The word prejudice refers to prejudgment: making a decision before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case or event. The word has commonly been used in certain restricted contexts, in the expression 'racial prejudice'. Initially this is referred to making a judgment about a person based on their race,religion,etc. , before receiving information relevant to the particular issue on which a judgment was being made; it came, however, to be widely used to refer to any hostile attitude towards people based on their race or even by just judging someone without even knowing them. Subsequently the word has come to be widely so interpreted in this way in contexts other than those relating to race. The meaning now is frequently "any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence". ^[1] Race, gender, ethnic, sexual identity, age, and religion have a history of in citing prejudicial behavior.

Forms of prejudice

Frank J. Farley classified prejudice into three categories. ^[2] Cognitive Prejudice refers to what people believe is true. An example of cognitive prejudice might be found, for example, adherence to a particular metaphysical or methodological philosophy to the exclusion of other philosophies that may offer a more complete theoretical explanation. Methodology (also called manner) is defined as "the analysis of the principles of methods rules and postulates employed by a discipline" Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Affective Prejudice refers to what people like and dislike. An example of affective prejudice might be found, for example, in attitudes toward members of particular classes such as race, ethnicity, national origin, or creed. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets A creed is a statement of Belief — usually Religious belief — or Faith often recited as part of a religious service Conative Prejudice refers to how people are inclined to behave. Conative prejudice is regarded as an attitude because people don't act on their feelings. An example of conative prejudice might be found in expressions of what should be done if the opportunity presented itself. These three types of prejudice are correlated, but all need not be present in a particular individual. Someone might believe a particular group possesses low levels of intelligence, but harbour no ill feelings toward that group. Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities A group might be disliked because of intense competition for jobs, but still recognize no differences between groups. Prejudice was displayed towards Jews during the Holocaust. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as

'Discrimination' is a behavior (an action), with reference to unequal treatment of people because they are members of a particular group. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is Farley also classified discrimination into three categories. ^[3] Personal / Individual Discrimination is directed toward a specific individual and refers to any act that leads to unequal treatment because of the individual's real or perceived group membership. Legal Discrimination refers to "unequal treatment, on the grounds of group membership, that is upheld by law. "^[4] Apartheid is an example of legal discrimination, as are also various post-Civil war laws in the southern United States that legally disadvantaged negros with respect to property rights, employment rights and the exercise of constitutional rights. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Negro is a term referring to people of Black African ancestry A constitutional right is a Right granted by a Government 's Constitution (on the national or sub-national level and cannot be legally denied by that government Institutional Discrimination refers to unequal treatment that is entrenched in basic social institutions resulting in advantaging one group over another. Social organization or social institution, refers to a group of Social positions connected by Social relations performing a Social role. The Indian caste system is an historical example of institutional discrimination. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Castes are Hereditary systems of occupation, Endogamy, social culture, Social class, and Political power. As with prejudice generally, these three types of discrimination are correlated and may be found to varying degrees in individuals and society at large. A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions Many forms of discrimination based upon prejudice are outwardly acceptable in most societies. A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions

Reasons for prejudice

Prejudice has been researched extensively and psychologists generally come to a few approaches: arousal, personality, intergroup interaction, and by learning.

