Psychology (from Greek: ψυχή, psychē, "soul", "self" or "mind"; and λόγος, logos, "speech" lit. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion "to talk about the psyche") is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior (Psychology studies human behavior, not mental processes, Cognitive Psychology studies mental processes, but psychology in general studies human behavior). For the song by 311, see Grassroots. Applied science is the application of knowledge from one or more natural scientific Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Mental functions and cognitive Processes are terms often used interchangeably (although not always correctly so the term cognitive tends to have specific Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually There is some tension between scientific psychology (with its program of empirical research) and applied psychology (dealing with a number of areas).
Psychologists attempt to explain the mind and brain in the context of real life. In contrast neurologists utilize a physiological approach. Psychologists study such phenomena as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually An interpersonal relationship is a relatively long-term association between two or more people Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity including issues related to daily life—e. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding For the Björk song see Human Behaviour Human behavior is the collection of Behaviors exhibited by Human beings and influenced by Personal life (or everyday life or human existence) is the course of an individual Human 's life especially when viewed as the sum of personal choices g. family, education, and work—and the treatment of mental health problems. Family denotes a group of People affiliated by consanguinity affinity or co-residence Educational psychology is the study of how Humans learn in Educational settings the effectiveness of educational interventions the psychology of teaching and the Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder.
In addition to dissecting the brain's fundamental mental functions and processes, psychology also attempts to understand the role these functions play in social behavior and in social dynamics, while incorporating the underlying physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions of mental functioning. Psychophysiology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors Psychology includes many sub-fields of study and application concerned with such areas as human development, sports, health, industry, media, law, and transpersonal psychology. Sport psychology (or sports psychology) is the study of a people's behaviour in sport Health psychology is concerned with understanding how Biology, behavior and social context influence Health and Illness. Industrial and Organizational Psychology (also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, work and organizational psychology, occupational psychology, Media psychology emerged due to a social and commercial demand for the application of psychological theory and research into media impact in both academic and non-academic settings Legal psychology involves Empirical, psychological research of the law legal institutions and people who come into contact with the law Transpersonal psychology is a school of Psychology that studies the Transpersonal, self- transcendent or spiritual aspects of the human experience
Contents |
History
The study of psychology in a philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China and India. The History of Psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Middle Ages. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 Psychology began adopting a more clinical[1] and experimental[2] approach under medieval Muslim psychologists and physicians, who built psychiatric hospitals for such purposes. Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is [3]
Beginning of scientific psychology
Though the use of psychological experimentation dates back to Alhazen's Book of Optics in 1021,[2][4] psychology as an independent experimental field of study began in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research at Leipzig University in Germany, for which Wundt is known as the "father of psychology". In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni Year 1879 ( MDCCCLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt ( August 16 1832 - August 31 1920) was a German medical doctor psychologist physiologist and professor The University of Leipzig (Universität Leipzig located in Leipzig in the Free State of Saxony, Germany, is one of the oldest universities Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. [5] 1879 is thus sometimes regarded as the "birthdate" of psychology. The American philosopher William James published his seminal book, Principles of Psychology,[6] in 1890, while laying the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would focus on for years to come. For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation William James (January 11 1842 – August 26 1910 was a pioneering The Principles of Psychology is a monumental text in the history of Psychology, written by William James and published in 1890. Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition, Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), a pioneer in the experimental study of memory at the University of Berlin; and the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), who investigated the learning process now referred to as classical conditioning. Hermann Ebbinghaus ( January 24, 1850 – February 26, 1909) was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical For other uses see Pavlov (disambiguation. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (Иван Петрович Павлов September 14, 1849 &ndash February In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans Classical Conditioning (also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of Associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov
Meanwhile, during the 1890s, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, who was trained as a neurologist and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had developed a method of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations, and was focused in particular on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and psychopathology. Introspection is the self-observation and reporting of Conscious inner Thoughts desires and Sensations It is a conscious mental and usually Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of Mental illness or mental distress or the manifestation of behaviours and experiences which may be indicative Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. Generally speaking human sexuality is how people experience and express themselves as sexual beings Psychological repression, or simply repression, is the psychological act of excluding desires and Impulses (wishes Fantasies or feelings These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. A taboo is a strong Social prohibition (or ban) against words objects actions or discussions that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group culture But Karl Popper argued that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in untestable form. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902 &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor Falsifiability (or "refutability" is the logical possibility that an assertion can be shown false by an observation or a physical experiment [7] Due to their subjective nature, Freud's theories are of limited (mostly historical) interest to modern academic psychology departments. Followers of Freud who accept the basic ideas of psychoanalysis but alter it in some way are called neo-Freudians. The Neo-Freudian psychologists were those followers of Sigmund Freud who accepted the basic tenets of his theory of Psychoanalysis but altered it in some
Rise of behaviorism
Partly in reaction to the subjective and introspective nature of Freudian psychodynamics, and its focus on the recollection of childhood experiences, during the early decades of the 20th century, behaviorism gained popularity as a guiding psychological theory. Psychodynamics, is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation and The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Behaviorism or Behaviourism, also called the learning perspective (where any physical action is a behavior is a philosophy of Psychology based on the Founded by John B. Watson and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F. Skinner, behaviorism was grounded in animal experimentation in the laboratory. John Broadus Watson ( January 9, 1878 &ndash September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological Edward Lee Thorndike ( August 31, 1874 Williamsburg Mass – August 9, 1949) was an American psychologist who Clark Leonard Hull (1884 - 1952 was an influential American psychologist who sought to explain Learning and Motivation by scientific laws Edward Chace Tolman (1886 - 1959 was an American psychologist. Burrhus Frederic Skinner ( March 20, 1904 &ndash August 18 1990) was an influential American Psychologist, author Behaviorists shared the view that the subject matter of psychology should be operationalized with standardized procedures which led psychology to focus on behavior, not the mind or consciousness. [8] They doubted the validity of introspection for studying internal mental states such as feelings, sensations, beliefs, desires, and other unobservables. In Psychology, sensation is the first stage in the biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a Proposition or Premise to be true [8] In "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913),[9] Watson argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science," that "introspection forms no essential part of its methods", and that "the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. " Skinner rejected hypothesis testing as a productive method of research, considering it to be too conducive to speculative theories that would promote useless research and stifle good research. [10]
