courtesy (rites)" ("知書達禮"). Thus, the ministry's other function was to oversee the nationwide civil examination system for entrance to the bureaucracy. Because democracy was unknown to pre-Republican China, neo-Confucian philosophy saw state sponsored exams as the way to legitimize a regime by allowing the intelligentsia participation in an otherwise autocratic and unelected system.
- Board of War (Ch: Bīngbù, 兵部; Ma:
Coohai jurgan)
- Unlike its Ming Dynasty predecessor, which had full control over all military matters, the Qing Dynasty Board of War had very limited powers. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led First, the Eight Banners were under the direct control of the Emperor and hereditary Manchu and Mongolian princes, leaving the ministry only with authority over the Green Standard Armies. The Eight Banners (In Manchu: jakūn gūsa, In Chinese: 八旗 baqí were administrative divisions into which all Manchu families were placed Green Standard Army (Lüying 綠營 is the name of a category of military units under the control of the Qing Dynasty in China Furthermore, the ministry's functions were purely administrative—campaigns and troop movements were monitored and directed by the Emperor, first through the Manchu ruling council, and later through the Grand Council.
- Board of Punishments (Ch: Xíngbù, 刑部; Ma:
Beidere jurgan)
- The Board of Punishments handled all legal matters, including the supervision of various law courts and prisons. The Qing legal framework was relatively weak compared to modern day legal systems, as there was no separation of executive and legislative branches of government. The Great Qing Legal Code or Qing Code ( Chinese: 大清律例 Manchu: Daicing gurun-i fafun-i bithe kooli) was the Legal code The legal system could be inconsistent, and, at times, arbitrary, because the emperor ruled by decree and had final say on all judicial outcomes. Emperors could (and did) overturn judgements of lower courts from time to time. Fairness of treatment was also an issue under the apartheid system practised by the Manchu government over the Han Chinese majority. To counter these inadequacies and keep the population in line, the Qing maintained a very harsh penal code towards the Han populace, but it was no more severe than previous Chinese dynasties.
,_Qing_Dynasty_postage_stamp.gif/180px-Yantai_(Chefoo),_Qing_Dynasty_postage_stamp.gif)
- Board of Works (Ch: Gōngbù, 工部; Ma:
Weilere jurgan)
- The Board of Works handled all governmental building projects, including palaces, temples and the repairs of waterways and flood canals. Administration The Prefecture-level city of Yantai administers 12 county-level divisions, including 4 districts, 7 county-level cities It was also in charge of minting coinage.
In addition to the six boards, there was a Court of Colonial Affairs (Chinese: Lǐfànyuàn, 理藩院; Manchu: 
Tulergi golo be darasa jurgan; Mongol: γadaγdu mongγul un törü-ji jasaqu jabudal-un jamun) unique to the Qing government. The Court of Colonial Affairs ( Chinese: Lǐfànyuàn zh-Hant 理藩院 Manchu: Tulergi golo be darasa jurgan; Mongol: γadaγdu mongγul Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin The Mongolian language (mn [[ImageMonggol kelesvg 17px]] Mongɣol kele, Cyrillic: Монгол хэл Mongol khel) is the best-known member of This institution was established to supervise the administration of Tibet and the Mongolian lands. Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East As the empire expanded, it took over administrative responsibility of all minority ethnic groups living in and around the empire, including early contacts with Russia—then seen as a tribute nation. The office had the status of a full ministry and was headed by officials of equal rank. However, appointees were at first restricted only to candidates of Manchurian and Mongolian ethnicity. To the south, Manchuria was separated from China proper by the Inner Willow Palisade, a ditch and embankment planted with willows intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese into Manchuria, as the area was off-limits to the Han until the Qing started colonizing the area with them later on in the dynasty's rule. Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast Willow Palisade (柳條邊 was a system of ditches and embankments planted with Willows intended to restrict movement into Manchuria, built by the Qing Dynasty Willows, sallows and osiers form the Genus Salix, around 400 species of Deciduous Trees and Shrubs found primarily Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. [11]
Even though the Board of Rites and the Court of Colonial Affairs performed some duties of a foreign office, they fell short of developing into a professional foreign service. This stemmed from the traditional imperial world view of seeing China as the centre of the world and viewing all foreigners as uncivilized barbarians unworthy of equal diplomatic status. It was not until 1861—a year after losing the Second Opium War to the Anglo-French coalition—that the Qing government bowed to foreign pressure and created a proper foreign affairs office known as the Zongli Yamen. The Second Opium War, the Second Anglo-Chinese War, the Arrow War, or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a war of the United Kingdom Zongli Yamen ( was the name of the government office/department of foreign relations (or Foreign Office) of imperial China during the Qing dynasty The office was originally intended to be temporary and was staffed by officials seconded from the Grand Council. However, as dealings with foreigners became increasingly complicated and frequent, the office grew in size and importance, aided by revenue from customs duties which came under its direct jurisdiction.