Arousal approach

Following the psychodynamic perspective, some traditional psychologists described prejudice a result of frustration. Psychodynamics, is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation and Psychodynamics theory assumed that human mind contains psychic energy, which serve as a tool for psychological activities and can only be discharged through cathartic – the completion of the activities – to maintain equilibrium (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939). Psychodynamics, is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation and The use of the word "energy" in psychological studies is comparatively new although it was in use in psychological thought long before the modern physical concept of Energy was In medicine a Cathartic is a substance which accelerates Defecation. Impediment of dissipation results in frustration, which can only be corrected through aggression. Prejudice is an occasion in which a group of people is frustrated by a stronger group which is too powerful or remote to be aggressed against, thus they displaced the aggressive behavior onto weaker groups, which serve as a scapegoat. For example, when a boy is scolded by his parent, he may choose to displace the frustration to his weaker sister since he is unable to fight back to his parent. Although empirical data generally confirmed a correlation between frustration and aggression (Hovland & Sears, 1940; Miller & Bugelski, 1948), researches showed neither necessary nor sufficient causal relationship between frustration and aggression. In Probability theory and Statistics, correlation, (often measured as a correlation coefficient) indicates the strength and direction of a linear Therefore, critics argue that this theory can only explain limited factors of intergroup aggression. Moreover, this theory has also been criticized on its reductionist approach that explains group behavior in terms of individual states (Billig, 1976; Brown, 2000; Hogg & Abrams, 1988). Reductionism can either mean (a an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts or to simpler or more fundamental things

Personality approach

Another classical explanation on prejudice concerns the personalities which create tendency on prejudice against minorities. Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences Historically, psychologists suggested various personalities contributing to discrimination, including authoritarianism, dogmatism, closed-mindedness, dominant orientation, etc (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950; Rokeach, 1948; Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, & Malle, 1994). Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is Authoritarianism describes a Form of government characterized by an emphasis on the Authority of the State in a republic or union Dogma (the plural is either dogmata or dogmas, Greek, plural) is the established Belief or In general, people having these personalities tend to bias towards their own group and refuse to accept belief-contradicting information, thus remain their stereotype on the prejudiced group. Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group Concerning the origin of the prejudice personalities, psychologists following the psychodynamics perspective attribute the cause to excessive harsh and disciplinarian practices in childhood experience (Adorno et al. Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences Psychodynamics, is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation and , 1950). However, as the overemphasis on parental influence of psychodynamics theory has been strongly criticized in the previous century, modern psychologists adopted interracial contact as a more important determinant than childhood experience on shaping people’s prejudice traits (Stephan & Rosenfield, 1978). Psychodynamics, is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation and Personality theory has also been criticized on underemphasizing situational and socio-cultural factors such as the competition of resources between groups, and being unable to explain sudden change in attitude and behavior.

Intergroup approach

Some social psychologists explain prejudice as the effect of group interaction. According to social identity theory, when we are identified with a group, we show some general characteristics including ethnocentrism, ingroup favoritism, intergroup differentiation and so on, which contribute to prejudice. Social identity is a theory formed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner to understand the psychological basis of intergroup Discrimination. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own Culture. Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, and Flament (1971) further devised the minimal groups paradigm to illustrate the necessary condition for group identification, stating that merely categorizing people into group is sufficient to induce the general characteristics. Minimal groups paradigm is a term used in Social psychology experiments (e Besides, group interaction would almost inevitably induce intergroup competitions, the realistic conflict between group could also accentuate the negative stereotypes on the out-group. Realistic conflict theory is a theory within Social psychology that ties into Discrimination and Stereotypes. A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group Some empirical data disconfirmed the minimal groups paradigm by showing that social categorization is not sufficient for intergroup behavior (Grieve & Hogg, 1999). Minimal groups paradigm is a term used in Social psychology experiments (e Moreover, since many variables are operating in intergroup studies, this approach has also been criticized on being unable to identify causal relationship between group formation and prejudice due to potential confounding (Dion, 1979; Turner, 1981). In statistics a confounding variable (also confounding factor, lurking variable, a confound, or confounder) is an Extraneous variable