Behaviorism reigned as the dominant paradigm in psychology throughout the first half of the 20th century. However, the modern field of psychology is largely dominated by cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Linguist Noam Chomsky helped spark the cognitive revolution in psychology through his review of B. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political The " cognitive revolution " is the name for an intellectual movement in the 1950s that began what are known collectively as the Cognitive sciences It began in the modern F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, in which he challenged the behaviorist approach to the study of behavior and language dominant in the 1950s. Verbal Behavior is a 1957 book by Psychologist B F Skinner, in which he analyzes human behavior encompassing what is traditionally called language linguistics Chomsky was highly critical of what he considered arbitrary notions of 'stimulus', 'response' and 'reinforcement' which Skinner borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory. Chomsky argued that Skinner's notions could only be applied to complex human behavior, such as language acquisition, in a vague and superficial manner. Chomsky emphasized that research and analysis must not ignore the contribution of the child in the acquisition of language and proposed that humans are born with an natural ability to acquire language. The Language Acquisition Device (LAD is a postulated "organ" of the brain that is supposed to function as a Congenital device for learning Symbolic [11] Work most associated with psychologist Albert Bandura, who initiated and studied social learning theory, showed that children could learn aggression from a role model through observational learning, without any change in overt behavior, and so must be accounted for by internal processes. Albert Bandura (born December 4, 1925 in Mundare, Alberta, Canada) is a Canadian Psychologist specializing For the article on social learning theory in psychology and education see Social cognitive theory. Observational learning (also known as vicarious learning or social learning or modeling or monkey see monkey do) is learning that occurs as [12]
Existential-humanist movement
Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, arising largely from existential philosophy and writers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Søren Kierkegaard. Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis. Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 &ndash 15 April 1980 commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre (ʒɑ̃ pol saʁtʁə was a French Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to get a glimpse of the whole person and not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning. Intersubjectivity is something which is shared by two or more subjects. [13] Humanism focuses on uniquely human issues and fundamental issues of life, such as self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were Abraham Maslow who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, Carl Rogers who created and developed Client-centered therapy, and Fritz Perls who helped create and develop Gestalt therapy. Abraham Harold Maslow ( April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in Psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation, which Carl Ransom Rogers ( January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an influential American Psychologist and among the founders of the Person-Centered Therapy (PCT also known as Client-centered therapy or Rogerian Psychotherapy, was developed by the humanist Psychologist Carl Rogers Friedrich (Frederick Salomon Perls ( July 8 1893 Berlin – March 14 1970, Chicago better known as Fritz Perls, was a noted German Gestalt therapy is an existential and experiential Psychotherapy that focuses on the individual's experience in the present moment the therapist-client relationship the environmental It became so influential as to be called the "third force" within psychology (preceded by behaviorism and psychoanalysis). [14]
Cognitivism
The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as information processing. Information processing is the change (processing of Information in any manner detectable by an observer. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of cognitivism as a popular model of the mind. In Psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical approach in understanding the mind which argues that mental function can be understood by quantitative, positivist
Cognitive psychology is radically different from previous psychological perspectives in two key ways.
- It accepts the use of the scientific method, and generally rejects introspection as a valid method of investigation, unlike symbol-driven approaches such as Freudian psychodynamics.
- It explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as belief, desire and motivation) unlike behaviorism.
Links between brain and nervous system function were also becoming understood, partly due to the experimental work of people such as Charles Sherrington and Donald Hebb, and partly due to studies of people with brain injury (see cognitive neuropsychology). The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself Sir Charles Scott Sherrington OM, GBE, PRS ( November 27, 1857 - March 4, 1952) was an English neurophysiologist Donald Olding Hebb ( July 22, 1904 &ndash August 20, 1985) was a Canadian Psychologist who was influential in the area of Neuropsychology Brain damage, or Acquired brain injury, is the destruction or degeneration of Brain cells. Cognitive neuropsychology is a branch of Neuropsychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the Brain relates to specific psychological With the development of technologies for accurately measuring brain function, neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology. Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates With the increasing involvement of other disciplines (such as philosophy, computer science and neuroscience) in the quest to understand the mind, the umbrella discipline of cognitive science has been created as a means of focusing such efforts in a constructive way. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the Science of the theoretical foundations of Information and Computation and their Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system Cognitive science may be broadly defined as the multidisciplinary study of mind and behavior
Principles
Mind and brain
Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behavior, and social interaction. Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behavior as it actually occurs. Since the 1980s, psychology has begun to examine the relationship between consciousness and the brain or nervous system. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself It is still not clear how these interact: does consciousness determine brain states or do brain states determine consciousness - or are both going on in various ways? Or, is consciousness some sort of complicated 'illusion' that bears no direct relationship to neural processes? Perhaps to understand this, it is necessary to define "consciousness" and "brain state". Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the An understanding of brain function is increasingly being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience. Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates
Schools of thought
Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The psychological schools are the great classical theories of Psychology. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some psychologists may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories. Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition, On the basis of Tinbergen's four questions a framework of reference or "periodic table" of all fields of psychological research can be established (including anthropological research and humanities). When asked questions of animal and human behavior such as why these creatures see even elementary school children can answer that vision helps them find food and avoid danger The periodic table of the chemical elements is a tabular method of displaying the Chemical elements Although precursors to this table exist its invention is
Subfields
Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology, divided into fields of research psychology and fields of applied psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the list of psychological topics and list of psychology disciplines. This page aims to list all topics related to Psychology. This is so that those interested in the subject can monitor changes to the pages by clicking on Related changes These are some of the sub-fields within the field of Psychology: Abnormal psychology Activity theory Analytical psychology
Fields of basic research
Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in academic settings, and contains numerous areas: abnormal psychology, biological psychology, cognitive psychology, comparative psychology, developmental psychology, health psychology, personality psychology, social psychology and others. Basic Research is an Herbal supplement and cosmetics manufacturer based in Salt Lake City, Utah that distributes products through a large number of In psychology Qualitative research has come to be defined as research whose findings are not arrived at by statistical or other quantitative procedures Quantitative psychological research is defined as psychological research which performs Mathematical modeling and Statistical estimation or Statistical Abnormal psychology is the interpretive and scientific study of abnormal thoughts and behavior in order to understand and correct abnormal patterns of functioning In Psychology, biological psychology, also known as biopsychology, psychobiology, or behavioral neuroscience is the application of the principles Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Psychologists and scientists do not always agree on what should be considered Comparative Psychology. Health psychology is concerned with understanding how Biology, behavior and social context influence Health and Illness. Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's Thoughts Feelings and Behaviors are influenced by the actual imagined or Research psychology is contrasted with applied psychology.