Military
Beginnings and early development
The development of Qing military system can be divided into two broad periods separated by the Taiping rebellion (1850–1864). Emperor Qianlong (Chinese 乾隆 Qiánlóng, Wade-Giles' Ch'ien-Lung', Mongolian Tengeriig Tetgesen Khaan, born Hongli (弘历 September The Taiping Rebellion or Rebellion of Great Peace was a large-scale Revolt against the authority and forces of the Qing Government in China Early Qing military was rooted in the Manchu banners first developed by Nurhachi as a way to organize Jurchen society beyond petty clan affiliations. The Eight Banners (In Manchu: jakūn gūsa, In Chinese: 八旗 baqí were administrative divisions into which all Manchu families were placed Nurhaci ( Chinese: 努爾哈赤 or 努爾哈齊; Manchu:) is considered to be the founding father of the Manchu The Jurchens ( were a Tungus people who inhabited the region of Manchuria ( Northeast China) until the 17th century when they adopted the name Manchu There are eight banners in all, differentiated by colours. The banners in their order of precedence were as follows: yellow, bordered yellow (i. e yellow banner with red border), white, red, bordered white, bordered red, blue, and bordered blue. The yellow, bordered yellow, and white banners were collectively known as the 'Upper Three Banners' (Zh: 上三旗) and were under the direct command of the Emperor. Only Manchus belonging to the Upper Three Banners, and selected Han Chinese who had passed the highest level of martial exams were qualified to serve as the Emperor's personal bodyguards. The remaining Banners were known as "The Lower Five Banners" (Zh: 下五旗) and were commanded by hereditary Manchurian princes descended from Nurhachi's immediate family, known informally as the "Iron Cap Princes" (Zh: 鐵帽子王). Nurhaci ( Chinese: 努爾哈赤 or 努爾哈齊; Manchu:) is considered to be the founding father of the Manchu Together they formed the ruling council of the Manchu nation as well as high command of the army. In 1730, the Emperor Yongzheng established the Grand Council (Zh: 軍機處; Pinyin: Jūnjīchù; Ma: 
Cooha nashūn-i ba) at first to direct day to day military operations, but gradually Junjichu took over other military and administrative duties and served to centralize authority unto the crown. The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of The Yongzheng Emperor (雍正帝 → yōngzhèngdì) (born Yinzhen (胤禛 → yìnzhēn) December 13, 1678 - October 8 The Grand Council or Junjichu ( Manchu: coohai nashūn i ba; literally "Office of Military Secrets" was an important policy-making body Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin However, the Iron Cap Princes continued to exercise considerable influence over the political and military affairs of Qing government well into the reign of the Qianlong Emperor. Emperor Qianlong (Chinese 乾隆 Qiánlóng, Wade-Giles' Ch'ien-Lung', Mongolian Tengeriig Tetgesen Khaan, born Hongli (弘历 September
As Qing power expanded north of the Great Wall in the last years of the Ming Dynasty, the Banner system was expanded by Nurhachi's son and successor Hung Taiji to include mirrored Mongolian and Han Banners. The Great Wall of China ( or ( is a series of stone and earthen Fortifications in China, built rebuilt and maintained between the 6th century BC and the 16th The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Nurhaci ( Chinese: 努爾哈赤 or 努爾哈齊; Manchu:) is considered to be the founding father of the Manchu Huang Taiji ( November 28 1592 &ndash September 21 1643; reigned 1626 &ndash 1643 also transliterated as Hung Taiji After capturing Beijing in 1644 and as the Manchu rapidly gained control of large tracts of former Ming territory, the relatively small Banner armies were further augmented by the Green Standard Army (Zh: 綠營兵) which eventually outnumbered Banner troops three to one. The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Green Standard Army (Lüying 綠營 is the name of a category of military units under the control of the Qing Dynasty in China The Green Standard Army so-named after the colour of their battle standards was made up of those Ming troops who had surrendered to the Qing. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led They maintained their Ming era organization and were led by a mix of Banner and Green Standard officers. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led The Banners and Green Standard troops were standing armies, paid for by central government. In addition, regional governors from provincial down to village level maintained their own irregular local militias for police duties and disaster relief. These militias were usually granted small annual stipends from regional coffers for part-time service obligations. They received very limited military drill if at all and were not considered combat troops.
