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The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, official Rzeczpospolita Korony Polskiej i Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego,[1] also known as the Most Serene Republic (Commonwealth) of the Two (Both) Nations (Peoples), (Polish: Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita or Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; Lithuanian: Abiejų tautų respublika) or as the "First Republic", was one of the largest and most populous[2] countries in 17th-century Europe. Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. Rzeczpospolita ( pronounced) is a Polish word for " Republic " or " Commonwealth " a Calque translation of the Lithuanian ( lietuvių kalba) is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognised as one of the official languages of the European Union. Its political structure—that of a semi-federal, semi-confederal aristocratic republic—was formed in 1569 by the Union of Lublin, which united the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and lasted in this form until the adoption of the Constitution of May 3, 1791. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its The Union of Lublin (Liublino unija Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія Polish: Unia The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje The Constitution of May 3 1791 (Konstytucja Trzeciego Maja Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija Канстытуцыя трэцьега траўня is generally recognized as The Commonwealth covered not only the territories of what is now Poland and Lithuania, but also the entire territory of Belarus and Latvia, large parts of Ukraine and Estonia, and part of present-day western Russia (Smolensk and Kaliningrad oblasts). Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Smolensk (Смоленск is a city in western Russia, located on the Dnieper River, the administrative centre of Smolensk Oblast. Kaliningrad (Калининград is a Seaport and the administrative center of Kaliningrad Oblast, the Russian Exclave between Poland Oblast (во́бласць oblast о́бласт oblast о́бласть област/ oblast; oblasť област о́бласть is a type of Administrative division Originally the official languages of the Commonwealth were Polish and Latin (in the Kingdom of Poland) and Ruthenian and Lithuanian[3] (in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania). Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Ruthenian (also Lithuanian ( lietuvių kalba) is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognised as one of the official languages of the European Union.
The Commonwealth was an extension of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, a personal union between those two states that had existed from 1386 (see Union of Krewo). The term Polish–Lithuanian Union sometimes called as United Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania refers to a series of acts and alliances between the Kingdom of Poland A personal union is the combination by which two different States are governed by the same Monarch, while their boundaries their laws and their interests remain distinct The Union of Krewo, also known as Krėva Act (other names Union of Krevo, Act of Kreva) was a set of promises of Jogaila, Grand Duke The Commonwealth's political system, often called the Noble's democracy or Golden Freedom, was characterized by the sovereign's power being reduced by laws and the legislature (Sejm) controlled by the nobility (szlachta). A political system is a System of Politics and Government. It is usually compared to the Law system, Economic system, Cultural Golden Liberty ( Latin: Aurea Libertas; Polish: Złota Wolność) sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy Szlachta ( refers to the noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (since 1569 semi-federal semi-confederal This system was a precursor of the modern concepts of broader democracy[4] and constitutional monarchy[5][6][7] as well as federation. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is A federation ( Latin: foedus, covenant is a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central ("federal" [8] The two comprising states of the Commonwealth were formally equal, although in reality Poland was a dominant partner in the union. [9] The Roman Catholic Church had a significant influence on the affairs of the Commonwealth, the state however was noted for having religious tolerance,[10] although the degree of it varied with time. Religious toleration is the condition of accepting or permitting others' religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own [11] Its economy was mainly based on agriculture. Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture While the Commonwealth's first century was a golden age[12][13] for both Poland and Lithuania, the second century was marked by military defeats, a return to serfdom for the peasants (the second serfdom phenomenon[14]), and growing anarchy[7][15] in political life. The term Golden age is best known from Greek mythology and legend but can also be found in other ancient cultures (see below Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted the world's second-oldest codified national constitution in modern history. A codex ( Latin for block of wood, Book; plural codices) is a book in the format used for modern books with separate pages normally A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also modern times) is the period of history that followed the Middle Ages between c [16]
The Duchy of Warsaw, established in 1807, traced its origins to the Commonwealth. The Duchy of Warsaw (Księstwo Warszawskie Duché de Varsovie Herzogtum Warschau Варшавское герцогство was a Polish state established by Napoleon Other revival movements appeared during the January Uprising (1863–64) and in the 1920s, with Józef Piłsudski's failed attempt to create a Polish-led Międzymorze ("Between-Seas") federation that would have included Lithuania and Ukraine. The January Uprising ( Polish: powstanie styczniowe, Lithuanian: 1863 m Międzymorze was a project pursued after World War I by Józef Piłsudski, of a Polish -led Federation of Central and A federation ( Latin: foedus, covenant is a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central ("federal" The Ukrainian People's Republic (Українська Народна Республіка Ukrayins’ka Narodna Respublika; also translated as the Ukrainian National Today's Republic of Poland considers itself a successor to the Commonwealth,[17] whereas the Republic of Lithuania, re-established at the end of World War I, saw the participation of the Lithuanian state in the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth mostly in a negative light, at the early stages of regaining its independence,[18] although the attitude has changed significantly. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
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History
The creation of the Commonwealth by the Union of Lublin in 1569 was one of the signal achievements of Sigismund II Augustus, last king of the Jagiellon dynasty, in an effort to preserve the monarchy by adopting elective monarchy. The Union of Lublin (Liublino unija Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія Polish: Unia For other nobles of the same name please see Sigismund. Sigismund II Augustus I (Zygmunt II August The Jagiellons (Jogailaičiai Jagiellonowie were a royal Dynasty originating from Lithuanian House of Gediminas dynasty that reigned in Central European An elective monarchy is a Monarchy ruled by someone generally from a Royal house, who is elected by a group His death in 1572 was followed by a three-year interregnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system that effectively increased the power of the nobility (the szlachta) and established a truly elective monarchy. An interregnum (plural interregna or interregnums) is a period of discontinuity of a government organization or social order Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime Szlachta ( refers to the noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (since 1569 semi-federal semi-confederal
The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the first half of the 17th century. The term Golden age is best known from Greek mythology and legend but can also be found in other ancient cultures (see below Its powerful parliament (the Sejm) was dominated by nobles who were reluctant to get involved in the Thirty Years' War, sparing the country from the ravages of this largely religious conflict devastating most of contemporary Europe. TalkParliament#Screen-size. -->A parliament is a Legislature, especially in those For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War. The Commonwealth was able to hold its own against Sweden, Russia, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and at times launched successful expansionist offensives against its neighbors. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Великое княжество Московское was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish In general expansionism consists of expansionist policies While some have linked the term to promoting Economic growth (in contrast to no growth / Sustainable policies During several invasions of Russia, which was weakened in the early 17th century by the Time of Troubles, Commonwealth troops managed to take Moscow and hold on to it from 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612, until driven out after a siege. For the Dungeons & Dragons plotline see Time of Troubles (Forgotten Realms. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Events 489 - Odoacer attacks Theodoric at the Battle of Verona and is defeated again Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani
Commonwealth power waned after a double blow in 1648. The Deluge ( Polish: Potop, full Polish name is Potop Szwedzki Deluge''' is the name commonly assigned in the History The first blow was history's greatest Cossack rebellion (the Khmelnytskyi Uprising, supported by Crimean Khanate Tatars, in the eastern territories of Kresy), which resulted in Cossacks asking for the protection of the Russian Tzar[19] (1654) thus leading to Russian influence over Ukraine gradually supplanting the Polish. The term Khmelnytsky Uprising (also Khmel'nyts'kyi/Chmielnicki Uprising or Khmelnytsky / Chmielnicki Rebellion) refers to a Rebellion or The Crimean Khanate or the Khanate of Crimea (Qırım Hanlığı|قريم خانلغى Крымское ханство - Krymskoye khanstvo; The term Kresy, meaning Outskirts or Borderlands, was first used to define the Polish eastern frontier The Treaty of Pereyaslav (Pereiaslav was concluded in 1654 in the Ukrainian city of Pereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi (Pereyaslav The other blow to the Commonwealth was the Swedish invasion in 1655 (supported by troops of Transylvanian duke George II Rakoczy and Friedrich Wilhelm I, Elector of Brandenburg), known as The Deluge, provoked by the policies of Commonwealth kings from the Swedish royal House of Vasa. Transylvania (Ardeal or ro ''Transilvania'' Erdély, see also other denominations) is a Central European region located in the eastern half of the Carpathian The Rákóczi (older spelling Rákóczy) were a Noble family in the Kingdom of Hungary between the 13th century and 18th century Frederick William (Friedrich Wilhelm February 16 1620 &ndash April 29 1688) was the Elector of Brandenburg and the The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl Brandenburg ( Lower Sorbian: Bramborska; Upper Sorbian: Braniborska) is one of the sixteen states of Germany. The Deluge ( Polish: Potop, full Polish name is Potop Szwedzki Deluge''' is the name commonly assigned in the History The House of Vasa ( Swedish: Vasaätten, Polish: Waza) was the Royal House of Sweden
In the late 17th century, the weakened Commonwealth under King John III Sobieski in alliance with the forces of the Holy Roman emperor Leopold I dealt crushing defeats to the Ottoman Empire: In 1683, the Battle of Vienna marked the final turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottoman Empire. John III Sobieski, (Jan III Sobieski (17 August 1629 - 17 June 1696 was one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Early life He was a younger brother of Ferdinand IV of Hungary and Mariana of Austria. The Battle of Vienna ( German: Schlacht am Kahlenberg, Polish: Bitwa pod Wiedniem or Odsiecz Wiedeńska, Turkish: İkinci Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. For its centuries-long stance against the Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of Antemurale Christianitatis (forefront of Christianity). [8] Over the next 16 years (in the "Great Turkish War"), the Turks would be permanently driven south of the Danube River, never to threaten central Europe again. The Great Turkish War refers to a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and contemporary European powers then joined into a Holy League The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and
By the 18th century, the Commonwealth was facing many internal problems and was vulnerable to foreign influences. Destabilization of its political system brought it to the brink of anarchy. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i Attempts at reform, such as those made by the Four-Year Sejm of 1788–92, which culminated in the May 3rd Constitution of 1791, came too late, and the country was partitioned in three stages by the neighboring Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy. The Great Sejm, also known as the Four-Year Sejm ( Polish: respectively Sejm Wielki or Sejm Czteroletni; Lithuanian Didysis The Constitution of May 3 1791 (Konstytucja Trzeciego Maja Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija Канстытуцыя трэцьега траўня is generally recognized as The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising Habsburg Monarchy (alternatively Habsburg Empire) refers to the territories ruled by the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg, and then by the successor By 1795, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania re-established their independence, as separate countries, only in 1918.