Learning approach

Learning theories provide a way of understanding how behavior develops and propagate among generation. Dominant learning theories concerning prejudice include modeling, association learning and respond conditioning.
Modeling, which is also known as learning by vicarious experience in social learning theory (Bandura, 1973), refers to learning a behavior through observing another individual engaging in that behavior. For the article on social learning theory in psychology and education see Social cognitive theory. Since observation is already enough for learning the behavior, the individual does not need to participate in the behavior. According this theory, people can acquire prejudiced thinking by merely observing others discriminative behavior. For example, children may acquire a gender stereotype by observing their parents treating male and female differently. A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group This effect would be amplified especially when the model is rewarded for the behavior.
People can also learn to prejudice through association learning including classical and operant conditioning. Classical Conditioning (also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of Associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov In classical conditioning, instruct with flawed reasoning by presenting an attribute (e. Classical Conditioning (also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of Associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov g. greedy) with a specific group (e. g. merchants) repeatedly, people would link up the attribute to the group, resulting in prejudice. Operant conditioning refers to alteration of behavior by regulating the consequences following it. Reinforcement in is a kind of consequence or a procedure that specifically leads to an increase in frequency of the behavior immediately preceding it. In Operant conditioning, reinforcement is an immediate increase in the strength of a response following a change in environment When people gain acceptance from the individual’s reference group (Kelley, 1952) by discriminating towards another groups or individual, they would then be motivated to continue this discrimination due to the reinforcement following it. A reference group is a sociological concept referring to a group to which another group is compared Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is In Operant conditioning, reinforcement is an immediate increase in the strength of a response following a change in environment
Although, empirical results often showed significant correlation between parents’ and child’s attitude, the correlations were typically low (Connel, 1972), especially after the child grow up. In Probability theory and Statistics, correlation, (often measured as a correlation coefficient) indicates the strength and direction of a linear In Probability theory and Statistics, correlation, (often measured as a correlation coefficient) indicates the strength and direction of a linear This suggests that learning theory can only explain part of the reason behind prejudice. Moreover, learning theorists suggested prejudice to be learned from others and therefore unable to explain how prejudice emerges from the very beginning.

Contemporary theories

Contemporary theories of intergroup bias (prejudice) tend to explain intergroup bias in terms of various social psychological motivations (Miles, Mark & Hazel, 2002). They are social identity theory, terror management and subjective uncertainty reduction theory. Social identity is a theory formed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner to understand the psychological basis of intergroup Discrimination. Terror management theory (TMT is a developing area of study within the academic study of Psychology.

Social identity theory

According to social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner 1979), a core premise is that social categories (large group such as countries, intermediate groups such as companies, or small group such as departments) provide members with a social identity which define and evaluate who they are and describe what this entails. Social identity is a theory formed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner to understand the psychological basis of intergroup Discrimination. Social identity is a theory formed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner to understand the psychological basis of intergroup Discrimination. Social identity is that part of the self-concept that derives from group membership. Social identity is a theory formed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner to understand the psychological basis of intergroup Discrimination. Self-concept or self identity refers to the global understanding a sentient being has of him or herself It is associated with group and intergroup behaviors. For intergroup behaviors, prejudice among groups creates or preserves relatively high in-group status, providing a positive social identity for in-group members and satisfying their need for positive self-esteem. Social identity is a theory formed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner to understand the psychological basis of intergroup Discrimination. In Psychology, self-esteem reflects a Person 's overall evaluation or appraisal of her or his own worth

Hogg & Abrams (1990) derived two conclusions from this self-esteem hypothesis: (1) successful intergroup bias enhances self-esteem and (2) depressed or threatened self-esteem motivates intergroup bias. In Psychology, self-esteem reflects a Person 's overall evaluation or appraisal of her or his own worth In Psychology, self-esteem reflects a Person 's overall evaluation or appraisal of her or his own worth In the fields of Psychology and Psychiatry, the terms depression or depressed refer to both expected and pathologically chronic or severe In Psychology, self-esteem reflects a Person 's overall evaluation or appraisal of her or his own worth Meta-analysis (Aberson et al. In Statistics, a meta-analysis combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses 2000) of over 50 experiments shows that the majority of evidence supports conclusion 1, but there is little evidence for conclusion 2. It needs further studies.