Peace and stagnation
Banner Armies were broadly divided along ethnic lines, namely Manchurian and Mongolian. Although it must be pointed out that the ethnic composition of Manchurian Banners was far from homogeneous as they include non-Manchu bondservants registered under the household of their Manchu masters. As the war with Ming Dynasty progressed and the Han Chinese population under Manchu rule increased, Hung Taiji created a separate branch of Han Banners to draw on this new source of manpower. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in Huang Taiji ( November 28 1592 &ndash September 21 1643; reigned 1626 &ndash 1643 also transliterated as Hung Taiji However these Han bannermen were never regarded by the government as equal to the other two branches due to their relatively late addition to the Manchu cause as well as their Han Chinese ancestry. The nature of their service—mainly as infantry, artillery and sappers, was also alien to the Manchurian nomadic traditions of fighting as cavalry. Furthermore, after the conquest the military roles played by Han Bannermen were quickly subsumed by the Green Standard Army. The Han Banners ceased to exist altogether after Emperor Yongzheng's Banner registration reforms aimed at cutting down imperial expenditures.
The socio-military origins of the Banner system meant that population within each branch and their sub-divisions were hereditary and rigid. The Eight Banners (In Manchu: jakūn gūsa, In Chinese: 八旗 baqí were administrative divisions into which all Manchu families were placed Only under special circumstances sanctioned by imperial edict were social movements between banners permitted. In contrast, the Green Standard Army was originally intended to be a professional force. However during protracted period of peace in China from the 18th to mid-19th century, recruits from farming communities dwindled, due partly to Neo-Confucianism's negative stance on military careers. In order to maintain strengths, the Green Standard Army began to internalize, and gradually became hereditary in practice.
After defeating the remnants of the Ming forces, the Manchu Banner Army of approximately 200,000 strong at the time was evenly divided; half was designated the Forbidden Eight Banner Army (禁旅八旗 Jìnlǚ Bāqí) and was stationed in Beijing. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in It served both as the capital's garrison and Qing government's main strike force. The remainder of the Banner troops was distributed to guard key cities in China. These were known as the Territorial Eight Banner Army (駐防八旗 Zhùfáng Bāqí). The Manchu court keenly aware its own minority status reinforced a strict policy of racial segregation between the Manchus and Mongols from Han Chinese for fear of being sinitized by the latter. The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in This policy applied directly to the Banner garrisons, most of which occupied a separate walled zone within the cities they were stationed in. In cities where there were limitation of space such as in Qingzhou (青州), a new fortified town would be purposely erected to house the Banner garrison and their families. Beijing being the imperial seat, the Regent Dorgon had the entire Chinese population forcibly relocated to the southern suburbs which became known as the "Outer Citadel" (外城 wàichéng). The northern walled city called "Inner Citadel" (內城 nèichéng) was portioned out to the remaining Manchu eight Banners, each responsibled for guarding a section of the Inner Citadel surrounding the Forbidden City palace complex (Zh: 紫禁城 Zǐjìnchéng; Ma: 
Dabkūri dorgi hoton)
The policy of posting Banner troops as territorial garrison was not to protect but to inspire awe in the subjugated populace at the expense of their expertise as cavalry. The Forbidden City was the Chinese imperial Palace from the mid- Ming Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty. Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin As a result, after a century of peace and lack of field training the Manchurian Banner troops had deteriorated greatly in their combat worthiness. Secondly, before the conquest the Manchu banner was a "citizen" army, and its members were Manchu farmers and herders obligated to provide military service to the state at times of war. The Qing government's decision to turn the banner troops into a professional force whose every welfare and need was met by state coffers brought wealth, and with it corruption, to the rank and file of the Manchu Banners and hastened its decline as a fighting force. This was mirrored by a similar decline in the Green Standard Army. During peace time, soldiering became merely a source of supplementary income. Soldiers and commanders alike neglected training in pursuit of their own economic gains. Corruption was rampant as regional unit commanders submitted pay and supply requisitions based on exaggerated head counts to the quartermaster department and pocketed the difference. When the Taiping rebellion broke out in 1850s the Qing Court found out belatedly that the Banner and Green Standards troops could neither put down internal rebellions nor keep foreign invaders at bay. The Taiping Rebellion or Rebellion of Great Peace was a large-scale Revolt against the authority and forces of the Qing Government in China