State organization and politics
Golden Liberty
The political doctrine of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was: our state is a republic under the presidency of the King. This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Golden Liberty ( Latin: Aurea Libertas; Polish: Złota Wolność) sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy The Union of Lublin (Liublino unija Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія Polish: Unia Jan Matejko ( (also known as Jan Mateyko; June 24 1838 Free City of Kraków; - November 1 1893 Kraków) was a Polish painter Chancellor Jan Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said that Rex regnat et non gubernat ("The King reigns but does not govern"). Kanclerz ( Polish for Chancellor, from Latin: cancellarius) was one of the highest Officials in the historic Poland. Biography Early years the royal supporter He attended the University of Paris and University of Padua, where he converted from Calvinism The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a Senat and an elected king. The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in King Henry's Articles as well as in pacta conventa, negotiated at the time of his election. The Henrician Articles, or Henrycian Articles ( Polish: Artykuły henrykowskie, Latin: Articuli Henriciani) or more often stated in Pacta conventa (Latin "agreed-upon agreements" was a contractual agreement from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i
The monarch's power was limited, in favor of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to subscribe to King Henry's Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance). Religious toleration is the condition of accepting or permitting others' religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own Over time, King Henry's Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point onwards, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators. A senate is a Deliberative body, often the Upper house or chamber of a Legislature or Parliament.
The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the "Golden Liberty" (Polish: Zlota Wolność, a term used from 1573 on), included:
- free election of the king by all nobles wishing to participate;
- Sejm, the Commonwealth parliament which the king was required to hold every two years;
- pacta conventa (Latin), "agreed-to agreements" negotiated with the king-elect, including a bill of rights, binding on the king, derived from the earlier King Henry's Articles. Golden Liberty ( Latin: Aurea Libertas; Polish: Złota Wolność) sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. Free election (Polish wolna elekcja) was the Election of individual kings rather than of Dynasties, to the Polish throne between Pacta conventa (Latin "agreed-upon agreements" was a contractual agreement from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The Henrician Articles, or Henrycian Articles ( Polish: Artykuły henrykowskie, Latin: Articuli Henriciani) or more often stated in
- rokosz (insurrection), the right of szlachta to form a legal rebellion against a king who violated their guaranteed freedoms;
- liberum veto (Latin), the right of an individual Sejm deputy to oppose a decision by the majority in a Sejm session; the voicing of such a "free veto" nullified all the legislation that had been passed at that session; during the crisis of the second half of the 17th century, Polish nobles could also use the liberum veto in provincial sejmiks;
- konfederacja (from the Latin confederatio), the right to form an organization to force through a common political aim. A rokosz, originally was a Gathering of all the Polish Szlachta ( Nobility) not merely of deputies for a Sejm An insurgency is a violent internal uprising against a sovereign government that lacks the organization of a revolution Liberum veto ( Latin: I freely forbid) was a parliamentary device in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that allowed any deputy to Liberum veto ( Latin: I freely forbid) was a parliamentary device in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that allowed any deputy to A sejmik (diminutive of the Polish word " Sejm " meaning a type of Parliament) was a regional assembly in the Polish–Lithuanian A konfederacja ( Polish for "confederation" was an ad hoc association formed by Polish-Lithuanian nobility, Clergy or Cities A konfederacja ( Polish for "confederation" was an ad hoc association formed by Polish-Lithuanian nobility, Clergy or Cities
The three regions (see below) of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of autonomy. Free election (Polish wolna elekcja) was the Election of individual kings rather than of Dynasties, to the Polish throne between Jan Matejko ( (also known as Jan Mateyko; June 24 1838 Free City of Kraków; - November 1 1893 Kraków) was a Polish painter An autonomous area is an area of a Country that has a degree of Autonomy, or freedom from an external authority [20] Each voivodship had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious political power, including choice of poseł (deputy) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. This article concerns both historical and contemporary voivodeships in various countries Chamber of deputies is the name given to a legislative body such as the Lower house of a Bicameral legislature or can refer to a Unicameral legislature The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje [21]
Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar political systems existed in the contemporary city-states like the Republic of Venice. A political system is a System of Politics and Government. It is usually compared to the Law system, Economic system, Cultural A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. The Most Serene Republic of Venice ((Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia Serenissima Repubblica [22] (Interestingly, both states were styled the "Most Serene Republic". [23]) At a time when most European countries were headed toward centralization, absolute monarchy and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with decentralization,[8] confederation and federation, democracy, religious tolerance, and even pacifism. Centralization (or centralisation) is the process by which the activities of an organization particularly those regarding decision-making become concentrated within Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything __FORCETOC__ Decentralization or Decentralisation (see Spelling differences) is the process of dispersing Decision-making governance closer to the people A confederation is a group of empowered states or communities usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution A federation ( Latin: foedus, covenant is a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central ("federal" Religious toleration is the condition of accepting or permitting others' religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own Since the Sejm usually vetoed a monarch's plans for war, this constitutes a notable argument for the democratic peace theory. The democratic peace theory (or liberal peace theory or simply the democratic peace) holds that democracies &mdash usually liberal democracies [24]
This political system unusual for its time stemmed from the victories of the szlachta noble class over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime A political system is a System of Politics and Government. It is usually compared to the Law system, Economic system, Cultural A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. Nihil novi nisi commune consensu ("Nothing new without the common consent" is the original Latin title of a 1505 act adopted by the Polish The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of:
- confederation and federation, with regard to the broad autonomy of its regions. A confederation is a group of empowered states or communities usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution A federation ( Latin: foedus, covenant is a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central ("federal" It is, however, difficult to decisively call the Commonwealth either confederation or federation, as it had some qualities of both of them;
- oligarchy,[8] as only the szlachta—around 10% of the population—had political rights;
- democracy, since all the szlachta were equal in rights and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). Oligarchy' ( Greek, Oligarkhía) is a Form of government where Political power effectively rests with a small elite segment Legislation (or " Statutory law " is law which has been promulgated (or " Enacted quot by a Legislature or other Governing Also, the 10% of Commonwealth population who enjoyed those political rights (the szlachta) was a substantially larger percentage than in any other European country; note that in 1831 in France only about 1% of the population had the right to vote, and in 1867 in the United Kingdom, only about 3%;
- elective monarchy, since the monarch, elected by the szlachta, was Head of State;
- constitutional monarchy, since the monarch was bound by pacta conventa and other laws, and the szlachta could disobey any king's decrees they deemed illegal. Hetman was the title of the second highest military commander (after the Monarch) used in 15th to 18th century Poland, Ukraine and Grand The bulawa (buława булава булава bulava) was a Ceremonial mace or baton carried by a Hetman, an officer of the highest An elective monarchy is a Monarchy ruled by someone generally from a Royal house, who is elected by a group A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is
The political players
- See also: list of szlachta
The major players in the politics of the Commonwealth were:
- monarchs, who struggled to expand their power and create an absolute monarchy. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a federal monarchic republic comprising the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, from 1569 until 1795 Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything
- magnates, the wealthiest of the szlachta, who wanted to rule the country as a privileged oligarchy, and to dominate both the monarch and the poorer nobles. Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position Oligarchy' ( Greek, Oligarkhía) is a Form of government where Political power effectively rests with a small elite segment
- szlachta, who desired a strengthening of the Sejm and rule of the country as a democracy of the szlachta. Szlachta ( refers to the noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (since 1569 semi-federal semi-confederal
The magnates and the szlachta were far from united, with many factions supporting either the monarch or various of the magnates.
Shortcomings of the Commonwealth
Once the Jagiellons had disappeared from the scene in 1572, the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government was disrupted. The Jagiellons (Jogailaičiai Jagiellonowie were a royal Dynasty originating from Lithuanian House of Gediminas dynasty that reigned in Central European Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility.
When presented with periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found another strong dynasty. A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able Transylvanian Stefan Batory (1576–86), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. Transylvania (Ardeal or ro ''Transilvania'' Erdély, see also other denominations) is a Central European region located in the eastern half of the Carpathian This article is about the ruler of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th century This was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish House of Vasa, whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as The Deluge (1648), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline. The House of Vasa ( Swedish: Vasaätten, Polish: Waza) was the Royal House of Sweden The Deluge ( Polish: Potop, full Polish name is Potop Szwedzki Deluge''' is the name commonly assigned in the History
Zebrzydowski's rokosz (1606–07) marked a substantial increase in the power of the magnates, and the transformation of szlachta democracy into magnate oligarchy. Zebrzydowski's Rebellion (rokosz Zebrzydowskiego or the Sandomierz Rebellion (rokosz sandomierski was a Rokosz (semi-legal Rebellion) in Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribed[25][26] by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. Bribery, a form of pecuniary corruption is an act usually implying money or gift given that alters the behaviour of the recipient in ways not consistent with the duties of that person This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th, while its neighbors stabilized their internal affairs and increased their military might.
Late reforms
The Commonwealth did eventually make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the May 3rd Constitution, Europe's first[16] codified national constitution in Modern Times, and the world's second, after the United States Constitution, which had been ratified two years earlier. The Constitution of May 3 1791 (Konstytucja Trzeciego Maja Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija Канстытуцыя трэцьега траўня is generally recognized as The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also modern times) is the period of history that followed the Middle Ages between c The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. The revolutionary Constitution recast the erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system. A hereditary monarchy is the most common style of Monarchy and is the form that is used by almost all of the world's existing monarchies The new constitution:
- abolished the liberum veto and banned the szlachta's confederations;
- provided for a separation of powers among legislative, executive and judicial branches of government;
- established "popular sovereignty" and extended political rights to include not only the nobility but the bourgeoisie;
- increased the rights of the peasantry;
- preserved religious tolerance (but with a condemnation of apostasy from the Catholic faith). Liberum veto ( Latin: I freely forbid) was a parliamentary device in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that allowed any deputy to Separation of powers, a term ascribed to French Enlightenment Political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, is a model for the Governance A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation In Political science and Constitutional law, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the State. In Law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of Courts which administer Justice in the name of the sovereign or State Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the belief that the legitimacy of the State is created by the will or consent of its people, who Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions A right is a legal or moral Entitlement or Permission. Rights are of vital importance in theories of Justice and deontological ethics Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground Religious toleration is the condition of accepting or permitting others' religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own
These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors which were content to leave the Commonwealth alone as a weak buffer state, but reacted strongly to king Stanisław August Poniatowski's and other reformers' attempts to strengthen the country. Stanisław II August Poniatowski (born Count Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski; January 17 1732 – February 12 1798 was the last King [20] Russia feared the revolutionary implications of the May 3rd Constitution's political reforms and the prospect of the Commonwealth regaining its position as a European empire. The Constitution of May 3 1791 (Konstytucja Trzeciego Maja Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija Канстытуцыя трэцьега траўня is generally recognized as Catherine the Great regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influence[27] and declared the Polish constitution Jacobinical. Catherine II, called Catherine the Great (Екатерина II Великая Yekaterina II Velikaya;) reigned as Empress of Russia for 34 years This page describes the political term "Jacobin" For discussion of the political organization of the French Revolution era see Jacobin Club. [28] Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin drafted the act for the Confederation of Targowica, referring to the constitution as the "contagion of democratic ideas". The Targowica Confederation (Konfederacja targowicka was a konfederacja of Polish and Lithuanian Magnates agreed upon on 27 April 1792 in [29] Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria, also afraid of a strengthened Poland, used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion. [28] Prussian minister Ewald von Hertzberg called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy",[30] fearing that strengthened Poland would once again dominate Prussia. Ewald Friedrich Graf von Hertzberg ( 2 September 1725 &ndash May 22, 1795) was a Prussian Statesman. [31][27] In the end, the May 3rd Constitution was never fully implemented, and the Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after the Constitution's adoption.