Terror management theory

Solomon, Greenberg and Pyszczynski (1999) in their terror management theory proposed that people have a need for self-preservation which is raised and frustrated by their awareness of the inevitability of their own death. Terror management theory (TMT is a developing area of study within the academic study of Psychology. Self preservation is part of an Animal 's Instinct that demands that the organism survives To deal with their mortality, people adopt a cultural world view that imbues subjective reality with stability and permanence and provides standards of value against which judgments of self-esteem can be made. A comprehensive world view (or worldview) is a term Calqued from the German word Weltanschauung ( Welt is the German In Psychology, self-esteem reflects a Person 's overall evaluation or appraisal of her or his own worth According to Terror management theory, people evaluate in-group members positively because similar others are assumed to support, and therefore validate, their own cultural world view; in contrast, they evaluate out-group members negatively because dissimilar others are assumed to threaten their world view. Terror management theory (TMT is a developing area of study within the academic study of Psychology. There is extensive evidence that people show greater intergroup bias when they are made aware of their own mortality (Florian & Mikulincer, 1998).

Subjective uncertainty reduction theory

Moreover, Hogg (2000) in his subjective uncertainty reduction theory proposed that people are motivated to reduce subjective uncertainty by identifying with social groups, which provide clear normative prescriptions for behaviors and thus imbues people with a positive valence. Normative has specialized meanings in several academic disciplines Some evidence shows that manipulations of subjective uncertainty influence levels of both in-group identification and intergroup bias. For example, a positive relationship has been found between the need for closure and both in-group identification and intergroup bias (Shah et al. 1998).

For further interest, reader may refer to introduction to social psychology by Vaughan and Hogg (2005) or Annual Review of Psychology.

Examples of prejudice in fiction

In the book To Kill a Mockingbird , one of multiple themes concerns a man wrongly tried and convicted because of his race. To Kill a Mockingbird is a Pulitzer Prize -winning Novel by Harper Lee published in 1960. The 1997 science-fiction movie Gattaca is about a future where genetically-enhanced people are the majority, while a non-genetically enhanced minority are socially and economically discriminated and marginalized for their "imperfections". Gattaca is a 1997 science fiction Drama film written and directed by Andrew Niccol, starring Ethan Hawke, Uma Marginalization is the social process of becoming or being made Marginal (to relegate or confine to a lower social standing or outer limit or edge as of social standing "the A noteworthy example is the Mutant race in the X-Men, which are frequently subjected to prejudice.

Sociology

• Sociologists termed prejudice an adaptive behaviour. This article provides a list of sociologists and major contributors to Sociology (even if they did not primarily work as sociologists An adaptation is a characteristic of an Organism that has been favored by Natural selection and Biased views might be thought needed at times for survival. Bias is a term used to describe a Tendency or Preference towards a particular perspective, Ideology or result especially when the tendency interferes There is not always enough time to form a legitimate view about a potential foe before adopting a defensive stance that could save our lives. Prejudice is non-adaptive when it interferes with survival or well-being.

Common misconceptions

At times the terms prejudice and stereotype are confusing:

• Prejudices are abstract-general preconceptions or abstract-general attitudes towards any type of situation object or person. A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group
• Stereotypes are generalizations of existing characteristics. A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group These reduce complexity.

See also

• Adultism
• Allport's scale
• Allophilia
• Bias
• Civil Rights
• Discrimination
• Heterosexism
• Intercultural competence
• Intolerance
• Judging
• Labelling
• Multi-culturalism and diversity
• Persecution
• Police Brutality
• Political correctness
• Racism
• Sexism
• The Sneetches and Other Stories by Dr. Seuss, an allegory of racism (some readers see parallels to anti-Semitism)
• Tolerance

