The post-Soviet states, also commonly known as former Soviet republics, are the independent nations that split off from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in its breakup in December 1991. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 Excluding the Baltic states, they were also referred to as the Newly Independent States (NIS). The Baltic states (Balti riigid Baltijas valstis Baltijos valstybės or Baltic countries are three countries in Northern Europe, all members of the

Post-Soviet states in alphabetical order:
1. Armenia; 2. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Azerbaijan; 3. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Belarus; 4. Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Estonia;
5. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Georgia; 6. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Kazakhstan; 7. Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Kyrgyzstan; 8. Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Latvia;
9. Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Lithuania; 10. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Moldova; 11. Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania Russia; 12. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Tajikistan;
13. Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Turkmenistan; 14. Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. Ukraine; 15. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Uzbekistan

States and geographical groupings

The post-Soviet states are typically divided into the following five groupings. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Each of these regions has its own common set of traits, owing not only to geographic and cultural factors but also to that region's history in relation to Russia. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending

Typical groupings of the post-Soviet states:
     Russia      Central Asia      Eastern Europe/Western CIS      Baltic states      Transcaucasia

• Baltic states:
  •  Estonia
  •  Latvia
  •  Lithuania

• Central Asia:
  •  Kazakhstan
  •  Kyrgyzstan
  •  Tajikistan
  •  Turkmenistan
  •  Uzbekistan

• Caucasus:
  •  Armenia
  •  Azerbaijan
  •  Georgia

• Eastern European states:
  •  Belarus
  •  Moldova
  •  Ukraine

•  Russia

In addition, there are a number of de-facto independent, but internationally unrecognized states, see below. The Baltic states (Balti riigid Baltijas valstis Baltijos valstybės or Baltic countries are three countries in Northern Europe, all members of the Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending

Economy

See also: Economy of Russia

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, most of the former Soviet republics adopted market economy as their new economic system. Russia is a unique emerging market in the sense that being the nucleus of a former superpower shows more anomalies The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 A market economy is a realized Social system based on the Division of labour in which the prices of Goods and Services are determined in a The inter-republican economic connections were broken, gross domestic product in all former Soviet republics (excluding the Baltic states) immediately went down, totaling only 40 percent of its 1991 volume. Inflation was also rampant. By 2004, only the Baltic states, Armenia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan had reached higher gross domestic products greater than the ones they had in 1991. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the In Russia itself, the perceived failure of capitalism to improve lifestyle culminated in the 1998 Russian economic crisis, which was followed by a return to more interventionist economic policies by the government.

Regional organizations

Former Soviet states:      CIS member states      EU and NATO member states      associate CIS member state

A number of international organizations and cooperating blocs have sprung up in the region since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in The North Atlantic Treaty International Organization is a peer-reviewed Academic journal that covers the entire field of International affairs. The countries are divided in their participation to these blocs:

• The three Baltic states have not sought membership to any of these post-Soviet organizations, seeking and achieving membership in the European Union and NATO instead (only their electricity and rail systems remain closely connected with former soviet organisations). The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in The North Atlantic Treaty The sole exception to the above has been their recent membership in the Community of Democratic Choice. The Community of Democratic Choice is an International organization established on December 2, 2005 by nine states of Eastern Europe in

• Turkmenistan, besides its membership in the Economic Cooperation Organization and its observer status in the CIS (it withdrew as a full member in 2005), has not sought closer integration in any of the other Western or post-Soviet organizations. Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. The Economic Cooperation Organization ( ECO) is an intergovernmental International organization involving seven Asian and three European nations

• Armenia besides CIS participates in CSTO only.

• Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia and Azerbaijan do participate in the CIS but other than that (same as the Baltic states) they mostly participate in regional organizations that don't involve Russia: Such organizations are GUAM and the Community of Democratic Choice. GUAM redirects here See Guam for the Pacific island territory

• On the other hand, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan participate in several organizations that have Russia as a primary mover. Such organizations are the EurAsEc (merged with CACO), CSTO, and the SCO. The Eurasian Economic Community ( EurAsEC or EAEC or EEC) was put into motion on 10 October 2000 when Belarus, The Organization of Central Asian Cooperation ( OCAC) (sometimes named Central Asian Cooperation Organization, CACO, Russian: Центрально-Азиатское The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation ( SCO) is an Intergovernmental mutual-security organization which was founded in 2001 by the leaders of China,

The last two groups only became distinct once Uzbekistan withdrew from GUAM and sought membership in EurAsEc and CSTO.