Commonwealth military
Commonwealth armies were commanded by two Grand Hetmans and two Field Hetmans. Hussar (original Hungarian spelling huszár, plural huszárok, Husaria refers to a number of types of Light cavalry created in Hungary Józef Brandt (b Szczebrzeszyn, 1841 - Radom, 1915 was a Polish painter, best known for his paintings of battles Polish Land Forces (Wojska Lądowe RP is a branch of Poland 's Armed Forces. Hetman was the title of the second highest military commander (after the Monarch) used in 15th to 18th century Poland, Ukraine and Grand The armies comprised:
- Wojsko kwarciane: Regular units with wages paid from taxes (these units were later merged with the wojsko komputowe)
- Wojsko komputowe: Semi-regular units created for times of war (in 1652 these units were merged with the wojsko kwarciane into a new permanent army)
- Pospolite ruszenie: Szlachta levée en masse
- Piechota łanowa and piechota wybraniecka: Units based on peasant recruits
- Registered Cossacks: Troops made up of Cossacks, used mainly as infantry, less often as cavalry (with tabors) were recruited. Pospolite ruszenie ( Polish for "common movement" the French term Levée en masse is also used is an anachronistic Levée en masse (literally "Rise in (a Mass" is defined in Article 4 letter A paragraph 6 of the Third Geneva Convention. Registered Cossacks (Реєстрові козаки Reyestrovi kozaky, Polish: Kozacy rejestrowi) is the term used for Ukrainian Cossacks The Cossacks (Каза́ки́ Kazaki; Козаки́ Kozaki; Kozacy are a group of martial people living in the southern Steppe regions of Eastern
- Royal guard: A small unit whose primary purpose was to escort the monarch and members of his family
- Mercenaries: As with most other armies, hired to supplement regular units, such as Germans, Scots, Wallachians, Serbs, Hungarians, Bohemians, Moravians and Silesians. A Royal Guard describes any group of military Bodyguard, soldiers or retainers responsible for the protection of a royal person such as a King or Queen A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by
- Private armies: In time of peace usually small regiments (few hundred men) were paid for and equipped by magnates or cities. A paramilitary is a force whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military force but which are not regarded as having the same status Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position However, in times of war, they were greatly augmented (to even a few thousand men) and paid by state
Some units of the Commonwealth included:
- Hussars: heavy cavalry armed with lances; their charges were extremely effective until advances in firearms in the late 17th century substantially increased infantry firepower. Hussar (original Hungarian spelling huszár, plural huszárok, Husaria refers to a number of types of Light cavalry created in Hungary The term lance has become a catchall for a variety of different Pole weapons based on the Spear. Cavalry charge redirects here For the football tactic see Cavalry charge (football. A firearm is a Tool that projects either single or multiple Projectiles at high velocity through a controlled explosion Members were known as towarzysz husarski and were supported by pocztowy's. Towarzysz ("Companion" plural towarzysze) was a cavalry officer in the Polish army from the 16th century. Towarzysz husarski ( Polish, plural Towarzysze husarscy) or Husarz (Hussar companion was the name of a type of heavy cavalryman in Poland. Poczet (fellowship or retinue (plural Poczty) was the smallest organized unit of soldiers in Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from
- Pancerni: medium cavalry, armed with sabers or axes, bows, later pistols. Towarzysz pancerny ("armoured companion" plural towarzysze pancerni, or pancerni) was a medium-cavalryman in 17th- and 18th-century Second important cavalry branch of the Polish army.
- Pocztowi: assistants of pancerni. Poczet (fellowship or retinue (plural Poczty) was the smallest organized unit of soldiers in Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from
- Cossack cavalry general name for all Commonwealth units of light cavalry, even if they did not contain a single ethnic Cossack; fast and maneuverable like oriental cavalry units of Ottoman Empire vassals, but lacking the firepower of European cavalry such as the Swedish pistol-armed reiters. The Cossacks (Каза́ки́ Kazaki; Козаки́ Kozaki; Kozacy are a group of martial people living in the southern Steppe regions of Eastern Reiters ( German: Reiter, or horserider shortened from the original “Schwarze Reiter”--literally "black riders" for the colour of their armour were
- Tabor: military horse-drawn wagons, usually carrying army supplies. A wagon (in British English, sometimes waggon) or dray is a heavy four-wheeled Vehicle. Their use for defensive formations was perfected by the Cossacks, and to a smaller extent by other Commonwealth units.
The Commonwealth Navy was small and played a relatively minor role in the history of the Commonwealth, but won the very important naval battle of Oliwa, breaking Swedish sea blockade in 1627. On the Black Sea, Cossacks with their small boats (czajka) were known for their plundering raids against the Ottoman Empire and its vassals (they even burned suburbs of Istanbul once or twice). The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey A vassal (also called feodary or fedary) in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of Medieval Europe, Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey
Economy
The economy of the Commonwealth was dominated by feudal agriculture based on exploitation of agricultural workforce (serfs). Wilhelm August Stryowski ( 1834 - 1917) was a Polish-German painter. main - title Coin keywords numismatics coin review This article is about the ruler of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th century Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland Sigismund III Vasa (Zygmunt III Waza ( 20 June 1566 Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture A plantation economy is an Economy which is based on Agricultural mass production usually of a few staple products grown on large farms called Plantations Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another [32] they were replaced by the second enserfment. Typically a nobleman's landholding comprised a folwark, a large farm worked by serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. Folwark (Palivarkas is a Polish word for the giant Farms (in Latin, " latifundia " that were operated in the Crown A farm is an area of land including various structures devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food ( Produce, Grains, or Livestock This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes in the early era of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the grain trade[13]. However the country's situation worsened from the late 17th century on, when the landed szlachta sought to compensate for falling grain prices by increasing the peasants' workload, thus leading to the creation of second serfdom, a phenomenon common throughout contemporary Eastern Europe. Price in Economics and Business is the result of an exchange and from that trade we assign a numerical Monetary value to a good,
The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the szlachta's dominance over the bourgeoisie, resulted in a fairly slow process of urbanization and thus a fairly slow development of industries. Urbanizationn (also spelled urbanisation) is the physical growth of Urban areas into rural or natural land as a result of population in-migration to an existing For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" While similar conflicts among social classes may be found all over Europe, nowhere were the nobility as dominant at the time as in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. There is, however, much debate among historians as to which processes most affected those developments, since until the wars and crises of the mid-17th century the cities of the Commonwealth had not markedly lagged in size and wealth behind their western counterparts. The Commonwealth did have numerous towns and cities, commonly founded on Magdeburg rights. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status Magdeburg Rights (Magdeburger Recht or Magdeburg Law were a set of German town laws regulating the degree of internal autonomy within cities and villages granted with Some of the largest trade fairs in the Commonwealth were held at Lublin. A trade fair (or trade show) is an exhibition organised so that companies in a specific Industry can showcase and demonstrate their latest products service study Lublin is the largest city in eastern Poland and the capital of Lublin Voivodeship with a population of 355954 See the geography section, below, for a list of major cities in the Commonwealth (commonly capitals of voivodships). This article concerns both historical and contemporary voivodeships in various countries
Although the Commonwealth was Europe's largest grain producer, the bulk of her grain was consumed domestically. Estimated grain consumption in the Polish Crown (Poland proper) and Prussia in 1560–70 was some 113,000 tons of wheat (or 226,000 łaszt (a łaszt, or "last", being a large bulk measure; in the case of grain, about half a ton). Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Units of mass There are three similar units of Mass called the ton: Long ton (simply ton in countries such as the United Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. A last is the Form used in Shoemaking to shape a Shoe in the rough form of a human Foot. Average yearly production of grain in the Commonwealth in the 16th century was 120,000 tons, 6% of which was exported, while cities consumed some 19% and the remainder was consumed by the villages. In Economics, an export is any good or Commodity, Transported from one country to another country in a Legitimate fashion The exports probably satisfied about 2% of the demand for grain in Western Europe, feeding 750,000 people there. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' Commonwealth grain achieved far more importance in poor crop years, as in the early 1590s and the 1620s, when governments throughout southern Europe arranged for large grain imports to cover shortfalls in their jurisdictions.
Still, grain was the largest export commodity of the Commonwealth. The owner of a folwark usually signed a contract with merchants of Gdansk (German Danzig), who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that seaport on the Baltic Sea. Folwark (Palivarkas is a Polish word for the giant Farms (in Latin, " latifundia " that were operated in the Crown A contract is an exchange of promises between two or more parties to do or refrain from doing an act which is enforceable in a court of law Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland ||-||-|-||-||-||-||-||-||-|} A port is a facility for receiving Ships and transferring cargo The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. Many rivers in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes: the Vistula, Pilica, Western Bug, San, Nida, Wieprz, Niemen. Pilica may refer to Pilica Silesian Voivodeship, a town in southern Poland Pilica River in south-central Poland The Bug or Buh River (Bug; Західний Буг Zakhidnyy Buh; Захо́дні Буг Zakhodni Buh; Западный Буг Zapadnyy Bug History In historical records the river was first mentioned in 1097 as Sanъ, reku Sanъ, k Sanovi, nad Sanomъ (1152 and Sanu Nida is a River in central Poland, a Tributary of the Vistula river (near Nowy Korczyn) with a length of 151 kilometres (29th longest The Wieprz is a River in central-eastern Poland, a tributary of the Vistula. "Nieman" and "Niemen" redirects here For other uses see Neman and Nieman (disambiguation. The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with river ports and granaries. ||-||-|-||-||-||-||-||-||-|} A port is a facility for receiving Ships and transferring cargo A granary is a storehouse for threshed grain or Animal feed. In ancient or primitive granaries Pottery is the most Most of the river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber.