Transition and modernization
Early during the Taiping rebellion, Qing forces suffered a series of disastrous defeats culminating in the loss of the regional capital city of Nanjing (南京) in 1853. The Taiping Rebellion or Rebellion of Great Peace was a large-scale Revolt against the authority and forces of the Qing Government in China The rebels massacred the entire Manchu garrison and their families in the city and made it their capital. Shortly thereafter a Taiping expeditionary force penetrated as far north as the suburbs of Tianjin (天津) in what was considered Imperial heartlands. In desperation the court ordered a Chinese mandarin Zeng Guofan (曾國藩) to organize regional and village militias (Tuányǒng 團勇 and Xiāngyǒng 鄉勇) into a standing army to contain the rebellion. Zeng Guofan ( Pinyin: Zēng Guófán Wade-Giles: Tseng Kuo-fan Styled Bóhán 伯函 and variably Díshēng 滌生 Posthumous Zeng's strategy was to rely on local gentries to raise a new type of military organization from those provinces that the Taiping rebels directly threatened. This new force became known as the Xiang Army (湘軍), named after Hunan region where it was raised. ( is a province of China, located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting (hence the name Hunan, meaning The Xiang Army was a hybrid of local militia and a standing army. It was given professional training, but was paid for out of regional coffers and funds its commanders—mostly members of the Chinese gentry—could muster. The Xiang Army and its successor the Huai Army (淮軍) created by Zeng's colleague and pupil Li Hongzhang (李鴻章）were collectively called Yongying (勇營). Li Hongzhang, Marquis Suyi of the First Class, GCVO, ( February 15, 1823 &ndash November 7, 1901) was a Chinese
Prior to forming and commanding the Xiang Army, Zeng had no military experience. Being a classically educated Mandarin his blueprint for the Xiang Army was taken from a historical source—the Ming Dynasty General Qi Jiguang (戚繼光) who, because of the weakness of regular Ming troops, had decided to form his own "private" army to repel raiding Japanese pirates in the mid-16th century. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Life Early life Qi Jiguang was born in the town of Luqiao (鲁橋 in Shandong province to a family with a long military tradition The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Qi's doctrine was based on Neo-Confucian ideas of binding troops' loyalty to their immediate superiors and also to the regions in which they were raised. This initially gave the troops an excellent esprit de corps. However, Qi's Army was an ad hoc solution to the specific problem of combating pirates, as was Zeng's original intention for the Xiang Army, which was to eradicate the Taiping rebels. However, circumstances led to the Yongying system becoming a permanent institution within the Qing military, which in the long run created problems of its own for the beleaguered central government.
Firstly, Yongying system signalled the end of Manchu dominance in Qing military establishment. Although the Banners and Green Standard armies lingered on as parasites depleting resources, henceforth the Yongying corps became Qing government's de facto first-line troops. Secondly the Yongying corps were financed through provincial coffers and were led by regional commanders. This devolution of power weakened the central government's grip on the whole country, a weakness further aggravated by foreign powers vying to carve up autonomous colonial territories in different parts of the Empire in the later half of the 19th century. Despite these serious negative effects the measure was deemed necessary as tax revenue from provinces occupied and threatened by rebels had ceased to reach the cash-strapped central government. Finally, the nature of Yongying command structure fostered nepotism and cronyism amongst its commanders whom as they ascended the bureaucratic ranks laid the seeds to Qing's eventual demise and the outbreak of regional warlordism in China during the first half of the 20th century. A warlord is a person with power who has military control over a subnational area due to Armed forces loyal to the warlord and not to a central authority