In this section those organizations are mentioned which are mainly (or completely) composed of post-Soviet states. Organizations with much wider memberships are not discussed.

Exclusively post-Soviet membership

Commonwealth of Independent States

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) consists of 11 of the 15 former Soviet Republics - the 4 exceptions are the Baltics and Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. It has been said to have been created to "allow a civilized divorce" between the republics, but its members have since signed a number of documents promoting closer cooperation instead. Turkmenistan is the only former Soviet state that was a member of CIS but eventually withdrew.

     GUAM member states      CSTO member states

GUAM

Four member states, namely Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova established the GUAM group that was largely seen as intending to counter Russian dominance in the region. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania GUAM redirects here See Guam for the Pacific island territory Notably, these four nations don't participate in any of the other regional organizations that sprang up in the region since the dissolution of the Soviet Union (other than the CIS).

Collective Security Treaty Organization

Seven CIS member states, namely Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Armenia, have enhanced their military cooperation, establishing the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), this being an expansion of the previous Collective Security Treaty (CST). Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Uzbekistan which (alongside Georgia and Azerbaijan) withdrew from the CST in 1999, joined GUAM. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Then in 2005 it withdrew from GUAM and currently it is again seeking closer ties with Russia (thus in 2006 it has joined EurAsEc and later CSTO). CSTO and EurAsEc are closely related organizations.

Eurasian Economic Community

Eurasian Economic Community:      member states      observer status

The Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC) was established by Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, having grown out of the CIS Customs Union. The Eurasian Economic Community ( EurAsEC or EAEC or EEC) was put into motion on 10 October 2000 when Belarus, Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Ukraine and Moldova have observer status in the community, however Ukraine has declared its desire not to become a full member state. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania Because having common borders with the rest of the community is a prerequisite for full membership, Moldova is thus barred from seeking it. Uzbekistan applied for membership in October 2005[1], when the process of merging CACO and the Eurasian Economic Community began; it joined on 25 January 2006. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly The Organization of Central Asian Cooperation ( OCAC) (sometimes named Central Asian Cooperation Organization, CACO, Russian: Центрально-Азиатское Events 41 - After a night of negotiation Claudius is accepted as Roman Emperor by the Senate Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.

Central Asian Cooperation Organization

Central Asian Cooperation Organization:      member states      observer status

The Central Asian Cooperation Organization (CACO) was first initiated by all five Central Asian nations in 1991 as the Central Asian Commonwealth. The Organization of Central Asian Cooperation ( OCAC) (sometimes named Central Asian Cooperation Organization, CACO, Russian: Центрально-Азиатское Later Turkmenistan followed a policy of isolation, withdrawing from participation in all regional forums. Tajikistan joined in 1998 while Russia joined the (now renamed) CACO in 2004. In the end of 2005 it was decided between the member states that Uzbekistan will join the Eurasian Economic Community and that both organizations will merge. The Eurasian Economic Community ( EurAsEC or EAEC or EEC) was put into motion on 10 October 2000 when Belarus,

Union of Russia and Belarus

Union of Russia and Belarus

The Union of Russia and Belarus was originally formed on April 2, 1996 under the name Commonwealth of Russia and Belarus, before being tightened further on December 8, 1999. The Union of Russia and Belarus (Союз России и Белоруссии СРБ Soyuz Rossii i Byelorussii SRB) officially titled the Union State of Russia Events 68 - Galba, Governor of Hispania, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) Events 1609 - Biblioteca Ambrosiana opens its reading room the second public library of Europe. Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) It was initiated by the president of Belarus, Alexander Lukashenko. Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (Аляксандр Рыгоравіч Лукашэнка Aljaksandar Ryhoravič Lukašenka/Alyaksandar Ryhoravich Lukashenka; Александр

On paper, the Union of Russia and Belarus intends further integration, beyond the scope of mere cooperation, including the introduction of the ruble as a common currency. The ruble or rouble (рубль rublʹ, plural ru рубли́ rubli; see note on English spelling and Russian plurals with numbers

Ukraine, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Serbia have all at some point been interested in joining the Union. Nine years ago, a Ukrainian politician claimed Ukraine would join the Union "in three years at most. " Ukraine has not joined.