From Gdańsk, ships, mostly from the Netherlands and Flanders, carried the grain to ports such as Antwerp and Amsterdam. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Flanders (Vlaanderen Flandre Flandern is a geographical region located in parts of present day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. ||-||-||-||} Antwerp ( Dutch:, French: Anvers) is a City and Municipality in Belgium and the capital of the Amsterdam (pronounced) is the capital and largest city of the Netherlands, located in the province of North Holland in the west Gdańsk ships accounted for only 2–10% of this maritime trade. Besides grain, other seaborne exports included lumber and wood-related products such as tar and ash. Lumber or timber is Wood in any of its stages from felling through readiness for use as structural Material for Construction, or Tar is a viscous black Liquid derived from the Destructive distillation of organic matter
By land routes, the Commonwealth exported hides, furs, hemp, cotton (mostly from Wielkopolska) and linen to the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire, including cities like Leipzig and Nuremberg. Hides are Skins obtained from animals for human use Examples of animal hide sources are Deer and Cattle typically used for producing Leather, Fur is a body hair of any non-human Mammal, also known as the Pelage. This article is about the cultivation and uses of industrial hemp not its psychoactive cousin Cannabis (drug. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Greater Poland or Great Poland, Polish Wielkopolska (Großpolen Latin: Polonia Maior) is a historical region of west-central Poland Linen is a Textile made from the Fibers of the Flax plant Linum usitatissimum. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in This sort of fix restores section edit linkpoints to where they belong Large herds (of around 50,000 head) of cattle were driven south through Silesia. A herd is a large group of animals The term is usually applied to mammals particularly Ungulates. Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family Etymology One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, who were most likely a Vandalic (East Germanic people
The Commonwealth imported spices, luxury goods, clothing, fish, beer and industrial products like steel and tools. A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive In Economics, a luxury good is a good for which Demand increases more than proportionally as income rises in contrast to a "necessity good" Clothing (also called clothes, accoutrements, accouterments, or habiliments) protects the Human body from extreme Weather Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other A few riverboats carried south imports from Gdańsk like wine, fruit, spices and herring. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive Herring are small Oily fish of the genus Clupea found in the shallow temperate waters of the North Atlantic, the Baltic Sea, the North Somewhere between the 16th and 17th centuries, the Commonwealth's trade balance shifted from positive to negative. The balance of trade (or net exports, sometimes symbolized as NX) is the difference between the monetary value of Exports and imports in an
With the advent of the Age of Exploration, many old trading routes such as the Amber Road lost importance as new ones were created. The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century during which Europeans explored A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo The Amber Road was an ancient Trade route for the transfer of Amber. Poland's importance as a caravan route between Asia and Europe diminished, while new local trading routes were created between the Commonwealth and Russia. But even with improvements in shipping technology the Commonwealth remained an important link between Occident and Orient, as many goods and cultural artifacts passed from one region to another via the Commonwealth. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings The Orient is a term which simply means the " East " It originated in Western Asia to describe that part of the world For example, Isfahan rugs imported from Persia to the Commonwealth were actually known in the West as "Polish rugs". The Iranian city of Isfahan (also spelt Esfahan has long been one of the centres for production of the famous Persian Rug. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Also, the price of eastern spices in Poland was several times lower than in western ports, which led to the creation of a distinct Polish cuisine, owing much both to the eastern and western influence. Polish cuisine (kuchnia polska is a mixture of Slavic culinary traditions
Commonwealth currency included the złoty and the grosz. A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is The złoty (/ˈzwɔtɨ/, plural for numbers ending in 2 3 and 4 (except 12 13 and 14 złote /ˈzwɔtɛ/ plural for all other numbers złotych /ˈzwɔtɨx/ The City of Gdańsk had the privilege of minting its own coinage. Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland
Culture
- Further information: Renaissance in Poland, Baroque in Poland and Enlightenment in Poland
The Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. Pažaislis monastery and church (Pažaislio vienuolynas form the largest Monastery complex in Lithuania, and the most magnificent example of Italian Baroque Białystok Lublin Voivodeship Białystok (also known by alternative names) is the largest City in northeastern Poland. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by philosophers such as Erasmus; and, during the Counter-Reformation, was known for near-unparalleled religious tolerance, with peacefully coexisting Catholic, Jewish, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant and even Muslim communities. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The Counter-Reformation (also Catholic Reformation denotes the period of Catholic revival from the pontificate of Pope Pius IV in 1560 to the close of the Religious toleration is the condition of accepting or permitting others' religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Commonwealth gave rise to the famous Christian sect of the Polish Brethren, antecedents of British and American Unitarianism. In the Sociology of religion a sect is generally a smaller religious or political group that has broken off from a larger group for example from a Polish Brethren (also called Antitrinitarians, Arians, or Socinians, Polish Arianie, Bracia Polscy) was the name of a Protestant The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Unitarianism as a theology is the belief in the single personality of God in contrast to the doctrine of the Trinity (three persons in one God
With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to political philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503–72), Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki (1530–1607) and Piotr Skarga (1536–1612). Political philosophy is the study of questions about the City, Government, Politics, Liberty, Justice, Property, Rights Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (Andreas Fricius Modrevius (c September 20 1503 – 1572 was a Polish Renaissance scholar humanist Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki ( Latin: Laurentius Grimaldius Gosliscius; born between 1530 and 1540 died on October 31, 1607) was a Polish Piotr Skarga (February 2 1536 – September 27 1612; actual name Piotr Powęski; referred to in some English sources as Peter Skarga) was a Polish Later, works by Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826) and Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812) helped pave the way for the Constitution of May 3, 1791, the first modern codified national constitution in Europe,[16] which enacted revolutionary political principles for the first time on that continent. Stanisław Staszic ( November 6, 1755 - January 20, 1826) was a Polish Priest, Philosopher, Statesman Life After studying at the Kraków Academy (the later Jagiellonian University) he took holy orders then spent time in Vienna and Italy where The Constitution of May 3 1791 (Konstytucja Trzeciego Maja Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija Канстытуцыя трэцьега траўня is generally recognized as The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also modern times) is the period of history that followed the Middle Ages between c A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity Political science is a branch of Social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of Politics and the description and analysis of Political systems
Kraków's Jagiellonian University is one of the oldest universities in the world. Kraków, in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow (ˈkrækaʊ M-W: krăk'ou krāk'ō is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland For several academies alternatively called "Krakow Academy" see Education in Kraków The Jagiellonian University (Uniwersytet Vilnius University and the Jagiellonian University were the major scholarly and scientific centers in the Commonwealth. Vilnius University (Vilniaus Universitetas formerly known as Vilnius State University, earlier - Stefan Batory University and before that Almae The Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, (Polish for Commission for National Education), formed in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education. The Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej abbreviated KEN) was the central educational authority in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, created Commonwealth scientists included:
- Martin Kromer (1512–89), historian and cartographer,
- Michał Sędziwój (1566–1636), alchemist and chemist,
- Kazimierz Siemienowicz (1600–51), military engineer, artillery specialist and a founder of rocketry,
- Johannes Hevelius (1611–87), astronomer, founder of lunar topography. Marcin Kromer ( German: Martin Cromer, Martinus Cromerus 1512 - 23 March 1589) was a Prince-Bishop of Warmia (Ermland Michał Sędziwój ( Michael Sendivogius) (1566-1636 was a Polish alchemist, Philosopher, and medical doctor Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of Kazimierz Siemienowicz (Casimirus Siemienowicz Kazimieras Simonavičius Казімір Семяновіч born c Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine A rocket or rocket vehicle is a Missile, Aircraft or other Vehicle which obtains Thrust by the reaction of the Johannes Hevelius ( Latin) also called Johannes Hewel Johann Hewelke Johannes Höwelcke in German, or Jan Heweliusz (in Polish) Historically Astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky while Astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena Topography ( topo-, "place" and graphia, "writing" is the study of Earth 's Surface features or those of Planets
The many classics of Commonwealth literature include:
- Jan Kochanowski, (1530–84), writer, dramatist and poet;
- Wacław Potocki, (1621–96), writer, poet;
- Ignacy Krasicki, (1735–1801), writer, poet, fabulist, author of the first Polish novel;
- Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, (1758–1841), writer, dramatist and poet. Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. The majority of Polish literature was written in the Polish language, though other languages used in Poland Life Kochanowski was born at Sycyna, near Radom, Poland. Little is known of his early education The Laments (also Lamentations or Threnodies; Treny are a series of nineteen threnodies ( elegies) by Biography Wacław Potocki was born to a minor szlachta family belonging to the Arian Christian sect of the Polish brethren. Ignacy Krasicki (February 3 1735 March 14 1801 from 1795 Archbishop of Gniezno (thus Primate of Poland) was Poland 's leading Enlightenment Fables and Parables ( Bajki i przypowieści, 1779 by Ignacy Krasicki, is a noted work in a long international tradition of fable-writing that FourthAve 1253 24 July 2005
Many szlachta members wrote memoirs and diaries. Szlachta ( refers to the noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (since 1569 semi-federal semi-confederal for other uses see Memoir (disambiguation As a literary Genre, a memoir (from the French: mémoire For other uses of the term 'diary' see Diary (disambiguation. Perhaps the most famous are the Memoirs of Polish History by Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł (1595–1656) and the Memoirs of Jan Chryzostom Pasek (ca. Biography He was born on July 1, 1595 in his family manor in Ołyka to Stanisław Pius Radziwiłł and Marianna nee Myszka See also Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł Wacław Potocki 1636 – ca. 1701).