By the late 19th century, China was fast descending into a semi-colonial state. Even the most conservative elements within the Qing court could no longer ignore China's military weakness in contrast to the foreign "barbarians" literally beating down its gates. In 1860, during the Second Opium War, the capital Beijing was captured and the Summer Palaces sacked by a relatively small Anglo-French coalition force numbering 25,000. The Second Opium War, the Second Anglo-Chinese War, the Arrow War, or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a war of the United Kingdom Although the Chinese invented gunpowder, and firearms had been in continual use in Chinese warfare since as far back as the Sung Dynasty, the advent of modern weaponry resulting from the European Industrial Revolution had rendered China's traditionally trained and equipped army and navy obsolete. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the The government attempts to modernize during the Self-Strengthening Movement were in the view of most historians with hindsight piecemeal and yielded little lasting results. Self-Strengthening Movement ( c 1861–1895 was a period of institutional reforms initiated during the late Qing Dynasty following a series of military defeats and concessions Various reasons for the apparent failure of late-Qing modernization attempts have been advanced including the lack of funds, lack of political will, and unwillingness to depart from tradition. These reasons remain disputed. [12]
Losing the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 was a watershed for the Qing government. The First Sino-Japanese War ( 日清戦争 Romaji: Nisshin Sensō ( 1 August 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a war fought between Japan, a country long regarded by the Chinese as little more than an upstart nation of pirates, had convincingly beaten its larger neighbour and in the process annihilated the Qing government's pride and joy—its modernized Beiyang Fleet then deemed to be the strongest naval force in Asia. The Beiyang Fleet ( was one of the four modernised Chinese navies in the late Qing Dynasty. In doing so, Japan became the first Asian country to join the previously exclusively western ranks of colonial powers. The defeat was a rude awakening to the Qing court especially when set in the context that it occurred a mere three decades after the Meiji reforms set a feudal Japan on course to emulate the Western nations in their economic and technological achievements. The, also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, or Renewal, was a chain of events that led to enormous changes in Japan 's political and social structure Finally, in December 1894, the Qing government took some concrete steps to reform military institutions and to re-train selected units in westernized drills, tactics and weaponry. These units were collectively called the New Army (新式陸軍), the most successful of which was the Beiyang Army (北洋軍) under the overall supervision and control of an ex-Huai Army commander, the Han Chinese general Yuan Shikai (袁世凱), who exploited his position to eventually become Republic president, dictator and finally abortive emperor of China. The New Armies ( Traditional Chinese: 新軍 Simplified Chinese: 新军 Pinyin: Xīnjūn Manchu: Ice cooha) were the modernized The Beiyang Army ( meaning "North Western Army" was a powerful Western-style Chinese military force created by the Qing Dynasty government Yuan Shikai ( Courtesy Weiting 慰亭 Pseudonym: Rong'an 容庵 ( September 16, 1859 &ndash June 6,
Fall of the dynasty
By the early twentieth century, mass civil disorder had begun and continuously grown. Yuan Shikai ( Courtesy Weiting 慰亭 Pseudonym: Rong'an 容庵 ( September 16, 1859 &ndash June 6, Empress Dowager Cixi and the Guangxu emperor both died in 1908, leaving a relatively powerless and unstable central authority. Empress Dowager Cixi 1 ( ( November 29 1835 – November 15 1908) popularly known in China as the Puyi, the eldest son of Zaifeng, Prince Chun, was appointed successor at age two, leaving Zaifeng with the regency. Puyi ( ( February 7, 1906 &ndash October 17, 1967) of the Manchu Aisin-Gioro ruling family was the last Emperor The 2nd Prince Chun (醇親王 ( February 12, 1883 - February 3, 1951) was born Zaifeng (Chinese 載沣 Wade-Giles: Tsai-feng This was followed by the dismissal of General Yuan Shikai from his former positions of power. Yuan Shikai ( Courtesy Weiting 慰亭 Pseudonym: Rong'an 容庵 ( September 16, 1859 &ndash June 6, In mid 1911 Zaifeng created the "Imperial Family Cabinet", a ruling council of the Imperial Government almost entirely consisting of Aisin Gioro relatives. Aisin Gioro was the clan name of the Manchu emperors of the Qing dynasty (as well as the later short-lived regime in Manchukuo) This brought a wide range of negative opinions from senior officials like Zhang Zhidong. Zhang Zhidong ( Chinese:張之洞 Pinyin: Zhāng Zhīdòng Wade-Giles: Chang Chih-tung Courtesy Xiàodá (孝達 Pseudonyms The Qing Emperor Guangxu ordered a series of reforms to try to change social and institutional ills. The empress Cixi was tired of Guangxu’s power and wanted to overthrow him. She knew that if Guangxu had carried out on the 100 Days Reform then everyone would be with the plan and they would follow Guangxu.