Abnormal psychology
Abnormal psychology is the study of abnormal behavior in order to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Abnormal psychology is the interpretive and scientific study of abnormal thoughts and behavior in order to understand and correct abnormal patterns of functioning Abnormal psychology is the interpretive and scientific study of abnormal thoughts and behavior in order to understand and correct abnormal patterns of functioning Abnormality is a subjectively defined characteristic assigned to those with rare or dysfunctional conditions Abnormal psychology studies the nature of psychopathology and its causes, and this knowledge is applied in clinical psychology to treat a patient with psychological disorders. Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of Mental illness or mental distress or the manifestation of behaviours and experiences which may be indicative Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing
In the study of abnormal behavior, it can be difficult to define the line between which behaviors are considered normal and which are not. In general, abnormal behaviors must be maladaptive and cause an individual subjective discomfort (signs of emotional distress). Generally, abnormal behaviors are classified as:
- Abnormal as in "infrequent" in relation to the overall population.
- Abnormal as in "maladaptive". The behavior fails to promote well being, growth, and fulfillment of a person.
- Abnormal as in "deviant". The behavior is not socially acceptable.
- Abnormal as in "unjustifiable". The behavior that cannot be rationalized.
Biological psychology
Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states. Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, it is sensible to study how the brain functions in order to understand behavior. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology. In Psychology, biological psychology, also known as biopsychology, psychobiology, or behavioral neuroscience is the application of the principles Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the 'brain' relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function.
The approach of cognitive neuroscience to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use neuroimaging tools, such as to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.
Cognitive psychology
The nature of thought is another core interest in psychology. Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought Mental functions and cognitive Processes are terms often used interchangeably (although not always correctly so the term cognitive tends to have specific It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Information processing is the change (processing of Information in any manner detectable by an observer. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas. In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans Problem solving forms part of thinking. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions problem solving has been defined as higher-order Cognitive In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Attention is the Cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. In Psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical approach in understanding the mind which argues that mental function can be understood by quantitative, positivist Information processing is the change (processing of Information in any manner detectable by an observer. Positivism is the Philosophy that the only authentic knowledge is knowledge that is based on actual sense experience Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method.
Cognitive science is a conjoined enterprise of cognitive psychologists, neurobiologists, workers in artificial intelligence, logicians, linguists, and social scientists, and places a slightly greater emphasis on computational theory and formalization. Cognitive science may be broadly defined as the multidisciplinary study of mind and behavior Neurobiology is the study of cells of the Nervous system and the organization of these cells into functional circuits that process information and mediate behavior Mathematical logic is a subfield of Logic and Mathematics with close connections to Computer science and Philosophical logic. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields
Both areas can use computational models to simulate phenomena of interest. A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a Computer program, or network of computers that attempts to simulate an Because mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive psychologists a way to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the "hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer.
Comparative psychology
Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. Psychologists and scientists do not always agree on what should be considered Comparative Psychology. Psychologists and scientists do not always agree on what should be considered Comparative Psychology. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior, such as ethology. Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans, the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e. g. , animal cognition and ethology), or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e. Animal cognition is the title given to a modern approach to the mental capacities of (non-human Animals. g. , affective neuroscience and social neuroscience). Affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms of Emotion. Social neuroscience is an Interdisciplinary field that utilizes the Complementary insights and approaches of Neuroscience and Social science
Developmental psychology
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Ageing or aging (American English is the accumulation of changes in an organism Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory of development in context (The Ecology of Human Development - ISBN 0-674-22456-6) is influential in this field, as are those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well as many others. Urie Bronfenbrenner ( April 29, 1917 – September 25, 2005) was a renowned American Psychologist, known for developing his Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research.
Personality psychology
Personality psychology studies enduring psychological patterns of behavior, thought and emotion, commonly called an individual's personality. Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours Theories of personality vary between different psychological schools. Trait theories attempts to break personality down into a number of traits, by use of factor analysis. In Psychology, Trait theory is a major approach to the study of human personality. Factor analysis is a statistical method used to explain variability among observed Variables in terms of fewer unobserved variables called factors The number of traits have varied between theories. One of the first, and smallest, models was that of Hans Eysenck, which had three dimensions: extroversion—introversion, neuroticism—emotional stability, and psychoticism. Hans Jürgen Eysenck ( March 4, 1916 in Berlin, Germany - September 4, 1997 in London, UK) was a The trait of Extraversion-Introversion is a central dimension of human personality. The trait of Extraversion-Introversion is a central dimension of human personality. Neuroticism is a fundamental personality trait in the study of Psychology. An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours Psychoticism is one of the three traits used by the psychologist Hans Eysenck in his P-E-N model (psychoticism extraversion and neuroticism model of personality Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality factors. Raymond Bernard Cattell ( 20 March, 1905 – 2 February, 1998) was a British and American psychologist known for The theory that has most empirical evidence behind it today may be the "Big Five" theory, proposed by Lewis Goldberg, and others. In Psychology, the "Big Five" personality traits are five broad factors or dimensions of personality developed through lexical analysis Lewis R Goldberg is an American personality psychologist and a professor emeritus at the University of Oregon.