References

• Aberson, C. Adultism is a predisposition towards Adults, which some see as biased against children youth and all young people who aren't addressed or viewed as adults Allport's Scale is a measure of the manifestation of Prejudice in a Society. Allophilia —positive attitudes for a group that is not one's own—is a term derived from Greek words meaning "liking or love of the other" (Pittinsky 2005 Bias is a term used to describe a Tendency or Preference towards a particular perspective, Ideology or result especially when the tendency interferes Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is Heterosexism is a term that applies to attitudes, Bias, and Discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships Intercultural competence is the ability of successful Communication with people of other Cultures This ability can exist in someone at a young age or may be developed In non-legal contexts a judgment is a balanced weighing up of evidence preparatory to making a decision In Sociology, the word labeling is used more as a Metaphor, than a concrete concept The term multiculturalism generally refers to a state of racial, cultural and ethnic diversity within the Demographics of a specified The term multiculturalism generally refers to a state of racial, cultural and ethnic diversity within the Demographics of a specified Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual/group by another group Police brutality is the world wide use of excessive force usually physical but potentially also in the form verbal attacks and psychological intimidation, by Political correctness (adjectivally politically correct; both forms commonly abbreviated to PC) is a term applied to Language, ideas policies or behavior List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that Sexism is the belief or attitude that one Gender or Sex is inferior to or less valuable than the other and can also refer to a Hatred or distrust towards The Sneetches and Other Stories is a collection of stories by Dr Theodor Seuss Geisel (ˈsɔɪs ˈɡaɪzəl March 2 1904 – September 24 1991 was an American Writer and Cartoonist, better known by his pen name An allegory (from αλλος allos "other" and el αγορευειν agoreuein "to speak in public" is a figurative mode of representation Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility L. , Healy, M. , & Romero, V. (2000). Ingroup bias and self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 154-173.
• Adorno, T. W. , Frenkel-Brunswik, E. , Levinson, D. J. , & Sanford, R. M. (1950). The authoritarian personality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11, 1177-1196.
• Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: Asocial learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Billig, M. (1976). Social psychology and intergroup relations. London: Academic Press.
• Brown, R. J. (2000). Group processes (2nd ed. ). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
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• Dion, K. L. (1979). Intergroup conflict and intragroup cohesiveness. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds. ), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 211-224). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
• Dollard, J. , Doob, L. W. , Miller, N. E. , Mowrer, O. H. & Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
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• Hogg, M. A. (2000). Subjective uncertainty reduction through self-categorization: A motivational theory of social identity processes. European Review of Social of Social Psychology, 11, 223-255.
• Hogg, M. A. , & Abrams D. (1988). Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and group processes. London: Routledge.
• Hogg, M. A. , & Abrams D. (1993). Towards a single-process uncertainty-reduction model of social motivation in groups. In M. A. Hogg & D. Abrams (Eds. ), Group motivation: Social Psychological Perspectives (pp. 173-190). London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
• Hovland, C. I. , & Sears, R. R. (1940). Minor studies in aggression: VI. Correlation of lynchings with economic indices. Journal of Psychology, 9, 301-310.
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• Kelley, H. H. (1952). Two functions of reference groups. In G. E. Swanson, T. M. Newcomb, & E. L. * Hartley (Eds. ), Readings in social psychology (2nd ed. , pp. 410-414). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
• Miles, H. , Mark, R. , & Hazel, W. (2002). Intergroup bias. Annual Review Psychology. 53, 575-604.
• Miller, N. E. , & Bugelski, R. (1948). Minor studies in aggression: The influence of frustrations imposed by the ingroup on attitudes toward outgroups. Journal of Psychology, 25, 437-442.
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• Solomon, S. , Greenberg, J. , & Pyszczynski, T. (1991). A terror management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews. In M. Zanna (Ed. ), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 93-159). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
• Stephan, W. G. , Rosenfield, D. (1978). Effects of desegregation on racial attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 795-804.
• Tajfel, H. , Billig, M. , Bundy, R. P. , & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 149-177.
• Tajfel, H. , & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds. ), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
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External links

• Summary of social psychology research on prejudice, with references
• Are Stereotypes True?