The Wuchang Uprising succeeded on October 10, 1911, and was followed by a proclamation of a separate central government, the Republic of China, in Nanjing with Sun Yat-sen as its provisional head. The Wuchang Uprising of October 10 1911 started the Xinhai Revolution, which led to the collapse of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated Year 1911 ( MCMXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES ( Chinese: 南京 Romanizations Nánjīng ( Pinyin) Nan-ching ( Wade-Giles Sun Yat-sen ( November 12, 1866 &ndash March 12, 1925) was a Chinese Revolutionary and political leader often Numerous provinces began "separating" from Qing control. Seeing a desperate situation unfold, the Qing government brought an unwilling Yuan Shikai back to military power, taking control of his Beiyang Army, with the initial goal of crushing the revolutionaries. Yuan Shikai ( Courtesy Weiting 慰亭 Pseudonym: Rong'an 容庵 ( September 16, 1859 &ndash June 6, The Beiyang Army ( meaning "North Western Army" was a powerful Western-style Chinese military force created by the Qing Dynasty government After taking the position of Prime Minister (內閣總理大臣) and creating his own cabinet, Yuan went as far as to ask for the removal of Zaifeng from the regency. This article is about the government position For other uses see Prime Minister (disambiguation. This removal later proceeded with directions from Empress Dowager Longyu. Yehenara Empress Xiao Ding Jing (孝定景皇后叶赫那拉氏 is better known as the Empress Dowager Longyu (隆裕皇后 (given name Jingfen 靜芬 (1868 - 1913
With Zaifeng gone, Yuan Shi-kai and his Beiyang commanders effectively dominated Qing politics. He reasoned that going to war would be unreasonable and costly, especially when noting that the Qing Government had a goal for constitutional monarchy. Similarly, Sun Yat-sen's government wanted a Republican constitutional reform, both aiming for the benefit of China's economy and populace. With permission from Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan began negotiating with Sun Yat-sen, who decided that his goal had been achieved in forming a republic, and that therefore he could allow Yuan to step into the position of President of the Republic. In 1912, after rounds of negotiations, Longyu issued the Imperial Edict bringing about the abdication of the child emperor Puyi. Puyi ( ( February 7, 1906 &ndash October 17, 1967) of the Manchu Aisin-Gioro ruling family was the last Emperor
The collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1912 brought an end to over 2,000 years of imperial China and began an extended period of instability of warlord factionalism. Obvious political and economic backwardness combined with widespread criticism of Chinese culture led to questioning and doubt about the future. China's turbulent history since the overthrow of the Qing may be understood at least in part as an attempt to understand and recover significant aspects of historic Chinese culture and integrate them with influential new ideas that have emerged within the last century.
Gallery
 In this political cartoon, the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia, France, and Japan are dividing China |
See also
- Chinese rebellions
- Chinese sovereign
- Dynasties in Chinese history
- Emperor of China
- Great Qing Legal Code
- History of China
- List of Emperors of the Qing Dynasty
- Qing dynasty family tree
- List of Manchu clans
- List of Recipients of Tribute from China
- List of tributaries of Imperial China
- Manchu official headwear
- Mandate of Heaven
- Manchu official Clothing
- Military history of China
- Mongolia during Qing
- Republic of China
- Table of Chinese monarchs
- Timeline of Chinese history
Notes
- ^ Officially Qing court history states that Nurhachi died from illness. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. This is a list of major rebellions that have occurred in China from 209 BCE to present times Chinese sovereign is the ruler of a particular period in ancient China. The following is a Chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history. The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of The Great Qing Legal Code or Qing Code ( Chinese: 大清律例 Manchu: Daicing gurun-i fafun-i bithe kooli) was the Legal code Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era The Qing Dynasty was founded as the "Later Jin Dynasty" in 1616 by Nurhaci, a Manchu of the Aisin-Gioro Clan his son Hung Taiji changed The following is a simplified family tree for the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China between 1644 and the declaration of the Republic of China on January This is a list of Manchu Clans. Jianzhou Jurchen clans Odoli: most famous peoples: Aisin Gioro In a reversal of the common perception that surrounding countries invariably paid tribute to China, China itself has paid tribute to a number states and confederations throughout history The following is a list of tributaries of Imperial China. Chronological list Many entities have paid Tribute to Imperial China The Mandate of Heaven (天命 Pīnyīn: Tiānmìng is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers A Mandarin square ( Traditional Chinese: 補子 Simplified Chinese: 补子 Pinyin: bŭzi Wade-Giles: putzŭ also known as a rank badge The recorded military history of China extends from about 1500 BC to the present day REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The following list of Chinese monarchs is in no way inclusive The following is a Timeline of the History of China. Between the changing of the dynasties, most dates overlap as ruling periods do not transfer immediately However because the cause of death mentioned is unusually vague, some historians propose that based on historical circumstantial evidence and through reading official Ming court history (Zh:《明熹宗实录》) Nurhaci might have died from cannon wounds sustained at the siege of Liaoning.