Primarily post-Soviet membership

Economic Cooperation Organization

     Community of Democratic Choice      Economic Cooperation Organization

The Economic Cooperation Organization was originally formed in 1985 by Turkey, Iran and Pakistan but in 1992 the organization was expanded to include Afghanistan and the six primarily Muslim former Soviet Republics: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. The Economic Cooperation Organization ( ECO) is an intergovernmental International organization involving seven Asian and three European nations Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly

Community of Democratic Choice

The Community of Democratic Choice (CDC) was formed in December 2005 at the primary instigation of Ukraine and Georgia, and composed of six post-Soviet states (Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, and the three Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and three other countries of Eastern Europe (Slovenia, Romania and the Republic of Macedonia). The Community of Democratic Choice is an International organization established on December 2, 2005 by nine states of Eastern Europe in The Baltic states (Balti riigid Baltijas valstis Baltijos valstybės or Baltic countries are three countries in Northern Europe, all members of the Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania The Republic of Macedonia (Република The Black Sea Forum (BSF) is a closely related organization. The inaugural session of the Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue (BSF was held on June 4&ndash6 2006 in Bucharest.

Just like GUAM before it, this forum is largely seen as intending to counteract Russian influence in the area. GUAM redirects here See Guam for the Pacific island territory This is the only international forum centered in the post-Soviet space in which the Baltic states also participate. In addition, the other three post-Soviet states in it are all members of GUAM.

Shanghai Cooperation Organization

Shanghai Cooperation Organization:      Member state      Observer state

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), is composed of China and five post-Soviet states, namely Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation ( SCO) is an Intergovernmental mutual-security organization which was founded in 2001 by the leaders of China, The organization was founded in 2001, though its predecessor, the Shanghai Five grouping, has existed since 1996. Its aims revolve around security-related issues.

Other regional organizations

Post-Soviet states are also members in the following organizations in Balkans and Black Sea regions (but those organisations are not centered with Russia as the main mover)

• For economic cooperation, the post-soviet countries have joined either :
  • Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) with Moldova (it includes also non post-soviet countries of the former Yugoslavia; previously, also included other Central European countries that left CEFTA when joining the European Union ; CEFTA plays a role in Central Europe similar to what EFTA provides in Western Europe for non EU-members; this alliance an economical organization with strong cooperation with the European Union, for countries that don't want to participage in EurAsEC centered on Russia but that are seeking alliances to the West); even if Moldova is the only CEFTA country that is still within a weakening CIS, it no longer participates to the CSTO for most of the common security policy (but can't join the EU because of incompatiblity with WEU stability rules and the unsolved problem of Transnistry) but can still benefit from the Free Trade Area notably with Romania and Bulgaria (in the EU). The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey Members As of 1 May 2007, the parties of the CEFTA agreement are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania
  • Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) with Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova and Armenia (an economic organisation closely related to the SCO but more focused regionaly to include also Armenia; it also aims for the hamonious development of democracy for increasing the commerce in South-East Europe and includes some EU members, so it can’t be a regional free-trade union). On 25 June 1992, the Heads of State and Government of eleven countries signed in Istanbul the Summit Declaration and the Bosporus Statement
  • The European Union (EU) with the three Baltic countries that were the first ones to declare independance from the former USSR and have never joined CIS after the collapse of USSR (it includes also now some post-soviet countries in Central Europe or former Yugoslavia, that have left CEFTA when entering the EU : Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungaria, Romania, Bulgaria and Slovenia)