Magnates often undertook construction projects as monuments to themselves: churches, cathedrals, and palaces like the present-day Presidential Palace in Warsaw built by Grand Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski herbu Pobóg. Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position This article is about the history and organisation of the cathedral A palace is a grand residence especially the home of a Head of state or some other high-ranking Public figure. Presidential Palace (also known as Pałac Prezydencki, Pałac Koniecpolskich, Lubomirskich, Radziwiłłów, or Pałac Namiestnikowski Biography Childhood Stanisław Koniecpolski was born between 1590 and 1594 into the szlachta and magnate family of Koniecpolscy, likely in their seat of Pobóg - is a Polish coat of arms. It was used by several Szlachta families in the times of the Polish-Lithuanian The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or be totally abandoned. Usually they were named after the sponsoring magnate. Among the most famous is the town of Zamość, founded by Jan Zamoyski and designed by the Italian architect Bernardo Morando. Zamość is a town in southeastern Poland with 66633 inhabitants (2004 situated in the Lublin Voivodeship (since 1999 Biography Early years the royal supporter He attended the University of Paris and University of Padua, where he converted from Calvinism Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest An architect is a licensed individual who leads a design team in the Planning and Design of buildings and participates in oversight of Building Construction Bernardo Morando, also known as Bernardino or Morandi (ca 1540 - 1600 was a Polish - Italian architect
Szlachta and Sarmatism
The prevalent ideology of the szlachta became "Sarmatism", named after the Sarmatians, alleged ancestors of the Poles. An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics Sarmatism embodied the dominant Lifestyle, Culture and Ideology of the Szlachta ( Nobility) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες This belief system was an important part of the szlachta's culture, penetrating all aspects of its life. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Sarmatism enshrined equality among szlachta, horseback riding, tradition, provincial rural life, peace and pacifism; championed oriental-inspired attire (żupan, kontusz, sukmana, pas kontuszowy, delia, szabla); and served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility by creating an almost nationalistic sense of unity and of pride in the szlachta's Golden Freedoms. Sarmatism embodied the dominant Lifestyle, Culture and Ideology of the Szlachta ( Nobility) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth The Orient is a term which simply means the " East " It originated in Western Asia to describe that part of the world For "Z(hupan" the homophonic title of the leader of a " župa " see that article Kontusz (pronounce /'kɔntuʃ/ is a type of outer garment worn by the Polish and Lithuanian male nobility ( Szlachta) Pas kontuszowy (" Kontusz sash" was a cloth Sash used for compassing a Kontusz (a robe-like garment The delia was an item of male apparel worn over the żupan by Szlachta ( Nobility) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Szabla (plural szable is the general Slavic word for Sabre. In particular it is used to describe a specifically Eastern European one-edged sabre-like The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation
In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism represented a positive cultural movement: it supported religious belief, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom. In time, however, it became distorted. Late extreme Sarmatism turned belief into bigotry, honesty into political naïveté, pride into arrogance, courage into stubbornness and freedom into anarchy. Sarmatism embodied the dominant Lifestyle, Culture and Ideology of the Szlachta ( Nobility) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth [33]
Demographics and religion
- For more details on this topic, see Historical demographics of Poland#Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569-1795). Historical demography of Poland shows that in the past Poland's Demography was much more diverse then at present
The population of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was never overwhelmingly either Roman Catholic or Polish. This circumstance resulted from Poland's possession of Ukraine and confederation with Lithuania, in both of which countries ethnic Poles were a distinct minority. The Commonwealth comprised primarily four nations: Lithuanians, Poles, Belarusians and Ukrainians; the latter two usually referred to as the Ruthenians. Lithuanians are the Baltic Ethnic group native to Lithuania, where they number a little over 3 million The Polish people, or Poles, (Polacy) are a Western Slavic Ethnic group of Central Europe, living predominantly in Poland. Belarusians or Belorussians (Беларусы Biełarusy previously also spelled Belarussians, Byelorussians and Belorusians, also Ukrainians (Українці Ukrayintsi,) are an East Slavic Ethnic group primarily living in Ukraine, or more broadly— Citizens Sometimes inhabitants of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were called Litvins, a Slavic term for Lithuanians, despite being of different ethnicities. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje Shortly after the Union of Lublin, the Commonwealth population was around 7 million, with a rough breakdown of 4. The Union of Lublin (Liublino unija Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія Polish: Unia 5 m Poles, 0. 75 m Lithuanians, 0. 7 m Jews and 2 m Ruthenians. [34] In 1618, after the Truce of Deulino, the Commonwealth population increased together with its territory, reaching 11. See also List of treaties 5 million people, which was composed roughly of 4. 5 m Poles, 3. 5 m Ukrainians, 1. 5 m Belarusians, 0. 75 m Lithuanians, 0. 75 m Prussians, 0. 5 m Jews, and 0. 5 m Livonians. At that time nobility was 10% of the population, and burghers were 15%. [35] In the period from 1648–57, populations losses are estimated at 4 m. [35] Coupled with further population and territorial losses, in 1717 the Commonwealth population had fallen to 9 m, with roughly 4. 5 m Poles, 1. 5 m Ukrainians, 1. 2 m Belarusians, 0. 8 m Lithuanians, 0. 5 m Jews, and 0. 5 m others. [35]
To be Polish, in the non-Polish lands of the Commonwealth, was then much less an index of ethnicity than of religion and rank; it was a designation largely reserved for the landed noble class (szlachta), which included Poles but also many members of non-Polish origin who converted to Catholicism in increasing numbers with each following generation. @@@ main@@@ - title Hierarchy@@@ keywords structure; sociology; information@@@ review@@@ - Landed property or landed estates is a Real estate term that usually refers to a property that generates income for the owner without the owner having to Religious conversion is the adoption of a new religious identity or a change from one religious identity to another For the non-Polish noble such conversion meant a final step of Polonization that followed the adoption of the Polish language and culture. Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime Polonization (polonizacja is the acquisition or imposition The Culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1000 year history. [36] Poland, as the culturally most advanced part of the Commonwealth, with the royal court, the capital, the largest cities, the second-oldest university in Central Europe (after Prague), and the more liberal and democratic social institutions had proven an irresistible magnet for the non-Polish nobility in the Commonwealth. Prague (ˈprɑːg Praha (ˈpraɦa see also other names) is the Capital and Largest city of the Czech Republic. Social organization or social institution, refers to a group of Social positions connected by Social relations performing a Social role. [8]
As a result, in the eastern territories a Polish (or Polonized) aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Roman Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge colonization efforts to Ukraine, heightening the tensions among nobles, Jews, Cossacks (traditionally Orthodox), Polish and Ruthenian peasants. Colonisation (also known as Colonization) occurs whenever any one or more species populates a new area Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Cossacks (Каза́ки́ Kazaki; Козаки́ Kozaki; Kozacy are a group of martial people living in the southern Steppe regions of Eastern The latter, deprived of their native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to cossacks that facilitated violence that in the end broke the Commonwealth. The Cossacks (Каза́ки́ Kazaki; Козаки́ Kozaki; Kozacy are a group of martial people living in the southern Steppe regions of Eastern The tensions were aggravated by conflicts between Eastern Orthodoxy and the Greek Catholic Church following the Union of Brest, overall discrimination of Orthodox religions by dominant Catholicism,[37] and several Cossack uprisings. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Union of Brest ( Belarusian: Берасьцейская унія, Ukrainian: Берестейська унія, Unia brzeska refers to the Union of Brest ( Belarusian: Берасьцейская унія, Ukrainian: Берестейська унія, Unia brzeska refers to the The Cossacks (Каза́ки́ Kazaki; Козаки́ Kozaki; Kozacy are a group of martial people living in the southern Steppe regions of Eastern In the west and north, many cities had sizable German minorities, often belonging to Reformed churches. The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as The Reformed churches are a group of Christian Protestant Denominations formally characterized by a similar Calvinist system of doctrine historically The Commonwealth had also one of the largest Jewish diasporas in the world. The Jewish diaspora ( Hebrew: Tefutzah, "scattered" or Galut גלות "exile" Yiddish: tfutses) the presence
Until the Reformation, the szlachta were mostly Catholic or Eastern Orthodox. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world However, many families quickly adopted the Reformed religion. The Reformed churches are a group of Christian Protestant Denominations formally characterized by a similar Calvinist system of doctrine historically After the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Roman Catholic, despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not a majority religion (the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches counted approximately 40% of the population each, while the remaining 20% were Jews and members of various Protestant churches). The Counter-Reformation (also Catholic Reformation denotes the period of Catholic revival from the pontificate of Pope Pius IV in 1560 to the close of the PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. It should be noted that the Counter-Reformation in Poland, influenced by the Commonwealth tradition of religious tolerance, was based mostly on Jesuit propaganda and was very peaceful when compared to excesses such as the Thirty Years' War elsewhere in Europe. Religious toleration is the condition of accepting or permitting others' religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War.
Languages of the Commonwealth
- Polish (officially recognized;[38] dominant language, used by most of Commonwealth nobility[39][40][38][41] and by peasantry in the Crown province;[42] official language in Crown chancellery and since 1697 in Grand Duchy chancellery)[43] Dominant language in the towns. A city hall or town hall is the chief administrative building of a City or Town 's administration and usually houses the city or Zamość is a town in southeastern Poland with 66633 inhabitants (2004 situated in the Lublin Voivodeship (since 1999 Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. [42]
- Latin (off. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. recog. ;[38][44] commonly used in foreign relations[43] and popular as second language among the nobility[45])
- Lithuanian (not off. Lithuanian ( lietuvių kalba) is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognised as one of the official languages of the European Union. recog. [46][38] but used in some official documents in Grand Duchy[47][48] and by some peasantry in Grand Duchy[42])
- German (off. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. recog. ;[38] used in some foreign relations,[43] in Royal Prussia and by minorities in cities[49][42])
- Hebrew (off. Royal Prussia ( Prusy Królewskie was a province of the Kingdom of Poland from 1466 and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772 recog. ;[38] used by the Jews; Yiddish was also used[42] but not recognized as official language[50][51])
- Ruthenian (also known as Chancery Slavonic;[43] off. Yiddish (yi [[wiktייִדיש ייִדיש]] yidish or yi [[wiktאידיש אידיש]] idish, literally "Jewish" is a nonterritorial High Ruthenian (also recog. ;[38] official language in Grand Duchy chancellery until 1697; used in some foreign relations[44][43] and some peasants in Ruthenian province[42])
- Armenian (off. The Armenian language (hy հայերեն լեզու hajɛɹɛn lɛzu —, conventional short form) is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenian recog. [38] used by Armenian minority[52][53])
Provinces and geography
- For more details on this topic, see Administrative division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The administrative division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the result of the long and complicated history of the fragmentation of the Polish Kingdom and the Union
The Crown Duchy of Prussia, Polish fief Grand Duchy of Lithuania Duchy of Courland, Lithuanian fief Duchy of Livonia Swedish and Danish Livonia
The lands that once belonged to the Commonwealth are now largely distributed among several Central and East European countries:
Poland, Ukraine, Moldova (Transnistria), Belarus, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. The Duchy of Prussia or Ducal Prussia (Herzogtum Preußen Prūsijos kunigaikštystė Prusy Książęce was a Duchy in the eastern part of Prussia from The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (Ducatus Curlandiæ et Semigalliæ Księstwo Kurlandii i Semigalii,Herzogtum Kurland und Semgallen Kurzemes un Zemgales hercogiste is the name of The Duchy of Estonia was a dominion of Denmark during the Middle Ages. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania Transnistria, also known as Trans-Dniester, Transdniestria, and Pridnestrovie (full name Pridnestrovian Also some small towns in Slovakia, then within the Kingdom of Hungary, became a part of Poland in the Treaty of Lubowla. Slovakia (long form Slovak Republic; Slovak:, long form, is a Landlocked country in Central Europe with a population of over five million The Kingdom of Hungary (short form Hungary) was a considerable state in Central Europe that existed from 1001 to 1918 then from 1919 to 1946 Treaty of Lubowla of 1412 was a treaty between Władysław II, King of Poland, and Sigismund of Luxemburg, King of Hungary.
While the term "Poland" was also commonly used to denote this whole polity, Poland was in fact only part of a greater whole—the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which comprised primarily two parts:
- the Crown of the Polish Kingdom (Poland proper), colloquially "the Crown"; and
- the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, colloquially "Lithuania". The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje
The Crown in turn comprised two great regions ("prowincjas"): Wielkopolska or Greater Poland and Małopolska or Lesser Poland, and third region was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A prowincja (plural prowincje) or province, was the largest territorial subdivision in Poland and later in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Greater Poland or Great Poland, Polish Wielkopolska (Großpolen Latin: Polonia Maior) is a historical region of west-central Poland Lesser Poland (also "Little Poland" Polish: Małopolska, Latin: Polonia Minor) is one of the historical regions of Poland The Commonwealth was further divided into smaller administrative units known as voivodships (województwa). This article concerns both historical and contemporary voivodeships in various countries Each voivodship was governed by a voivod (wojewoda, governor). A voivode or waywode is a Slavic title that originally denoted the principal commander of a military force Voivodships were further divided into starostwa, each starostwo being governed by a starosta. This article is about a medieval Polish office For a village see Starostwo (village. Starost(a ( Elder Cyrillic: Старост/а is a Title for an official or unofficial position of leadership that has been used in various contexts through Cities were governed by castellans. A castellan was the Governor or caretaker of a Castle or Keep. There were frequent exceptions to these rules, often involving the ziemia subunit of administration: for details on the administrative structure of the Commonwealth, see the article on offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Ziemia (literally 'earth' or 'land' in Polish language, terra is a historical Unit of administration in Poland. This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Other notable parts of the Commonwealth often referred to, without respect to region or voivodship divisions, include:
- Lesser Poland (Małopolska), southern Poland, with its capital at Kraków (Cracow);
- Greater Poland (Wielkopolska), west–central Poland around Poznań and the Warta River system;
- Masovia (Mazowsze), central Poland, with its capital at Warszawa (Warsaw);
- Samogitia (Żmudź), western Lithuania;
- Royal Prussia (Prusy Królewskie), at the southern shore of the Baltic Sea, was an autonomous area since the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), incorporated into the Crown in 1569 with the Commonwealth's formation;
- Ruthenia (Ruś), the eastern Commonwealth, adjoining Russia;
- Duchy of Livonia (Inflanty), a joint domain of the Crown and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Lesser Poland (also "Little Poland" Polish: Małopolska, Latin: Polonia Minor) is one of the historical regions of Poland Kraków, in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow (ˈkrækaʊ M-W: krăk'ou krāk'ō is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland Greater Poland or Great Poland, Polish Wielkopolska (Großpolen Latin: Polonia Maior) is a historical region of west-central Poland Poznań Lublin Voivodeship This article is about the city in Poland The Warta (Warthe Varta is a River in western-central Poland, a tributary of the Oder river Masovia or Mazovia (Mazowsze is a geographic and historic region situated in eastern Poland 's Masovian Plain. Warsaw (Warszawa; also known by other names) is the Capital and Largest city of Poland. Samogitia ( Samogitian: Žemaitėjė, Žemaitija literally lowlands) is one of the five Ethnographic Regions of Lithuania. Royal Prussia ( Prusy Królewskie was a province of the Kingdom of Poland from 1466 and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772 The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. Autonomy ( Greek: Auto- Nomos - nomos meaning "law" one who gives oneself his/her own Law) is the right to Self-government The Second Peace of Thorn of 1466 (Zweiter Friede von Thorn Drugi Pokój Toruński was a Peace treaty signed in the Hanseatic city of Thorn (Toruń on The Union of Lublin (Liublino unija Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія Polish: Unia Pomerelia (Pommerellen is a historical region in northern Poland. Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland Ruthenia is a geographic and culturo-ethnic name applied to the parts of Eastern Europe populated by Eastern Slavic peoples, as well as to the past various Parts lost to Sweden in the 1620s and in 1660;
- Duchy of Courland (Kurlandia), a northern fief of the Commonwealth. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (Ducatus Curlandiæ et Semigalliæ Księstwo Kurlandii i Semigalii,Herzogtum Kurland und Semgallen Kurzemes un Zemgales hercogiste is the name of Under the system of Feudalism, a fiefdom, fief, feud, feoff, or fee, often consisted of inheritable lands or revenue-producing It established a colony in Tobago in 1637 and on St. Andrews Island at the Gambia River in 1651 (see Courland colonization);
- Silesia (Śląsk) was not within the Commonwealth, but small parts belonged to various Commonwealth kings; in particular, the Vasa kings were dukes of Opole from 1645 to 1666. This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. Tobago is the smaller of the two main islands that make up the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. James Island is an Island in the Gambia River, 30km from the river mouth and near Juffureh in the country of The Gambia. The Gambia River is a major River in Africa, running 1130 km (700 miles from the Fouta Djallon plateau in north Guinea westward to the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (Kurland a vassal of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth being small but wealthy took a modest part in European Colonialism, in West Africa Etymology One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, who were most likely a Vandalic (East Germanic people A duke is a member of the Nobility, historically of highest rank below the Sovereign, and historically controlled a Duchy or a Dukedom Opole (Oppeln is a city in southern Poland on the Oder River (Odra
Commonwealth borders shifted with wars and treaties, sometimes several times in a decade, especially in the eastern and southern parts.
Thought was given at various times to the creation of a Duchy of Ruthenia, particularly during the 1648 Cossack insurrection against Polish rule in Ukraine. The January Uprising ( Polish: powstanie styczniowe, Lithuanian: 1863 m The Principality of Ruthenia ( Red Ruthenian: Ruśke Knjaziwstwo, Ruthenian: Kniastwa Ruskaje, Księstwo Ruskie was a Ruthenian The Cossacks (Каза́ки́ Kazaki; Козаки́ Kozaki; Kozacy are a group of martial people living in the southern Steppe regions of Eastern Such a Duchy, as proposed in the 1658 Treaty of Hadiach, would have been a full member of the Commonwealth, which would thereupon have become a tripartite Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth or Commonwealth of Three Nations, but due to szlachta demands, Muscovite invasion, and division among the Cossacks, the plan was never implemented. The Treaty of Hadiach (ugoda hadziacka was a Treaty signed on September 16 1658 in Hadiach (Hadziacz Hadiacz Гадяч between representatives of the Polish-Lithuanian Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth (Rzeczpospolita Trojga Narodów Commonwealth of Three Nations For similar reasons, plans for a Polish-Lithuanian-Muscovite Commonwealth also were never realized, although during the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18) the Polish Prince (later, King) Władysław IV Waza was briefly elected Tsar of Muscovy. This article is about the 17th century king of Poland For another person sometimes mentioned as Wladislaw IV of Poland in works of reference see the 14th century Władysław
The Crown had about double the population of Lithuania and five times the income of the latter's treasury. A separate article is about the mathematician Nicholas Mercator. As with other countries, the borders, area and population of the Commonwealth varied over time. After the Peace of Jam Zapolski (1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km² area and a population of 6. 5 million. After the Truce of Deulino (1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 990,000 km² and a population of 10–11 million (including some 4 million Poles). See also List of treaties In the 16th century, the Polish bishop and cartographer Martin Kromer published a Latin atlas, entitled Poland: about Its Location, People, Culture, Offices and the Polish Commonwealth, which was regarded as the most comprehensive guide to the country. A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight Marcin Kromer ( German: Martin Cromer, Martinus Cromerus 1512 - 23 March 1589) was a Prince-Bishop of Warmia (Ermland An atlas is a collection of Maps typically of Earth or a region of Earth but there are atlases of the other planets (and their satellites in the solar system Polonia sive de situ populis moribus magistratibus et Republica regni Polonici libri duo is a Book, first published in Cologne in 1577 in Latin
Kromer's works and other contemporary maps, such as those of Gerardus Mercator, show the Commonwealth as mostly plains. A separate article is about the mathematician Nicholas Mercator. In Geography, a plain is an area of land with relatively low relief — meaning that it is flat The Commonwealth's southeastern part, the Kresy, was famous for its steppes. The term Kresy, meaning Outskirts or Borderlands, was first used to define the Polish eastern frontier In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced The Carpathian Mountains formed part of the southern border, with the Tatra Mountain chain the highest, and the Baltic Sea formed the Commonwealth's northern border. The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians (Carpaţi Czech, Polish and Slovak: Karpaty; Ukrainian: Карпати Panorama tatierjpg|thumb|right|300px|Panorama of Tatras]]The Tatra Mountains, Tatras or Tatra ( Tatry in both Polish and Slovak) The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. As with most European countries at the time, the Commonwealth had extensive forest cover, especially in the east. A forest is an area with a high density of Trees There are many definitions of a forest based on various criteria Today, what remains of the Białowieża Forest constitutes the last largely intact primeval forest in Europe. Białowieża Primaeval Forest, known as Belaveskaya Pushcha (Белавеская пушча or Belovezhskaya Pushcha in Belarus Ancient Woodland Old growth forest, (also termed primary forest, ancient forest, virgin forest, primeval forest, frontier
Voivodeships of the Commonwealth
- Further information: Voivodeships of Poland#Polish voivodeships 1386–1795 and Voivodes of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Note that some sources use the word palatinate instead of voivodship. Voivodeship The voivodeship or province (województwo has been a high-level Administrative subdivision of Poland since the 14th century Voivodes of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were one of the highest ranking officials who could sit in the Senate of Poland. This article concerns both historical and contemporary voivodeships in various countries
Greater Poland
- Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship (województwo brzesko-kujawskie, Brześć Kujawski)
- Gniezno Voivodeship (województwo gnieźnieńskie, Gniezno) from 1768
- Inowrocław Voivodeship (województwo inowrocławskie, Inowrocław)
- Kalisz Voivodeship (województwo kaliskie, Kalisz)
- Łęczyca Voivodeship (województwo łęczyckie, Łęczyca)
- Mazovian Voivodeship (województwo mazowieckie, of Mazowsze, Warsaw) consisting of
- County of Ciechanów (ziemia ciechanowska, Ciechanów)
- County of Czersk (ziemia czerska, Czersk)
- County of Liw (ziemia liwska, Liw)
- County of Łomża (ziemia łomżyńska, Łomża)
- County of Nur (ziemia nurska, Nur)
- County of Różan (ziemia różańska, Różan)
- County of Warszawa (ziemia warszawska, Warsaw)
- County of Wisk (ziemia wiska, Wizna)
- Poznań Voivodeship (województwo poznańskie, Poznań)
- Płock Voivodeship (województwo płockie, Płock) consisting of
- County of Wyszogród (ziemia wyszogrodzka, Wyszogród)
- County of Zawkrzeń (ziemia zawkrzeńska, Zawkrzeń)
- Podlasie Voivodeship (województwo podlaskie, Drohiczyn) consisting of:
- Rawa Voivodeship (województwo rawskie, Rawa) consisting of
- Sieradz Voivodeship (województwo sieradzkie, Sieradz)
- County of Dobrzyń (ziemia dobrzyńska, Dobrzyń)
- County of Michałów (ziemia michałkowicka, Michałów)
- County of Wieluń (ziemia wieluńska, Wieluń)
- County of Wschów (ziema wschowska, Wschów)
Lesser Poland
- Bełz Voivodeship (województwo bełzkie, Bełz)
- Bracław Voivodeship (województwo bracławskie, Bracław)
- Czernichów Voivodeship (województwo czernichowskie, Czernichów)
- Kijów Voivodeship (województwo kijowskie, Kijów)
- Kraków Voivodeship (województwo krakowskie, Kraków)
- Lublin Voivodeship (województwo lubelskie, Lublin)
- Podole Voivodeship (województwo podolskie, Kamieniec Podolski)
- Ruś Voivodeship (województwo ruskie, Lwów), divided into
- Sandomierz Voivodeship (województwo sandomierskie, Sandomierz)