A different, but well known approach to personality is that of Sigmund Freud, whose structural theory of personality divided personality into the ego, superego, and id. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of He utilized the principles of thermodynamics metaphorically to explain these three distinctive and interacting tripartite divisions. In 1923 Freud published the ground-breaking book: "The Ego and the Id" in which he named and identified the functioning psychodynamics of human personality. This theory has been used in modern psychology paradigms such as Transactional Analysis. However, Freud's theory of personality has been criticized by many, including many mainstream psychologists.
Quantitative psychology
Quantitative psychology involves the application of mathematical and statistical modeling in psychological research, and the development of statistical methods for analyzing and explaining behavioral data. Quantitative psychology is the application of statistical and mathematical methods to the study of psychology Quantitative psychology is the application of statistical and mathematical methods to the study of psychology Note The term model has a different meaning in Model theory, a branch of Mathematical logic. Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection analysis interpretation or explanation and presentation of Data. The term Quantitative psychology is relatively new and little used (only recently have Ph. D. programs in quantitative psychology been formed), and it loosely covers the longer standing subfields psychometrics and mathematical psychology. Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of Educational and Psychological Measurement, which includes the measurement Mathematical psychology is an approach to psychological research that is based on Mathematical modeling of perceptual cognitive and motor processes and on the establishment
Psychometrics is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of Educational and Psychological Measurement, which includes the measurement Measurement is the process of estimating the magnitude of some attribute of an object such as its length or weight relative to some standard ( unit of measurement) such as Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding In Psychology, Trait theory is a major approach to the study of human personality. Measurement of these unobservable phenomena is difficult, and much of the research and accumulated knowledge in this discipline has been developed in an attempt to properly define and quantify such phenomena. A phenomenon (from Greek φαινόμενoν, pl φαινόμενα - phenomena) is any observable occurrence Psychometric research typically involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the construction of instruments and procedures for measurement; and (ii) the development and refinement of theoretical approaches to measurement. Laboratory equipment refers to the various Tools and Equipment used by Scientists working in a Laboratory.
Whereas psychometrics is mainly concerned with individual differences and population structure, mathematical psychology is concerned with modeling of mental and motor processes of the average individual. Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of Educational and Psychological Measurement, which includes the measurement The science of psychology studies people at three levels of focus captured by the well known quote “Every man is in certain respects (a like all other men (b like some other men (c like no Mathematical psychology is an approach to psychological research that is based on Mathematical modeling of perceptual cognitive and motor processes and on the establishment thats all Psychometrics is more associated with educational, personality, and clinical psychology. Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of Educational and Psychological Measurement, which includes the measurement Educational psychology is the study of how Humans learn in Educational settings the effectiveness of educational interventions the psychology of teaching and the Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing Mathematical psychology is more closely related to psychonomics/experimental and cognitive, and physiological psychology and (cognitive) neuroscience. Mathematical psychology is an approach to psychological research that is based on Mathematical modeling of perceptual cognitive and motor processes and on the establishment Psychonomics describes an approach to Psychology that aims at discovering the laws (Greek ' Nomos ' that govern the workings of the mind (Greek ' psyche Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Physiological psychology is a subdivision of Biological psychology that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system
Social psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of the nature and causes of human social behavior and mental processes, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's Thoughts Feelings and Behaviors are influenced by the actual imagined or Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e. g. , conformity or persuasion), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of attitudes or stereotypes about other people. Persuasion is a form of Social influence. It is the process of guiding people toward the adoption of an idea attitude or action by rational and symbolic (though not always Attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's like or dislike for an item A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group Social cognition is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior. Social cognition is the study of how people process social information especially its encoding storage retrieval and application to social situations
Fields of applied research
Applied psychology encompasses both psychological research that is designed to help individuals overcome practical problems and the application of this research in applied settings. Much of applied psychology research is utilized in other fields, such as business management, product design, ergonomics, nutrition, law and clinical medicine. Management (covering theory practice and scope of management and Manager' (covering the people who manage might help clarify and systematise Product design can be defined as the Idea generation Concept development testing and Manufacturing or implementation of a product Ergonomics is the Scientific discipline concerned with Designing according to the human needs and the profession that applies theory principles data and methods Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Applied psychology includes the areas of clinical psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, human factors, psychology and law, health psychology, school psychology, community psychology and others. Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing Industrial and Organizational Psychology (also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, work and organizational psychology, occupational psychology, See also The Human Factor (disambiguation. Human factors is a term that covers The science of understanding the properties Legal psychology involves Empirical, psychological research of the law legal institutions and people who come into contact with the law Health psychology is concerned with understanding how Biology, behavior and social context influence Health and Illness. School Psychology is a field that applies principles of Clinical psychology and Educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents' Community psychology deals with the relationships of the individual to communities and the wider society
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. Central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living [15] Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury—this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. Brain damage, or Acquired brain injury, is the destruction or degeneration of Brain cells. Clinical neuropsychology is a sub-specialty of clinical Psychology that specialises in the diagnostic assessment and treatment of patients with Brain injury or In many countries clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession. A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's Mental health or to treat Mental illness.
The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside various therapy models, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client—usually an individual, couple, family, or small group—that employs a set of procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. The four major perspectives are Psychodynamic, Cognitive Behavioral, Existential-Humanistic, and Systems or Family therapy. Psychodynamic psychotherapy is a form of Depth psychology, the primary focus of which is to reveal the unconscious content of a client's psyche in an effort to alleviate See also Cognitive Therapy Cognitive Behavioral Therapy ( CBT) is an umbrella-term for psychotherapeutic systems that deal with cognitions interpretations Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis. Family therapy, also referred to as couple and family therapy and family systems therapy, is a branch of Psychotherapy that works with families There has been a growing movement to integrate these various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual-orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is growing evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance. [16][17] Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation. Integrative Psychotherapy involves the fusion of different schools of Psychotherapy.