• For political integration and security alliances, the post-soviet European countries have joined either :
  • Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe (SPforSEE) with Moldova (similar in structure to CEFTA, but does not focus on economy but security, for those countries that are not NATO members ); this organization largely cooperates with NATO, and is related to the group of observers at Western European Union (WEU). The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe is an institution aimed at strengthening peace Democracy, Human rights and economy in the countries of South Eastern The Western European Union ( WEU) is a partially dormant European defence and security organization established on the basis of the Treaty of Brussels of 1948
  • The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), for Baltic countries, Poland, and Central European countries that have also joined the EU (the EU membership includes also WEU membership because they follow the CFSP and ESDP policies shared now by the EU, the WEU and all European NATO members). The North Atlantic Treaty This article deals with the workings of European Union foreign policy The European Security and Defence Policy or ESDP is a major element of the Common Foreign and Security Policy pillar of the European Union
  • The other remaining countries are those part of the former Yugoslavia, but their recent conflict and political tensions still does not allow them to cooperate efficently for their political integration and for their mutual security; in addition, they still don't have full sovereignty in this domain (some of them are still under surveillance by EU or NATO, as mandated by UNO). They still need to find an internal stability and they can collaborate economically with the help of other organizations focusing on economy or political cooperation and development. However a more limited cooperation for security is possible through their membership to the larger (and weaker) OSCE.
  • The only exception is Belarus (whose post-soviet democratic transition did not occur) that still rejects political integration, and all security alliances with NATO, OSCE, WEU or other countries in Europe other than Russia (which which the process of reintegration of Belarus has been tightened in almost all domains).

• For political cooperation, development, and mutual assistance (in other domains than free trade and security), the post-soviet countries have joined either :
  • Southeast European Cooperation Process (SEECP) with Moldova (similar to SPforSEE, but focuses on political integration than cooperation for security, and to CEFTA but does not focus on trade). The South East European Co-operation Process (SEECP was launched on Bulgaria 's initiative in 1996.
  • Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) with Moldova (closely related to SEECP). The Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI is an international organization aimed to combat and improve coordination against transborder crime in Southeast Europe
  • Central European Initiative (CEI) with Moldova, Ukraine and Belarus (and also Central and South-Western European countries in the European Union; it aims at helping Central European countries to reach the EU standards and cooperate politically and find a better economic development and a strong, working but more democratic legal system); it is the only regional organization where Belarus is still a member (but the political cooperation with Belarus is almost stalled, as it is the only Central European country that balances in favor of stronger cooperation with Russia and against integration with EU and NATO ; however Belarus remains isolated and still does not cooperate too in the SCO group lead by Russia and China). The Central European Initiative or CEI, is a political economical cultural and scientific international organisation founded in 1989
  • Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue (BSF) with Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova and Armenia (also non post-soviet countries that are NATO members, interested in their maintaining political stability and avoiding conflicts in the region: Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey, whose first two are also now EU and CEI members, using EU rules for their political development); however this organization does not focus on helping countries to join the EU, but reaching common standards and good governance and internal stability and democracy like in the CEI. The inaugural session of the Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue (BSF was held on June 4&ndash6 2006 in Bucharest.
  • (None of these organizations are incompatible with the policy required for accessing EU membership in the domain of political cooperation and development).
  • Merging the CEI and BSF is desired by Central European countries, that are members of both (often in addition to EU with stronger objectives) that would like to simplify the development process, and also members of the Council of Europe that federates (but at very slow pace) all European efforts of political cooperation and development through the various regional organizations). The Council of Europe (Conseil de l'Europe is the oldest International organisation working towards European integration, being founded in 1949

Politics

Regarding political freedom in the former Soviet republics, Freedom House's 2006 report listed the following:

• Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Ukraine as "free" countries

  In Freedom House's listing for 2005, Ukraine was listed as "partly free. Political freedom is the absence of interference with the sovereignty of an individual by the use of coercion or aggression Freedom House is a United States -based international Non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on Democracy, political Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. "

• Armenia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Moldova were listed as "partly free"

• Russia, Belarus, Azerbaijan and four Central Asian nations (Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan) were listed as "not free"—while Turkmenistan in particular received the worst freedom ratings possible and was listed as one of the eight most repressive regimes in the year. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the