- ^ The exact figure of Li Zicheng's rebel forces at the battle of Shanhai Guan is disputed. Shanhaiguan or Shanhai Pass ( literally "Mountain and Sea Pass" is a part of the city of Qinhuangdao, in Hebei province People's Republic Some primary sources such as the official Qing & Ming Court histories (Zh: 《清世祖实录》, 《明史》) cited 200,000. Whereas other sources cited figures varying from 60,000 to 400,000. In view of "established tradition" of victors inflating the strength of their vanquished enemies to play up the magnitude of their victories, as well as armies inflating their own strength to bolster morale, these "official figures" should be taken with a pinch of salt. Modern historians generally estimate Li's army to be no larger than 100,000.
- ^ The motivation of Wu's actions, apart from obvious self-preservation, was never fully explained. Most primary sources including the Ming and Qing official court histories are understandably bias against a person who turned "traitor" to both parties.
- ^ The classical Confucian tract "On Filial Piety" states that "a person's body and hair, being gifts from one's parents, are not to be damaged". (Zh:《孝经》: 身体发肤，受之父母，不敢毁伤。), Prior to Qing dynasty adult Han Chinese men customarily did not cut their hair but instead wore it in the form of a top-knot.
- ^ Dorgon's death is sometimes misquoted as 1650 because the Chinese lunar calendar does not fall exactly into the corresponding solar year, the exact date of Dorgon's death was on the ninth day of the twelfth month in the seventh year of Shunzhi's reign (Zh: 順治七年十二月九日) which falls on January 1651. The Shunzhi Emperor ( March 15, 1638 &ndash February 5, 1661) was the second emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty
- ^ This event was recorded by a visiting Italian Jesuit Martin Martinius in his account "Bellum Tartaricum" with original text in Latin, first published in Rome 1654. The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order First English edition, London: John Crook, 1654.
- ^ Contrary to mainstream historical opinion, a 1912 manuscript copy of an earlier document titled "Chronicles of the Rebellion of Prince Yanping" (Zh:《延平王起义实录》) discovered in 1992 by a descendant of Koxinga claimed that Emperor Shuzhi was killed by a cannon barrage from Koxinga’s Navy while personally directing the campaign to capture the island of Taiwan. Koxinga ( Pe̍h-oē-jī: Kok-sèng-iâ/Kok-sìⁿ-iâ Lord with the Imperial Surname) is the traditional Western spelling of the popular appellation of The Shunzhi Emperor ( March 15, 1638 &ndash February 5, 1661) was the second emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty Koxinga ( Pe̍h-oē-jī: Kok-sèng-iâ/Kok-sìⁿ-iâ Lord with the Imperial Surname) is the traditional Western spelling of the popular appellation of
- ^ Eduardo Real: ‘’The Taiping Rebellion’’
- ^ For a translation of the emperor's letter, see Têng Ssu-yü and John King Fairbank, eds. , China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839–1923 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979).
- ^ Beatrice S. Bartlett. Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 1723–1820. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991.
- ^ Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies. " Journal of Asian Studies 59, no. 3 (2000): 603-46.
- ^ Wakeman, Fredric. China in Disintegration.
Further reading
- Elliot, Mark C. The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001
- Spence, Jonathan. The Search for Modern China. New York: W W Norton & Company, 1990
- Spence, Jonathan. God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan. New York: W W Norton & Company, 1997
External links
| Preceded by Shun Dynasty | Dynasties in Chinese history 1644 – 1912 | Succeeded by Republic of China |
Shun Dynasty ( was an imperial dynasty created in the brief lapse from Ming to Qing rule in China. The following is a Chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history. This article discusses history of the state which currently governs Taiwan Area.
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