Clinical psychologists do not usually prescribe medication, although there is a growing movement for psychologists to have limited prescribing privileges. A prescription (℞ is a health-care program implemented by a Physician or other medical practitioner in the form of instructions that govern the plan of care for an individual [18] In general, however, when medication is warranted many psychologists will work in cooperation with psychiatrists so that clients get all their therapeutic needs met. [15] Clinical psychologists may also work as part of a team with other professionals, such as social workers and nutritionists. Social work is a discipline involving the application of Social theory and research methods to study and improve the lives of people groups and societies Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support
Counseling psychology
Counseling psychology is a psychology specialty that facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the lifespan with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living An interpersonal relationship is a relatively long-term association between two or more people Vocational education or Vocational Education and Training (VET also called Career and Technical Education (CTE prepares learners for jobs that are based Counselors are primarily clinicians, using psychotherapy and other interventions in order to treat clients. Traditionally, counseling psychology has focused more on normal developmental issues and everyday stress rather than psychopathology, but this distinction has softened over time. Counseling psychologists are employed in a variety of settings, including universities, hospitals, schools, governmental organizations, businesses, private practice, and community mental health centers.
Educational psychology
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychology is the study of how Humans learn in Educational settings the effectiveness of educational interventions the psychology of teaching and the Educational psychology is the study of how Humans learn in Educational settings the effectiveness of educational interventions the psychology of teaching and the Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's Thoughts Feelings and Behaviors are influenced by the actual imagined or A school (from Greek σχολεῖον - scholeion) is an Institution designed to allow and encourage Students (or "pupils" The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (Russian Лев Семёнович Выготский ( November 17 ( November 5 Old Style) 1896 – June 11, 1934 Jean Piaget pjaʒɛ ( August 9, 1896 &ndash September 16, 1980) was a Swiss philosopher, natural scientist Jerome Seymour Bruner (born 1 October, 1915) is an American Psychologist who has contributed to Cognitive psychology and Cognitive In Education, a teacher is one who helps Students or pupils often in a School, as well as in a Family, religious or
Forensic psychology
Forensic psychology covers a broad range of practices primarily involving courtroom testimony on given issues. Forensic psychology is the intersection between Psychology and the Legal system. Forensic psychology is the intersection between Psychology and the Legal system. Forensic psychologists are appointed by the court to conduct competency to stand trial evaluations, competency to be executed evaluations, sanity evaluations, involuntary commitment evaluations, provide sentencing recommendations, and sex offender evaluation and treatment evaluations and provide recommendations to the court through written reports and testimony. Most of the questions the court asks the forensic psychologist are not questions of psychology but rather legal questions. For example, there is no definition of sanity in psychology. Rather, sanity is a legal definition that varies from state to state in the United States and from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Therefore, a prime qualification of a forensic psychologist is an intimate understanding of the law, especially criminal law.
Psychology and Law
Legal psychology is a research-oriented field populated with researchers from several different areas within psychology (although social and cognitive psychologists are typical). Legal psychology involves Empirical, psychological research of the law legal institutions and people who come into contact with the law Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's Thoughts Feelings and Behaviors are influenced by the actual imagined or Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Legal psychologists explore such topics as jury decision-making, eyewitness memory, scientific evidence, and legal policy. The term "legal psychology" has only recently come into use, and typically refers to any non-clinical law-related research.
Health psychology
Health psychology is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Health psychology is concerned with understanding how Biology, behavior and social context influence Health and Illness. Health psychology is concerned with understanding how Biology, behavior and social context influence Health and Illness. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychology is concerned with understanding how Biology, behavior and social context influence Health and Illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on quality of life and in research into the psychological impact of health and social care. Quality of life is the degree of well-being felt by an individual or group of people
Human factors psychology
Human factors psychology (sometimes called Engineering Psychology) is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. See also The Human Factor (disambiguation. Human factors is a term that covers The science of understanding the properties See also The Human Factor (disambiguation. Human factors is a term that covers The science of understanding the properties The goal of research in human factors psychology is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior.
Industrial and organizational psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O) is among the newest fields in psychology. Industrial and Organizational Psychology (also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, work and organizational psychology, occupational psychology, Industrial and Organizational Psychology (also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, work and organizational psychology, occupational psychology, Industrial Psychology focuses on improving, evaluating, and predicting job performance while Organizational Psychology focuses on how organizations impact and interact with individuals. Industrial and Organizational Psychology (also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, work and organizational psychology, occupational psychology, Industrial and Organizational Psychology (also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, work and organizational psychology, occupational psychology, In 1910, through the works and experiments of Hugo Munsterberg and Walter Dill Scott, Industrial Psychology became recognized as a legitimate part of the social science. Hugo Münsterberg ( June 1 1863 - December 19 1916) was a German - American Psychologist. Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955 was one of the first applied Psychologists He applied psychology to various business practices such as personnel selection and advertising Industrial and Organizational Psychology (also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, work and organizational psychology, occupational psychology, [19] Organizational Psychology was not officially added until the 1970s and since then, the field has flourished. The Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology has approximately 3400 professional members and 1900 student members. These two numbers combine to make up only about four percent of the members in the American Psychological Association but the number has been rising since 1939 when there were only one hundred professional I/O psychologists. The American Psychological Association (APA is a professional organization representing psychologists in the U [19]
I/O psychologists are employed by academic institutions, consulting firms, internal human resources in industries, and governmental institutions. Various universities across the United States are beginning to strengthen their I/O Psychology programs due to the increase of interest and job demand in the field. [19]
Industrial organizational psychologists look at questions regarding things such as who to hire, how to define and measure successful job performance, how to prepare people to be more successful in their jobs, how to create and change jobs so that they are safer and make people happier, and how to structure the organization to allow people to achieve their potential. [19]
School psychology
School psychology is dedicated to helping students understand the mind socially and emotionally. School Psychology is a field that applies principles of Clinical psychology and Educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents' School Psychology is a field that applies principles of Clinical psychology and Educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents' School psychologists collaborate with educators and professionals to a create safe and supportive learning environment for all students that can strengthen connections between home and school. They are trained to be experts in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research. [20] Currently, school psychology is the only field in which a professional can be called a "psychologist" without a doctoral degree, with the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) recognizing the Specialist degree as the entry level. The National Association of School Psychologists ( NASP) is the major national Professional organization for school psychologists in the United States The Specialist degree in the English-speaking world The Specialist degree is found in some programs of education or psychology and is awarded for study beyond the Master's This is a matter of controversy as the APA does not recognize anything below a doctorate as the entry level for a psychologist. The American Psychological Association (APA is a professional organization representing psychologists in the U Specialist-level school psychologists, who typically receive three years of graduate training, function almost exclusively within school systems, while those at the doctoral-level are found in a number of other settings as well, including universities, hospitals, clinics, and private practice.