Similarly, the Worldwide Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders, recorded the following as regards press freedom:

• A good situation in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania
• Noticeable problems in Armenia, Georgia, Moldova and Tajikistan
• A difficult situation in Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Ukraine and Uzbekistan
• A very serious situation in Turkmenistan

It has been remarked that several post-Soviet states have not changed leadership since their independence, such as Islom Karimov in Uzbekistan and Nursultan Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan. Freedom Constitutional or statutory protections pertaining to freedom of the press Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. Islom Abdug‘aniyevich Karimov (in Cyrillic Uzbek: Ислом Абдуғаниевич Каримов; in Russian: Ислам Абдуганиевич Nursultan Abishuly Nazarbayev ( Kazakh: Нұрсұлтан Әбішұлы Назарбаев æbəʃʊˈlɯ nɑzɑrˈbɑjəf Russian: Нурсултан All of these had originally more limited terms but through decrees or referendums prolonged their stay in office (a practice also followed by President Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus). Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (Аляксандр Рыгоравіч Лукашэнка Aljaksandar Ryhoravič Lukašenka/Alyaksandar Ryhoravich Lukashenka; Александр Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan had likewise served as President since its independence until he was forced to resign as a result of the Kyrgyz revolution of 2005. Askar Akayevich Akayev ( Аскар Акаевич Акаев) (born 10 November 1944 in Kyzyl-Bairak, Kirghiz SSR) served as the Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан The President of Kyrgyzstan is the Head of state and the highest official of Kyrgyzstan. The Tulip Revolution (sometimes called the Pink Revolution) refers to the overthrow of President Askar Akayev and his government in the Central Asian Saparmurat Niyazov in Turkmenistan ruled from independence until his death in 2006, creating a personality cult around himself. Saparmyrat Ataýewiç Nyýazow (θɑːpɑːrmɯːrɑːt niːjɑːðɒv ( 19 February, 1940, Gypjak, Turkmen SSR, Soviet Union A cult of personality or personality cult arises when a country's leader uses Mass media to create a heroic public image through unquestioning flattery and praise

The issue of dynastical succession has been another element affecting the politics of some post-Soviet States, with Ilham Aliyev becoming President of Azerbaijan after the death of his father Heydar Aliyev, and theories about the children of other leaders in Central Asia also being groomed for succession. Ilham Heydar oglu Aliyev ( İlham Heydər oğlu Əliyev) (born December 24, 1961) is the current President of Azerbaijan. Heydar Alirza oglu Aliyev (Heydər Əlirza oğlu Əliyev Гейдар Алиев May 10, 1923 &ndash December 12, 2003) also spelled as [2] The participation of Akayev's son and daughter in the 2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections boosted fears of dynastic succession being used in Kyrgyzstan as well, and may have contributed to the anti-Akayev climate that led to his overthrow. The 2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections were held 27 February 2005 with run-offs held on 13 March 2005

Separatist conflicts

Most military conflicts in the post-Soviet space have had to do with the separatist desires of territories with different ethnic or religious demographics than the majority of the state they're officially recognized as part of. Separatism refers to the advocacy of a state of cultural ethnic tribal religious racial or gender separation from the larger group often with demands for greater political autonomy

Such territories and resulting military conflicts have so far been:

• Chechnya, where separatists have been seeking independence from Russia. The Chechen Republic (ˈʧɛʧɨn rɪˈpʌblɨk Чече́нская Респу́блика Chechenskaya Respublika; Нохчийн Республика Noxçiyn Respublika Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending This conflict has bled over into and Dagestan and Ingushetia at times. The Republic of Dagestan dæɡɪˈstɑːn (IntEng ˈdeɪɡəstæn (AmEng (Респу́блика Дагеста́н Дагъистанлъул ДжумхIурият Daɣistanłul The Republic of Ingushetia ( Ingush: ГӀалгӀай Мохк Респу́блика Ингуше́тия Respublika Ingushetiya) is a federal
• Transnistria, de-facto independent from Moldova
• Abkhazia and South Ossetia, de-facto independent from Georgia, and Adjara has been seeking higher level of autonomy. Transnistria, also known as Trans-Dniester, Transdniestria, and Pridnestrovie (full name Pridnestrovian Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania Abkhazia (Аҧсны Apsny აფხაზეთი Apkhazeti or Abkhazeti Абха́зия Abhazia) is a De facto South Ossetia ( or; Хуссар Ирыстон Xussar Iryston; Южная Осетия Yuzhnaya Osetiya; სამხრეთი ოსეთი Samxreti Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between
• Nagorno-Karabakh, de-facto independent from Azerbaijan and Talysh-Mughan Autonomous Republic (Talyshstan) has been seeking higher level of autonomy. For the republic see Nagorno-Karabakh Republic Nagorno-Karabakh is a Region in the South Caucasus. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South The Talysh-Mughan Autonomous Republic was a short-lived self-proclaimed autonomous republic in Azerbaijan, that lasted from June to August 1993

Out of these regions, only two have been fully reincorporated into their respective countries. Adjara was reincorporated into Georgia and the conflict there has ended peacefully. Separatist leader Aslan Abashidze fled to Russia where he was granted asylum. Aslan Abashidze (ასლან აბაშიძე (born Batumi, July 20, 1938) was the leader of the Ajarian Autonomous Republic in western The Talysh-Mughan Autonomous Republic was swiftly suppressed with the rise of Heydar Aliyev. Its leader Colonel Alakram Alekper Gumbatov was arrested. The region is now integrated in Azerbaijan, but divided up into separate rayons and has no autonomy.

Chechnya has been involved in two wars, caused by the separatist forces' desire to make it independent from Russia, and conflict between the separatists and the federalists still continues. Currently, Chechnya's official position is as a republic that is part of the Russian Federation. At the same time there still exists a self-proclaimed separatist government not recognized by any state.

There is a separatist movement within Dagestan, members of which fought on the side of the Chechen rebels during the raid of September, 1999. However, that attack was quickly repelled by the Russian Armed Forces with the help of some locals who considered the Chechen attack an invasion rather than a liberation.

Transnistria, Abkhazia and South Ossetia on the other hand, have achieved de facto independence which is however unrecognized by any other country in the world — a Russian military presence exists in all three of these territories. Nagorno-Karabakh has likewise achieved a de facto independence, with Armenian troops having control of all the territory and even of neighboring parts of Azerbaijan. For the republic see Nagorno-Karabakh Republic Nagorno-Karabakh is a Region in the South Caucasus. Since 1994 these four regions have made an agreement of mutual assistance, and their leaders have in several occasions reiterated such pledges. [3][4] [5]

The separatist conflicts are sometimes called "Frozen conflicts" since mass bloodshed has subsided, but sentiments and opinions continue to be passed down to new generations.

It should be noted that at the time of the dissolution of the USSR, the United States government recognized as legitimate the pre-Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact 1933 borders of the country (the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration established diplomatic relations with the Kremlin at the end of that year^[1]). The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Stimson Doctrine is a policy of the United States federal government, enunciated in a note of January 7 1932 to Japan and Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Because of this, the George H. Bush administration openly supported the secession of the Baltic SSRs, but regarded the questions related to the independence and territorial conflicts of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and the rest of the Transcaucasus — which were integral part of the USSR with international borders unaltered since the 1920s — as internal Soviet affairs. George Herbert Walker Bush (born June 12 1924 served as the forty-first President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 The Baltic states (Balti riigid Baltijas valstis Baltijos valstybės or Baltic countries are three countries in Northern Europe, all members of the Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South The South Caucasus is a mountainous geopolitical area of south-central Eurasia, also referred to as Transcaucasia, or The Transcaucasus. ^[2]

South Ossetia, Abkhazia and Transnistria were all Soviet Union territories by 1933 — the first two as parts of Georgian SSR, the latter as part of Ukrainian SSR. The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (საქართველოს საბჭოთასოციალისტური რესპუბლიკა The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic or the Ukrainian SSR was one of the 15 constituent republics that made up the Former Soviet Union from its

Civil wars

Civil wars unrelated to separatist movements have occurred twice in the region:

• The Georgian Civil War between the forces of Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Eduard Shevardnadze. The Georgian Civil War consisted of inter-ethnic and inter-national conflicts in the regions of South Ossetia (1988-1992 and Abkhazia (1992-1993 as well Zviad Gamsakhurdia ( Georgian: ზვიად გამსახურდია, ( March 31, 1939 — December 31, 1993 Eduard Amvrosiyevich Shevardnadze (ედუარდ შევარდნაძე ɛduɑrd ʃɛvɑrdnɑdzɛ (born 25 January 1928 in Mamati, Lanchkhuti The war ended after Russian forces intervened in support of Shevardnadze's government, which in turn agreed to join the Commonwealth of Independent States.
• The Tajikistan Civil War that lasted between 1992 and 1997. The civil war in Tajikistan ( Tajik: Ҷанги шаҳрвандии Тоҷикистон, Jangi shahrvandii Tojikiston) began in May 1992 when

Color revolutions

Since 2003, a number of (largely) peaceful "color revolutions" have happened in some post-Soviet states after disputed elections, with popular protests bringing into power the former opposition. Colour revolutions is a term used to describe related movements that developed in post-communist societies in Central and Eastern Europe, and Central

• The Rose Revolution in Georgia, leading to the fall from office of Eduard Shevardnadze. The "Revolution of Roses quot (often translated into English as the Rose Revolution) (ვარდების რევოლუცია - vardebis Eduard Amvrosiyevich Shevardnadze (ედუარდ შევარდნაძე ɛduɑrd ʃɛvɑrdnɑdzɛ (born 25 January 1928 in Mamati, Lanchkhuti
• The Orange Revolution in Ukraine, bringing into power Viktor Yushchenko. The Orange Revolution (Помаранчева революція Pomarancheva revolyutsiya) was a series of Protests and political events that took place in Ukraine Viktor Andriyovych Yushchenko ( Ukrainian: Viktor Andrijovyč Juščenko) (born February 23 1954) is the third and current President of
• The Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, leading to the resignation of Askar Akayev. The Tulip Revolution (sometimes called the Pink Revolution) refers to the overthrow of President Askar Akayev and his government in the Central Asian Askar Akayevich Akayev ( Аскар Акаевич Акаев) (born 10 November 1944 in Kyzyl-Bairak, Kirghiz SSR) served as the

Russian population in post-Soviet states

Main articles: Russians in Ukraine, Russians in Kazakhstan, History of Russians in Latvia, History of Russians in Estonia, and History of Russians in Lithuania

There is significant Russophone population in most of post-Soviet states, whose political position as an ethnic minority varies from country to country. Russians in Ukraine form the largest minority in the country and the community forms the largest single Russian diaspora in the world There has been a substantial population of Russians in Kazakhstan since the 19th century Russians have been the largest ethnic minority in Latvia for many centuries See also Russophone (novel A Russophone (or russophone; русскоговорящий русскоязычный russkogovoryashchy While Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, in addition to Russia, have kept Russian as an official language, the language lost its status in other post-Soviet states after the end of the Soviet Union. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages

Religion

While under the Soviet system, religious intellectual life was eliminated, traditions continued to survive. After the collapse of the Soviet Union Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnic and secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment. "Throughout the time of change, Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and a pressure for democracy. But if successful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp. "^[3]

See also

• Russophone#Russian population in post-Soviet states
• Eastern bloc
• Russification
• Anti-Russian sentiment
• OSCE countries statistics
• Operation Provide Hope

References

External links

• Candid photos of the Eastern Bloc September-December 1991, in the last months of the USSR
• Discovering The Centuries-Old State Tradition, professor Pål Kolstø, University of Oslo
• Former Soviet war zones |The hazards of a long, hard freeze, The Economist, August 19, 2004
• 4 enclaves' post-Soviet fate in limbo, The Seattle Times, August 20, 2006
• Are Independence Referendums First Step Toward Kremlin's 'Historical Revanchism'?, Radio Free Europe, September 15, 2006