- Wołyń Voivodeship (województwo wołyńskie, Łuck)
- Duchy of Siewierz (księstwo Siewierskie, Siewierz)
- County of Chełm (ziemia chełmska, Chełm)
- Principality of Oświęcim and Zator (Oświęcim, Zator)
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
- Eldership of Samogitia (principality of Samogitia, księstwo żmudzkie, Varniai-Medininkai)
- Brześć Litewski Voivodeship (województwo brzesko-litewskie, Brest)
- Mścisław Voivodeship (województwo mścisławskie, Mstsislau)
- Mińsk Voivodeship (województwo mińskie, Minsk)
- Nowogródek Voivodeship (województwo nowogrodzkie, Navahrudak)
- Połock Voivodeship (województwo połockie, Polatsk)
- Smoleńsk Voivodeship (województwo smoleńskie, Smoleńsk)
- Trakai Voivodeship (województwo trockie, Trakai)
- Vilnius Voivodeship (województwo wileńskie, Vilnius)
- Witebsk Voivodeship (województwo witebskie, Vitsebsk)
Royal Prussia
- Duchy of Warmia (Księstwo Warmińskie, episcopal principality of Warmia, Lidzbark Warmiński)
- Chełmno Voivodeship (województwo chełmińskie, Chełmno)
- Malbork Voivodeship (województwo malborskie, Malbork)
- Pomeranian Voivodeship (województwo pomorskie, Gdańsk)
Duchy of Livonia (Inflanty)
- Dorpat Voivodeship (województwo dorpackie, Dorpat) from 1598 to 1620s
- Livonian Voivodeship (województwo inflanckie, Dyneburg) from 1620s
- Parnawa Voivodeship (województwo parnawskie, Parnawa) from 1598 to 1620s
- Wenden Voivodeship (województwo wendeńskie, Wenden) from 1598 to 1620s
See also
References
- ^ Official full name of this state see on site of Constitutional Tribunal of the Republic of Poland [1]
- ^ Heritage: Interactive Atlas: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, accessed on 19 March 2006: At its apogee, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth comprised some 400,000 square miles (1,000,000 km²) and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million. This article concerns both historical and contemporary voivodeships in various countries Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship (województwo brzesko-kujawskie was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 14th century to the partitions of Poland Brześć Kujawski is a town in the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, Population - 4521 (2005, Poland. Gniezno Voivodeship ( Polish: Województwo Gnieźnieńskie, Latin: Palatinatus Gnesnensis) was a unit of administrative division and local government Gniezno (Gnesen is a Town in central-western Poland, some 50 km east of Poznań, inhabited by about 73000 people Inowrocław Voivodeship (województwo inowrocławskie was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 14th century to the partitions of Poland in 1772&ndash1795 Inowrocław is a town in northern Poland.According to the 2004 Census estimate the town has a total population of 77641 Kalisz Voivodeship 1314–1793 ( Polish: Województwo Kaliskie, Latin: Palatinatus Calisiensis) was an administrative unit of Poland Kalisz is a City in central Poland with 109800 inhabitants (1995 Łęczyca Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from the 14th century until the partitions of Poland in 1772 - 1795 Łęczyca (in full The Royal Town of Łęczyca, Polish: Królewskie Miasto Łęczyca; other names Lenczyk, Lentschütz Masovian Voivodeship (also known as Masovia Province or by its Polish name of województwo mazowieckie or simply Mazowieckie) is the largest and most Masovia or Mazovia (Mazowsze is a geographic and historic region situated in eastern Poland 's Masovian Plain. Ciechanów is a Town in north-central Poland with 47900 inhabitants (2002 Czersk is a Town in northern Poland in Chojnice County, Pomeranian Voivodeship Liw is a village in Masovian Voivodship, Poland. It is located at around. Łomża is a town in north-eastern Poland, approximately 90 Miles (150 km) from Warsaw and 50 miles (81 km from Białystok. Różan is a town in Mazovian Voivodeship, Poland. It is located at around. Warsaw (Warszawa; also known by other names) is the Capital and Largest city of Poland. Wizna is a village in Łomża County of Podlaskie Voivodeship, north-east Poland. Poznań Voivodeship 14th c-1793 ( Latin: Palatinatus Posnaniensis) Polish: Województwo Poznańskie) was a unit of administrative division and Poznań Lublin Voivodeship This article is about the city in Poland Płock Voivodeship (Polish Województwo Płockie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland from the 15th century till the Płock is a city in central Poland, on the Vistula river with 131011 inhabitants Wyszogród is a town in Poland, in Masovian Voivodship, in Płock County, by the Vistula River. Drohiczyn is a small historic town in Siemiatycze County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland. Bielsk Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship Bielsk Podlaski is an Urban Gmina (Polish gmina miejska) (Town in Bielsk County, Podlaskie Voivodeship Drohiczyn is a small historic town in Siemiatycze County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland. Mielnik is a Village in Siemiatycze County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland, close to the border with Belarus. Rawa Voivodeship (Województwo Rawskie was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland since 15th century till the Partitions Rawa Mazowiecka is a town in central Poland, with 17765 inhabitants (2004 Gostyń is a town in Greater Poland Voivodeship (from 1975 to 1998 in Leszno Voivodship) in Gostyń County. Sochaczew is a town in central Poland, with 38300 inhabitants (2004 Sieradz (Latin Syradia) is a town on the Warta river in central Poland with 44326 inhabitants (2004 Michałów means a place owned by Michał (Michael and may refer to more than 30 places in Poland including the following Michałów Polkowice County in Lower Wieluń is a town in central Poland with 24347 inhabitants (2006 Bełz Voivodeship (Polish Województwo Bełskie, Latin Palatinatus Belzensis) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from Belz (Белз Polish: Bełz Yiddish: בעלז a small Town in the Lviv Oblast ( province) of western Ukraine, near The Bracław Voivodeship (Województwo Bracławskie was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since 1566 till 1569 and of the Bratslav should not be confused with cities of Wrocław, Břeclav or Bratislava. Czernichów may refer to Czernichów Lesser Poland Voivodeship (south Poland Czernichów Proszowice County in Lesser Poland Voivodeship The Kiev Voivodeship (Київське воєводство Województwo kijowskie was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Kiev, also known as Kyiv ( Ukrainian:, Kyiv, ˈkɪjiw Russian:, Kiyev; see also Cities' alternative names) is the Kraków Voivodeship 14th c-1795 (Palatinatus Cracoviensis Województwo Krakowskie - a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland from 14th century Kraków, in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow (ˈkrækaʊ M-W: krăk'ou krāk'ō is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland Lublin Voivodeship 15th century &ndash 1795 ( Latin: Palatinatus Lublinensis; Polish: Województwo Lubelskie) was Lublin is the largest city in eastern Poland and the capital of Lublin Voivodeship with a population of 355954 The Podole Voivodeship (Polish Województwo Podolskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland, since the 14th century Kamianets-Podilskyi (Кам’янець-Подільський translit Ruthenia Voivodeship (Palatinatus russiae województwo ruskie 1366&ndash1772 was an administrative division of the Kingdom of Poland (see Kingdom of Poland [1320–1385] Lviv ( Ukrainian: Львів, L’viv, Lwów Lemberg Львов L'vov; see also other names) is a major city in western Sandomierz Voivodeship (Województwo Sandomierskie Palatinatus Sandomirensis was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 14th century to Sandomierz (Sandomir Sandomiria is a city in south-eastern Poland with 25714 inhabitants ( 2006) Lutsk (Луцьк translit Luts’k, Łuck is a city located by the Styr River in north-western Ukraine. Halych (Галич Гáлич Halicz Halyčas is a historic city on the Dniester River in western Ukraine. Lviv ( Ukrainian: Львів, L’viv, Lwów Lemberg Львов L'vov; see also other names) is a major city in western Przemyśl (Перемишль Peremyshl, Prömsel פּשעמישל- Pshemishl) is a city in south-eastern Poland with 67847 inhabitants (2005 Sanok ( Latin: Sanocum, German: Saanig, Yiddish: Sonik, Ukrainian: Сянiк, in full The Royal The Duchy of Siewierz was an old Silesian Duchy with its capital in Siewierz, established around 1341 during the times of Fragmentation of Poland. Siewierz is a Town in the Silesian Voivodeship in Poland. History In history Sewerien was first mentioned in 1125 which was administered Chełm (Холм Kholm) is a city in eastern Poland with 72595 inhabitants (2005 Oświęcim (Auschwitz Yiddish Oshpitsin אָשפּיצין Romany: Aushvitsa, Osvyenchim, Czech: Osvětim Zator is an old town (pop 3779 in 2006) in southern Poland, in Lesser Poland Voivodeship (since 1999 previously in Bielsko-Biała Voivodeship The Duchy of Samogitia (Žemaičių seniūnija Księstwo żmudzkie had been the administrative unit of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1219 (and from 1569 a part of the Varniai ( Wornie is a city in the Telšiai County, western Lithuania. Brest Litovsk Voivodeship ( Polish: Województwo Brzesko-Litewskie, Belarusian: Берасьцейскае ваяводзтва) was a unit Mstislaw Voivodeship or Mścisław Voivodeship (Województwo Mścisławskie was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Mstsislaw (msʲtsʲi'sɫau̯ Мсці́слаў Mścisłaŭ; Мстиславль Mstislavl; Mścisław is a town in Mahilyow Voblast, Eastern Belarus Minsk Voivodeship (Województwo Mińskie was a unit of administrative division and local government in Grand Duchy of Lithuania since 1413 and later in Polish-Lithuanian Minsk (Мінск mʲinsk Минск mʲinsk is the Capital and largest city in Belarus, situated on the Svislach and Niamiha rivers Nowogródek Voivodeship (województwo nowogródzkie Навагрудзкае вайводзтва was a unit of administrative division of Grand Duchy of Lithuania (from Navahrudak, Novgorodok or Novogrudok (Навагрудак nava'ɣrudak Новогрудок also known as Nowogródek and Naugardukas is a city in the Hrodna Polatsk Voivodeship (Województwo Połockie was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (from 1569 Polish-Lithuanian Polotsk ( Polatsk, По́лацк Полоцк Polockas Połock is a historical city in Belarus, situated on the Dvina river Smolensk Voivodeship ( Lithuanian: Smolensko vaivadija, Polish: Województwo Smoleńskie) was a unit of administrative division and local Smolensk (Смоленск is a city in western Russia, located on the Dnieper River, the administrative centre of Smolensk Oblast. Trakai Voivodeship, Trakai Palatinate, or Troki Voivodeship (Trakų vaivadija Województwo Trockie was a unit of administrative division and local government Trakai is a historic city and lake resort in Lithuania. It lies 28 km west of Vilnius, capital of Lithuania This is an article about a voivodeship in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Vitebsk Voivodeship (Województwo Witebskie was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (from 1569 Polish-Lithuanian Vitebsk, also known as Vitsyebsk ( Belarusian: Ві́цебск 'vʲitsʲepsk Russian: Ви́тебск Vitebsk Lidzbark Warmiński (Heilsberg is a town in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship in Poland. The Chełmno Voivodeship (Województwo Chełmińskie was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland since 1454 / 1466 For the concentration camp located near a village with a similar name Chełmno nad Nerem see Chełmno extermination camp. The Malbork Voivodeship (Polish Województwo Malborskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland from 1454 / Malbork (Marienburg in Westpreußen Civitas Beatae Virginis is a Town in northern Poland in the Żuławy region with 41000 inhabitants (2001 Pomeranian Voivodeship (also known as Pomerania Province or by its Polish name of województwo pomorskie {{IPA-pl|p|o|'|m|o|r|s|k|j|e}} or simply Pomorskie Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland The Dorpat Voivodeship (Województwo dorpackie or województwo derpskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, Tartu is the second largest City of Estonia. In contrast to Estonia's political and financial capital Tallinn, Tartu is often considered the intellectual Daugavpils (daugavpils) is the second largest City in Latvia. The Parnawa Voivodeship (Województwo parnawskie was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish-Lithuanian Pärnu (Pernau Пярну formerly Пернов Parnawa is a City in southwestern Estonia on the coast of Pärnu Bay an inlet of the Gulf of Riga Wenden Voivodeship (Województwo wendeńskie was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Cēsis ( is a Town in Latvia located in the northern part of the Vidzeme central upland The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a federal monarchic republic comprising the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, from 1569 until 1795 This is a List of Polish Coats of Arms. For more general information on the history of heraldry in Poland and Lithuania see the main project page. The history of Polish heraldry is an integral part of the history of the Szlachta, the Polish Nobility. The Constitutional Tribunal (Trybunał Konstytucyjny of the Republic of Poland is a judicial body established to resolve disputes on the constitutionality of the activities Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. For population comparisons, see also those maps: [2], [3].
- ^ "Mes Wladislaus...". Retrieved on September 3, 2006, a letter from Wladyslaw Vasa issued in 1639 written in Lithuanian language. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius
- ^ Maciej Janowski, Polish Liberal Thought, Central European University Press, 2001, ISBN 963-9241-18-0, Google Print: p3, p12
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- ^ a b George Sanford, Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics Since 1989, Palgrave, 2002, ISBN 0-333-77475-2, Google print p11 — constitutional monarchy, p3 — anarchy
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- ^ Bardach, Juliusz (1998). O Rzeczpospolitą Obojga Narodów.
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- ^ a b Wolfgang Menzel, Germany from the Earliest Period Vol. William Bullitt may refer to William Christian Bullitt Jr, (1891 — 1967 American diplomat journalist and novelist William Marshall Bullitt John Adams (October 30 1735 July 4 1826 was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. 4, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-4191-2171-5, Google Print, p33
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- ^ Carl L. Bucki, The Constitution of May 3, 1791, Text of a presentation made at the Polish Arts Club of Buffalo on the occasion of the celebrations of Poland's Constitution Day on May 3, 1996, last accessed on 20 March 2006
- ^ Piotr Stefan Wandycz, The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present, Routledge (UK), 2001, ISBN 0-415-25491-4, Google Print p131
- ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History
- ^ Andrzej Wasko, Sarmatism or the Enlightenment: <space>The Dilemma of Polish Culture, Sarmatian Review XVII. Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Piotr Stefan Wandycz (born 1923 is a Polish-American historian President of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America, and Professor emeritus Sarmatian Review is an English language Peer reviewed Academic journal on the Slavistics ( Culture, History, and Society 2, online
- ^ Total and Jewish population based on Frazee; others are estimations from Pogonowski (se following reference). Charles A. Frazee, World History the Easy Way, Barron's Educational Series, ISBN 0812097661, Google Print, 50
- ^ a b c Based on 1618 population map (p115), 1618 languages map (p119), 1657–67 losses map (p128) and 1717 map (p141) from Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, Poland a Historical Atlas, Hippocrene Books, 1987, ISBN 0-880-29394-2
- ^ Linda Gordon, Cossack Rebellions: Social Turmoil in the Sixteenth Century Ukraine, SUNY Press, 1983, ISBN 0-87395-654-0, Google Print, p.51
- ^ "Poland, history of", Encyclopædia Britannica from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski (born Sept 3 1921 in Lwów, Poland, now Lviv, Ukraine) is a Polish – Belgian – and American The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc [8], accessed February 10, 2006 and "Ukraine", Encyclopædia Britannica from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. Events 1355 - The St Scholastica's Day riot breaks out in Oxford, England, leaving 63 scholars and perhaps 30 locals dead Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc [9], accessed February 14, 2006. Events 842 - Charles the Bald and Louis the German swear the Oaths of Strasbourg in the French and German Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Anatol Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence, Yale University Press, 1994, ISBN 0300060785, Google Print, p.48
- ^ Stephen Barbour, Cathie Carmichael, Language and Nationalism in Europe, Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN 0199250855, Google Print p.184
- ^ Östen Dahl, Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm, The Circum-Baltic Languages: Typology and Contact, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2001, ISBN 9027230579, Google Print, p.45
- ^ Glanville Price, Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe, Blackwell Publishing, 1998, ISBN 0631220399, Google Print, p.30
- ^ a b c d e f Mikulas Teich, The National Question in Europe in Historical Context, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0521367131, Google Print, p.295
- ^ a b c d e Kevin O'Connor, Culture And Customs of the Baltic States, Greenwood Press, 2006, ISBN 0313331251, Google Print, p.115
- ^ a b Daniel. Z Stone, The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795, p. 46
- ^ Karin Friedrich et al. , The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569-1772, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0521583357, Google Print, p.88
- ^ Östen Dahl, Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm, The Circum-Baltic Languages: Typology and Contact, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2001, ISBN 9027230579, Google Print, p.41
- ^ Zinkevičius, Z. (1993). Rytų Lietuva praeityje ir dabar. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla, p. The Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing Institute (Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas (MELI is a Lithuanian publishing house that issues encyclopedias reference 70. ISBN 5-420-01085-2. “Official usage of Lithuanian language in the 16th century Lithuania's cities proves magistrate's decree of Vilnius city, which was sealed by Žygimantas Augustas’ in 1552. For other nobles of the same name please see Sigismund. Sigismund II Augustus I (Zygmunt II August . . //Courts juratory were written in Lithuanian language. In fact, such [courts juratory written in Lithuanian] survived from the 17th century. . . ”
- ^ Ališauskas, V. ; L. Jovaiša, M. Paknys, R. Petrauskas, E. Raila and others (2001). Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštijos kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai, p. 500. ISBN 9955-445-26-2. “In 1794 Government's declarations were carried out and in Lithuanian. ”
- ^ Czesław Miłosz, The History of Polish Literature, University of California Press, 1983, ISBN 0520044770, Google Print, p.108
- ^ Jan K. Czesław Miłosz; ( June 30, 1911 — August 14, 2004) was a Polish Poet, prose writer and Translator Ostrowski, Land of the Winged Horsemen: Art in Poland, 1572-1764, Yale University Press, 1999, ISBN 0300079184, Google Print, p.27
- ^ [10]
- ^ [11]
- ^ [12]
![[2]](http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1618.jpg){kind=link}
![[3]](http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1717.jpg){kind=link}
Further reading
- Norman Davies, God's Playground, ISBN 0-231-05353-3 and ISBN 0-231-05351-7 (two volumes). Ivor Norman Richard Davies Fellow of the British Academy (born 8 June 1939 to Richard and Elizabeth Davies God's Playground is a Book written in 1979 by Norman Davies, covering the History of Poland.
- Jan Chryzostom Pasek, Memoirs of the Polish Baroque: The Writings of Jan Chryzostom Pasek, a Squire of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania, ISBN 0-520-02752-3. See also Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł Wacław Potocki
- Adam Zamoyski, The Polish Way: a Thousand-Year History of the Poles and Their Culture, ISBN 0-7818-0200-8. Life Zamoyski was born in New York City but was raised in England and was educated at Downside School and Queen's College in Oxford.
- Pawel Jasienica, Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów (Commonwealth of the Two Nations), ISBN 83-06-01093-0. Paweł Jasienica was the Pen-name of Leon Lech Beynar ( November 10, 1909 – August 19, 1970) a Polish amateur Historian
- Zdzisław Kowalewski, Rzeczpospolita nie doceniona: Kultura naukowa i polityczna Polski przedrozbiorowej (Commonwealth not valued: Science and political culture of the pre-partition Poland), ISBN 83-211-0312-X.
- Teresa Chynczewska-Hennel, Rzeczpospolita XVII wieku w oczach cudzoziemców (Commonwealth of the 17th century in the eyes of the foreigners), ISBN 83-04-04107-3.
- Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł, Pamiętnik o dziejach w Polsce (Memoires on the Polish history). Biography He was born on July 1, 1595 in his family manor in Ołyka to Stanisław Pius Radziwiłł and Marianna nee Myszka ISBN 83-06-00092-7
- Lukowski, Jerzy Tadeusz, Liberty's Folly: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Eighteenth Century, 1697–1795. Jerzy (George Tadeusz Lukowski (or Łukowski is a Polish-British historian at University of Birmingham. Routledge, 1991 (ISBN 0-415-03228-8). Google Print
- Snyder, Timothy. Timothy D Snyder is an American professor of history at Yale University. "The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999", New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-300-10586-X).
- Stone, Daniel Z. The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795 (A History of East Central Europe; 4). Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-295-98093-1).
External links
Polish Statehood  |
- Officials in 1st Rzeczpospolita – article discussing organization of officialdom in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, doc format
- The Polish–Lithuanian State (1569–1795)
- Hypothetical estimate of Commonwealth economy today
- Lithuanian history forums. Some articles in English
- History of Lithuania in the Middle Ages
- (Belarusian) History of Belarus 9–18 centuries through original documents (Original documents are in various languages, mostly Ruthenian)
- Short or Long History of Poland–Lithuania, 960–1795
- East Central and South-Eastern Europe to 1772
- Polish Society and Government
- Commonwealth of Two Nations Resource Page: Collection of maps and links related to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
- (Polish) The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Maps, history of cities in Poland, Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania
- Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage
The Kingdom of Poland ( pol Królestwo Polskie, lat Regnum Poloniae, ukr The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Wladislaus II Jagiełło, Grand Duke of Lithuania, to The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria official (Königreich Galizien und Lodomerien mit dem Großherzogtum Krakau und den Herzogtümern Auschwitz und Zator official The Duchy of Warsaw (Księstwo Warszawskie Duché de Varsovie Herzogtum Warschau Варшавское герцогство was a Polish state established by Napoleon Congress Poland Kongresówka, officially and formally Kingdom of Poland (Królestwo Polskie {{IPA-pl|'|p|o|l|s|kʲ|e}} Царство Польское Tsarstvo Polskoye The Free Independent and Strictly Neutral City of Kraków (Cracow with its Territory The Grand Duchy of Posen (Großherzogtum Posen Wielkie Księstwo Poznańskie was an autonomous province of the Kingdom of Prussia in the Polish lands commonly known as " For the Grand Duke overlord of the Polanes during fragmentation of Poland see Duke of Cracow (1138 - 1320 The Grand Duchy of Cracow (Großherzogtum The Second Polish Republic or interwar Poland is the Republic of Poland between World War I and World War II. Polish Underground State (Polskie Państwo Podziemne also known as Polish Secret State) refers to all underground resistance organizations in Poland during The People's Republic of Poland or Polish People's Republic ( Polish: Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, PRL Russian Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Microsoft Word is Microsoft 's flagship word processing software. Ruthenian (also
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