Research methods
Research in psychology is conducted in broad accord with the standards of the scientific method, encompassing both qualitative ethological and quantitative statistical modalities to generate and evaluate explanatory hypotheses with regard to psychological phenomena. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Qualitative research is a field of inquiry that crosscuts disciplines and subject matters. Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal Quantitative psychological research is defined as psychological research which performs Mathematical modeling and Statistical estimation or Statistical Scientific inquiry has two functions first to provide a descriptive account of how scientific inquiry is carried out in practice second to provide an explanatory account A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible A phenomenon (from Greek φαινόμενoν, pl φαινόμενα - phenomena) is any observable occurrence Where research ethics and the state of development in a given research domain permits, investigation may be pursued by experimental protocols. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. Qualitative psychological research utilizes a broad spectrum of observational methods, including action research, ethography, exploratory statistics, structured interviews, and participant observation, to enable the gathering of rich information unattainable by classical experimentation. In psychology Qualitative research has come to be defined as research whose findings are not arrived at by statistical or other quantitative procedures Action research is a Reflective process of progressive Problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a " Community of practice Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal Exploratory research is a type of Research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined A structured Interview (also known as a standardised interview or a researcher-administered survey) is a Quantitative research method commonly An interview is a conversation between two or more people (the interviewer and the interviewee where Questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from Participant observation is a set of Research strategies which aim to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals (such as a religious occupational Research in humanistic psychology is more typically pursued by ethnographic, historical, and historiographic methods. Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis. Ethnography ( Greek ethnos = people and graphein = writing is a genre of writing that uses Fieldwork to provide a descriptive The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which Historians use Primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history
The testing of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of contemporary psychology. Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of samples of behavior in order to infer generalizations about a given individual Psychometric and statistical methods predominate, including various well-known standardized tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation or experiment requires. Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of Educational and Psychological Measurement, which includes the measurement Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection analysis interpretation or explanation and presentation of Data.
Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in applied psychology to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their career. Clinical psychology, among many of the various disciplines of psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as well as employ as they treat individuals with psychological issues or use psychology to help others.
When an area of interest requires specific training and specialist knowledge, especially in applied areas, psychological associations normally establish a governing body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government regulatory bodies as well.
Controlled experiments
Experimental psychological research is conducted in a laboratory under controlled conditions. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or This method of research relies on the application of the scientific method to understand behavior. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Experiments use several types of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and various psychometric measurements. Reaction time (RT is the elapsed time between the presentation of a sensory stimulus and the subsequent behavioral response Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of Educational and Psychological Measurement, which includes the measurement Experiments are designed to test specific hypotheses (deductive approach) or evaluate functional relationships (inductive approach). A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible They are important for psychological research because they allow researchers to establish causal relationships between different aspects of behavior and the environment. Importantly, in an experiment, one or more variables of interest are controlled by the experimenter (independent variable) and another variable is measured in response to different conditions (dependent variable). (See also hypothesis testing. A statistical hypothesis test is a method of making statistical decisions using experimental data ) Experiments are one of the primary research methodologies in many areas of psychology, particularly cognitive/psychonomics, mathematical psychology, psychophysiology and biological psychology/cognitive neuroscience. Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Psychonomics describes an approach to Psychology that aims at discovering the laws (Greek ' Nomos ' that govern the workings of the mind (Greek ' psyche Mathematical psychology is an approach to psychological research that is based on Mathematical modeling of perceptual cognitive and motor processes and on the establishment Psychophysiology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία In Psychology, biological psychology, also known as biopsychology, psychobiology, or behavioral neuroscience is the application of the principles Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates
As an example, suppose an experimenter wanted to answer the following question: does talking on a phone affect one's ability to stop quickly while driving? To answer this, the experimenter would want to show that a subject's stopping time is different when they are talking on a phone versus when they are not. If the experiment is properly conducted in a controlled environment and a difference between the two conditions is found, the experimenter would be able to show a causal relationship between phone use and stopping time. In addition to potential practical benefits, this type of experiment may have important theoretical results, such as helping to explain the processes that underlie attention in humans. Attention is the Cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things
Experiments on humans have been put under some controls; namely informed and voluntary consent. After WWII, the Nuremberg Code was established, because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. The Nuremberg Code is a set of Research ethics principles for Human experimentation set as a result of the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials at the end of the Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. This article is about the set of medical ethics principles regarding human experimentation In the US, the NIH established the IRB in 1966. "NIH" redirects here For other meanings of NIH see NIH (disambiguation. And in 1974, adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). The National Research Act was enacted by the 93rd United States Congress. All of which cover informed consent of human participants in experimental studies. There were a number of influential studies which lead to the establishment of these rules, including the MIT & Fernald School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide Tragedy, Willowbrook hepatitis study, Milgram's obedience to authority studies. Thalidomide is a Sedative - Hypnotic, and Multiple myeloma Medication. Hepatitis (plural hepatitides) implies injury to the Liver characterized by the presence of Inflammatory cells in the tissue of
Animal studies
Animal learning experiments are important in many aspects of psychology such as investigating the biological basis of learning, memory and behavior. A cannula (from Latin "little reed" plural cannulae) or canula is a tube which can be inserted into the body often for the delivery or removal For the band see Saliva (band; for the village in Azerbaijan see Səliva. In the 1890s, physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning, the original and most famous example of a classical conditioning study. For other uses see Pavlov (disambiguation. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (Иван Петрович Павлов September 14, 1849 &ndash February Classical Conditioning (also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of Associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov Non-human primates, cats, dogs, rats and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments. Scientific research involving Non-human primates (NHPs includes Drug pre-clinical Toxicology studies studies of Infectious disease See also Animal testing Rodents are commonly used in animal testing, particularly guinea pigs hamsters gerbils rats and mice Controlled experiments involve introducing only one variable at a time, which is why animals used for experiments are housed in laboratory settings. A variable (ˈvɛərɪəbl is an Attribute of a physical or an abstract System which may change its Value while it is under Observation. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary widely, which makes it difficult to control important variables for human subjects. [2]
Qualitative and descriptive research
Observation in natural settings
In the same way Jane Goodall studied the role of chimpanzee social and family life, psychologists conduct similar observational studies in human social, professional and family lives. Qualitative research is a field of inquiry that crosscuts disciplines and subject matters. Naturalistic observation is a method of observation commonly used by Psychologists, behavioral scientists and social scientists, that involves observing Dame Jane Goodall, DBE (born Valerie Jane Morris Goodall on 3 April 1934) is an English UN Messenger of Peace primatologist Chimpanzee (often shortened to chimp) is the common name for the two extant Species of Apes in the Genus Pan. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed and other times it is covert; the participants do not know they are being observed. Ethical guidelines need to be taken into consideration when covert observation is being carried out.
Survey questionnaires
Statistical surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, or checking the validity of experimental manipulations. Statistical surveys are used to collect quantitative information about items in a population Most commonly, psychologists use paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail. Increasingly, web-based surveys are being used in research. [21]. Accessed 2007-11-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1570 - A Tidal wave in the North Sea devastates the coast from Holland to Jutland, killing more than 1000 </ref> Similar methodology is also used in applied setting, such as clinical assessment and personnel assessment.
Longitudinal studies
A longitudinal study is a research method which observes a particular population over time. A longitudinal study is a Correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same items over long periods of time - often many decades For example, one might wish to study specific language impairment (SLI) by observing a group of individuals with the condition over a period of time. Specific language impairment (SLI is a developmental Language disorder that can affect both expressive and receptive language This method has the advantage of seeing how a condition can affect individuals over long time scales. However, such studies can suffer from attrition due to drop-out or death of subjects. In addition, since individual differences between members of the group are not controlled, it may be difficult to draw conclusions about the populations. Longitudinal study is a developmental research strategy that involves testing an age group repeatedly over many years. Longitudinal studies answer vital questions about how people develop. This developmental research follows people over years and the outcome has been an incredible array of findings, especially relating to psychological problems.
Neuropsychological methods
Neuropsychology involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either brain injury or mental illness. Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors Brain damage, or Acquired brain injury, is the destruction or degeneration of Brain cells. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as
Cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychiatry study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. Cognitive neuropsychology is a branch of Neuropsychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the Brain relates to specific psychological Cognitive neuropsychiatry is a sub-discipline of Psychology and Psychiatry that aims to understand Mental illness and Psychopathology in terms This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional disassociation's') which can give clues as to whether abilities are comprised of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism.
In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy individuals. These include behavioral experiments, brain-scanning or functional neuroimaging - used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, which can safely alter the function of small brain areas to investigate their importance in mental operations. Functional neuroimaging is the use of Neuroimaging technology to measure an aspect of brain function often with a view to understanding the relationship between activity in Transcranial magnetic stimulation ( TMS) is a noninvasive method to excite neurons in the Brain: weak Electric currents are induced in the tissue by rapidly
Computational modeling
Computational modeling is a tool often used in mathematical psychology and cognitive psychology to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a Computer program, or network of computers that attempts to simulate an Mathematical psychology is an approach to psychological research that is based on Mathematical modeling of perceptual cognitive and motor processes and on the establishment Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language This method has several advantages. Since modern computers process extremely quickly, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human.
Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. Connectionism uses neural networks to simulate the brain. Connectionism is an approach in the fields of Artificial intelligence, Cognitive psychology / Cognitive science, Neuroscience and Philosophy Traditionally the term neural network had been used to refer to a network or circuit of biological neurons. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling. The dynamical system concept is a mathematical Formalization for any fixed "rule" which describes the Time dependence of a point's position A stochastic process, or sometimes random process, is the counterpart to a deterministic process (or Deterministic system) in Probability theory.
Criticism and controversies
Controversy as a science
A common criticism of psychology concerns its fuzziness as a science. Philosopher Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics. Thomas Samuel Kuhn (surname ˈkuːn July 18, 1922 &ndash June 17, 1996) was an American intellectual who wrote extensively Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics have claimed that psychology is not as scientific as psychologists assume. A questionnaire is a Research instrument consisting of a series of Questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents Methods such as introspection and psychoanalysis, used by some psychologists, are inherently subjective. Introspection is the self-observation and reporting of Conscious inner Thoughts desires and Sensations It is a conscious mental and usually Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Objectivity, validity, and rigor are key attributes in science, and some approaches to psychology have fallen short on these criteria. On the other hand, there is increasingly greater use of statistical controls and increasingly sophisticated research design, analysis, and more powerful statistical methods, as well as a decline (at least within academic psychology departments) in the use of less scientific methods.
Debates continue, however, such as the questioned effectiveness of probability testing as a valid research tool. The concern is that this statistical method may promote trivial findings as meaningful, especially when large samples are used. [22] Psychologists have responded with an increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole reliance on the traditional p<. In Statistics, effect size is a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables 05 decision rule in statistical hypothesis testing.
In recent years and particularly in the U. S. , there has been increasing debate about the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and the relevance of empirical examination for psychotherapy. [23] One argument states that some therapies are based on discredited theories and are unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. The other side points to recent research suggesting that all mainstream therapies are of about equal effectiveness, while also arguing that controlled studies often do not take into consideration real-world conditions (e. g. the high co-morbidity rate or the experience of clinicians), that research is heavily biased towards the methods of the cognitive behavioral therapies (CBT), and that it typically under-represents minority groups.
Concern about fringe clinical practices
There is also concern from researchers about a perceived gap between scientific theory and its application, in particular with the application of fringe practices. Exponents of evidence-based approaches to clinical psychology practice say that the gap is increasing, and researchers such as Beyerstein (2001) say there has been a large increase in the number of mental health training programs that do not emphasize science training. [24] According to Lilienfeld (2002) “a wide variety of unvalidated and sometimes harmful psychotherapeutic methods, including facilitated communication for infantile autism, suggestive techniques for memory recovery (e. Facilitated communication (FC is a process by which a Facilitator supports the hand or arm of a communicatively impaired individual while using a keyboard or other g. , hypnotic age-regression, guided imagery, body work), energy therapies (e. Bodywork is a term used in Alternative medicine or Complementary medicine to describe any therapeutic healing or personal development work which involves some form g. , Thought Field Therapy, Emotional Freedom Technique), and New Age therapies of seemingly endless stripes (e. Thought Field Therapy, or TFT, is an alternative treatment developed by an American psychologist Roger Callahan Ph g. , rebirthing, reparenting, past-life regression, Primal Scream therapy, neurolinguistic programming ) have either emerged or maintained their popularity in recent decades. Reparenting is a therapy concerned with "healing the inner child" Past life regression (PLR is a therapeutic technique that uses light levels of Hypnosis to activate memories or pseudo-memories that appear to represent past lives Neuro-linguistic programming (or NLP) is an Interpersonal communication model applied in Psychotherapy and other contexts of communication and change "[3] Allen Neuringer made a similar point in the field of the experimental analysis of behavior in 1984. [25] There are some differences of opinion over the actual extent of the research practitioner gap, but the consensus is on the concern about fringe or quack practices, and the legal view favours the use of empirical validation for any psychological intervention (Faigman and Monahan 2005). The emphasis on improvement of evidence based practice has been made in order to increase the general public's confidence in the health professions, and to avoid instances whereby clients forgo evidence based treatments in favour of unvalidated fringe therapies.
See also
- Psychiatry
- List of basic psychology topics
- List of psychology topics
- Psychologists
- List of publications in psychology
- List of psychologists
- List of psychology organizations
References
- ^ Ibrahim B. Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric This page aims to list all topics related to Psychology. This is so that those interested in the subject can monitor changes to the pages by clicking on Related changes Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition, Introducing Psychology Introducing Psychology This list includes notable Psychologists and contributors to Psychology, some of whom may not have thought of themselves primarily as psychologists but are included here because List of Organizations and societies in Psychology. A Academy for Eating Disorders * Academy of Counseling Psychology[http Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 2002 (2), p. IMANA Logogif|frame|right|The IMANA Logo]] The Islamic Medical Association of North America ( "IMANA") is the largest Muslim medical organization in 2-9.
- ^ a b Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2).
- ^ Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 2002 (2), p. IMANA Logogif|frame|right|The IMANA Logo]] The Islamic Medical Association of North America ( "IMANA") is the largest Muslim medical organization in 2-9 [7-8]. Early practices of ancient psychology included procedures such as lobotomy, which involved removal of specific tissues of the brain believed to cause certain mental problems. A lobotomy ( Greek: lobos Lobe of Brain, tomos "cut/slice" is a form of Psychosurgery, also known as a leukotomy or Lobotomies were used (though uncommonly) in the medical practices of Egypt, China, and Persia, along with many other ancient civilizations.
- ^ Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.
- ^ Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt
- ^ The Principles of Psychology (1890), with introduction by George A. Miller, Harvard University Press, 1983 paperback, ISBN 0-674-70625-0 (combined edition, 1328 pages)
- ^ Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1963, pp. 33-39; from Theodore Schick, ed. , Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 2000, pp. 9-13. [1]
- ^ a b Keil, FC. Wilson, RA. (eds) 2001. "The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences" MIT Press ISBN 0262731444 p. xx
- ^ Watson, John B. "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm
- ^ Skinner, B. F. : Are Theories of Learning Necessary? http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Theories/
- ^ Chomsky, N. A. (1959), A Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior
- ^ Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
- ^ Rowan, John. (2001). Ordinary Ecstasy: The Dialectics of Humanistic Psychology. London, UK: Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 0415236339
- ^ Bugental, J. (1964). The Third Force in Psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 4(1), 19-25.
- ^ a b Brain, Christine. (2002). Advanced psychology: applications, issues and perspectives. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0174900589>
- ^ Leichsenring, Falk & Leibing, Eric. (2003). The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of personality disorders: A meta-analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(7), 1223-1233.
- ^ Reisner, Andrew. (2005). The common factors, empirically validated treatments, and recovery models of therapeutic change. The Psychological Record, 55(3), 377-400.
- ^ Klusman, Lawrence. (2001). Prescribing Psychologists and Patients' Medical Needs; Lessons From Clinical Psychiatry. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5), 496.
- ^ a b c d Industrial and Organization Psychology, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , 2006.
- ^ National Association of School Psychologists. Retrieved on 1 June 2008. Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ Paths to Happiness Survey - happiness study. Retrieved on 1 June 2008. Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ Cohen, J. (1994). The Earth is round, p < . 05. American Psychologist, 49.
- ^ Elliot, Robert. (1998). Editor's Introduction: A Guide to the Empirically Supported Treatments Controversy. Psychotherapy Research, 8(2), 115.
- ^ Beyerstein, B. L. (2001). Fringe psychotherapies: The public at risk. The Scientific Re-view of Alternative Medicine, 5, 70–79
- ^ Neuringer, A. :"Melioration and Self-Experimentation" Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1348111
External links
Learning about psychology
- All About Psychology
- Encyclopedia of Psychology
- Learn Psychology Glossary
- AmoebaWeb Psychology Directory
- Psychology Articles and Resouces
- Searchable Psychology Articles
History of psychology
- The Archives of the History of American Psychology
- A Century of Psychology (APA)
- Classics in the History of Psychology
Other
- Wikia has a wiki on this subject: Psychology
- Psychology at the Open Directory Project
Dictionary
psychology
-noun
- (uncountable) The study of the human mind.
- (uncountable) The study of the human behavior.
- (uncountable) The study of animal behavior.
- (countable) The mental characteristics of a particular individual.
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic