This article is part of the series on: History of Lebanon

Ancient History

Phoenicia

Ancient history of Lebanon

Foreign Rule

Assyrian Rule

Babylonian Rule

Persian Rule

Greek Rule

Armenian Rule

Roman Rule

Byzantine Rule

Arab Rule

Ottoman Rule

French Rule

Modern Lebanon

1958 Lebanon crisis

Lebanese Civil War

1982 Lebanon War

2005 Lebanon bombings

Cedar Revolution

2006 Lebanon War

2006-7 political protests

2007 North Lebanon conflict

Topical

Military history

Economic history

Timeline of Lebanese history This box: view • talk • edit

Phoenicia (nonstandardly, Phenicia; pronounced /fɨˈnɪʃiə/^[1], Greek: Φοινίκη: Phoiníkē, Latin: Phœnicia) was an ancient civilization centered in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coastal regions of modern day Lebanon, Syria and Israel. The history of Lebanon is almost as old as the earliest evidence of humankind The history of ancient Lebanon traces the course of events in what is now known as Lebanon from the beginning of history to the beginning of Arab rule. During the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, what is today known as Lebanon came under nominal Assyrian rule on several occasions Throughout her history the lands known today as Lebanon came under foreign rule from various powers The history of Lebanon under Arab rule traces the course of human events in the section of West Asia now known as Lebanon. The French Mandate of Lebanon was a League of Nations Mandate created at the end of World War I. The 1958 Lebanon crisis was a Lebanese political crisis caused by political and religious tensions in the country The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990 was a multifaceted Civil war whose antecedents can be traced back to the conflicts and political compromises reached after the end The 1982 Lebanon War (מלחמת לבנון Milhemet Levanon) (الإجتياح Al-Ijtīāḥ, "the invasion" called by Israel the Operation Peace The Cedar Revolution ( Arabic: ثورة الأرز - thawrat al-arz) or Independence Intifada ( intifāḍat al-istiqlāl) was a chain of demonstrations Background See also Israel-Lebanon conflict The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO had engaged in cross-border attacks from Southern Lebanon The 2006–2008 Lebanese political protests were a series of protests and Sit-ins that began on 1 December, 2006, led by groups in Lebanon that The 2007 Lebanon conflict began when fighting broke out between Fatah al-Islam, an Islamist militant organization, and the Lebanese Armed Forces Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements Canaanites redirects here For the 1940s social and political movement in Israel, see Canaanites (movement. Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Phoenician civilization was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean between the period of 1550 BC to 300 BC. The term thalassocracy (from the θάλασσα meaning sea and κρατείν meaning "to rule" giving θαλασσοκρατία "rule of the sea" Though ancient boundaries of such city-centered cultures fluctuated, the city of Tyre seems to have been the southernmost. Tyre ( Arabic صور Ṣūr, Phoenician Phoenician wawsvg|12px|ו]] Ṣur, Hebrew Sarepta (modern day Sarafand) between Sidon and Tyre, is the most thoroughly excavated city of the Phoenician homeland. For the modern Lebanese town on the site see Sarafand Sidon,or Saïda, ( Arabic ar صيدا; Phoenician phoenician yodh The Phoenicians often traded by means of a galley, a man-powered sailing vessel and are credited with the invention of the bireme. A galley (from Greek γαλέα - galea is an ancient Ship which can be propelled entirely by human oarsmen, used for Warfare A galley (from Greek γαλέα - galea is an ancient Ship which can be propelled entirely by human oarsmen, used for Warfare ^[2]

It is uncertain to what extent the Phoenicians viewed themselves as a single ethnicity. Their civilization was organized in city-states, similar to ancient Greece. A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Each city-state was an independent unit politically, although they could come into conflict, be dominated by another city-state, or collaborate in leagues or alliances. Tyre and Sidon were the most powerful of the Phoenician states in the Levant, but were not as powerful as the North African ones. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the

The Phoenicians were also the first state level society to make extensive use of the alphabet, and the Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet is generally believed to be the ancestor of all modern alphabets. The history of the Alphabet begins in Ancient Egypt, more than a millennium into the History of writing. Phoenicians spoke the Phoenician language, which belongs to the group of Canaanite languages in the Semitic language family. Phoenician was a language originally spoken in the coastal region then called Pūt in Ancient Egyptian Canaan in Phoenician, Hebrew, and The Canaanite languages or Hebraic languages are a subfamily of the Semitic languages, which were spoken by the ancient peoples of the Canaan region The Semitic languages are a Language family whose living representatives are spoken by more than 467 million people across much of the Middle East, Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to North Africa and Europe where it was adopted by the Greeks, who later passed it on to the Romans and Etruscans. An alphabet is a standardized set of letters basic written symbols each of which roughly represents a Phoneme, a Spoken language, either North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy ^[3] In addition to their many inscriptions, the Phoenicians wrote many books, which have not survived. Evangelical Preparation by Eusebius of Caesarea quotes extensively from Philo of Byblos and Sanchuniathon. The more famous Philo of Alexandria (20 BCE-40 CE was an educated Hellenized Jewish philosopher Sanchuniathon is the purported Phoenician author of three lost works originally in the Phoenician language, surviving only in partial paraphrase and summary of a

Etymology

The name Phoenician, through Latin punicus, comes from Greek phoînix, often suggested as "Tyrian purple, crimson; murex" (from phoinos "blood red"^[4]). Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c Murex is a Genus of medium to large sized Predatory tropical sea Snails These are carnivorous marine Gastropod Professor Michael Astour argues that phoînix is in fact not Greek and not from phoinos, but that it is a West Semitic loanword sourced probably "among the very people who were famous as crimson and purple dyers and whom the Greeks called Phoinikes". ^[5]

Origins

Phoenician sarcophagus found in Cadiz, Spain; now in Archaeological Museum of Cádiz. Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The sarcophagus is thought to have been designed and paid for by a Phoenician merchant, and made in Greece with Egyptian influence.

Stories of their emigrating from various places to the eastern Mediterranean are probably founded in 'oral fact', but researchers are pursuing DNA tests to verify this assertion. A written reference, Herodotus's account (written c. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash 440 BC) refers to a memory from 800 years earlier, which may be subject to question in the fullness of genetic results. (History, I:1).

This is a legendary introduction to Herodotus' brief retelling of some mythical Hellene-Phoenician interactions. Though few modern archaeologists would confuse this myth with history, a grain of truth may yet lie therein. (For the theory that the history of Phoenician seafaring starts with the arrival of the Sea Peoples to the shores of present-day Lebanon, see the relevant article. The Sea Peoples is the term used for a confederacy of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, caused political )

In terms of archaeology, language, and religion, there is little to set the Phoenicians apart as markedly different from other local cultures of Canaan, because they were Canaanites themselves. However, they are unique in their remarkable seafaring achievements. Indeed, in the Amarna tablets of the 14th century BC they call themselves Kenaani or Kinaani (Canaanites). The Amarna letters (sometimes "Amarna correspondence" or "Amarna tablets" are an archive of correspondence on Clay tablets mostly diplomatic Note, however, that the Amarna letters predate the invasion of the Sea Peoples by over a century. The Sea Peoples is the term used for a confederacy of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, caused political Much later in the 6th century BC, Hecataeus of Miletus writes that Phoenicia was formerly called χνα, a name Philo of Byblos later adopted into his mythology as his eponym for the Phoenicians: "Khna who was afterwards called Phoinix". The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC. Hecataeus of Miletus (c 550&ndashc 476 BC named after the Greek Goddess Hecate, was a Greek Philosopher of a wealthy Egyptian seafaring expeditions had already been made to Byblos to bring back "cedars of Lebanon" as early as the third millennium BC. Byblos ( Βύβλος) is the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gebal (earlier Gubla) Cedrus libani ( Lebanon Cedar or Cedar of Lebanon) is a species of Cedar native to the mountains of the Mediterranean region The 3rd millennium BC spans the Early to Middle Bronze Age. It represents a period of time in which Imperialism, or the desire to conquer grew to prominence

Archaeologists argue that the Phoenicians are simply the descendants of coastal-dwelling Canaanites, who over the centuries developed a particular seagoing culture and skills. Other suggestions are that Phoenician culture must have been inspired from external sources (Egypt, North Africa etc. ), that the Phoenicians were sea-traders from the Land of Punt who co-opted the Canaanite population; or that they were connected with the Minoans, or the Sea Peoples or the Philistines further south; or even that they represent the maritime activities of the coastal Israelite tribes like Dan, who from the Song of Deborah in Judges, are listed as being "amongst their ships". See also Puntland The Land of Punt, also called "Pwenet" by the Ancient Egyptians at times synonymous with Ta netjer, the 'land of The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization which arose on the island of Crete. The Sea Peoples is the term used for a confederacy of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, caused political The Philistines ( Hebrew פלשתים plishtim) (see "other uses" below were a people who inhabited the southern coast of Canaan, See also History of ancient Israel and Judah According to the Bible, the Israelites were the dominant group living in the Land of Israel. Tribe of Dan was also a band from the mid 1990s The Tribe of Dan ( was one of the Tribes of Israel.

The Middle East Phoenician - Aramaic derivative 'Semitic language' gave some evidence of invasion at the site of Byblos, which may suggest origins in the highly disputed 'wave of Semitic migration' that hit the Fertile Crescent between ca. The Fertile Crescent is a Crescent -shaped region in the Middle East, originally incorporating the Levant and Ancient Mesopotamia, and often 2300 and 2100 BC, some scholars, including Sabatino Moscati believe that the Phoenicians' ethnogenesis included prior non-Semitic people of the area, suggesting a mixture between two populations. Both Sumerian and Akkadian armies had reached the Mediterranean in this area from the beginning of recorded Hebrew history, but very little is known of Phoenicia before it was conquered by Thutmoses III of Egypt around 1500 BC. Thutmose III (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis III and meaning Thoth is Born) was the sixth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth The Amarna correspondence (ca. The Amarna letters (sometimes "Amarna correspondence" or "Amarna tablets" are an archive of correspondence on Clay tablets mostly diplomatic 1411-1358 BC) reveals that Amorites and Hittites were defeating the Phoenician cities that had been vassals to Egypt, especially Rib-Addi of Byblos and Abi-Milku/Abimelech of Tyre, but between 1350 and 1300 BC Phoenicia was reconquered by Egypt. Amorite ( Sumerian MARTU, Akkadian Tidnum or Amurrūm, Egyptian Amar, Hebrew ’emōrî The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established Rib-Hadda (also rendered Rib-Addi, Rib-Addu, Rib-Adda) was king of Byblos during the mid fourteenth century BCE Abi-Milku was the only mayor/ruler of Tyre Lebanon -(called Surru in the letters during the 1350 - 1335 BC Amarna letters Over the next century Ugarit flourished, but was permanently destroyed at the end of it (ca. Ugarit ( Ugaritic: ʼugrt; Hebrew:; Arabic:) (modern Ras Shamra رأس شمرة ("top/head/cape of the wild Fennel 1200 BC).

Historian Gerhard Herm asserts that, because the Phoenicians' legendary sailing abilities are not well attested before the invasions of the Sea Peoples around 1200 BC, that these Sea Peoples would have merged with the local population to produce the Phoenicians, whom he says gained these abilities rather suddenly at that time. Gerhard Herm (born 26 April 1931 is a German journalist and writer The Sea Peoples is the term used for a confederacy of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, caused political There is also archaeological evidence that the Philistines, often thought of as related to the Sea Peoples, were culturally linked to Mycenaean Greeks, who were also known to be great sailors even in this period. Mycenaean Greece is a cultural period of ancient Greece taking its name from the archaeological site of Mycenae in northeastern Argolis, in the Peloponnese

The question of the Phoenicians' origin persists. Archaeologists have pursued the origin of the Phoenicians for generations, basing their analyses on excavated sites, the remains of material culture, contemporary texts set into contemporary contexts, as well as linguistics. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields In some cases, the debate is characterized by modern cultural agendas. Ultimately, the origins of the Phoenicians are still unclear: where they came from and just when (or if) they arrived, and under what circumstances, are all still energetically disputed.

Spencer Wells of the Genographic Project has conducted genetic studies which demonstrate that male populations of Lebanon and Malta and other areas which are past Phoenician settlements, share a common m89 chromosome Y type,^[6] while male populations which are related with the Minoans or with the Sea Peoples have completely different genetic markers. Spencer Wells (born April 6 1969 in Georgia United States) is a Geneticist and Anthropologist, and an Explorer-in-Residence at the The Genographic Project, launched in April 2005, is a five-year genetic anthropology study that aims to map historical human migration patterns by collecting and analyzing Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands This implies that Minoans and Sea Peoples probably didn't have any ancestral relation with the Phoenicians. [2][3] The Phoenician's nickname "Purple People" came from the purple dye they manufactured in Mesopotamia and Mogador. Essaouira (الصويرة eṣ-ṣauīrah formerly known as Mogador, its older name is a City / Wilaya and tourist resort in the western Moroccan

The cultural and economic "empire"

Map of Phoenicia.

Fernand Braudel remarked in The Perspective of the World that Phoenicia was an early example of a "world-economy" surrounded by empires. Fernand Braudel ( August 24 1902 &ndash November 27 1985) was the foremost French historian of the postwar era The high point of Phoenician culture and seapower is usually placed ca. 1200 – 800 BC.

Many of the most important Phoenician settlements had been established long before this: Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Simyra, Aradus and Berytus all appear in the Amarna tablets; and indeed, the first appearance in archaeology of cultural elements clearly identifiable with the Phoenician zenith is sometimes dated as early as the third millennium BC. Byblos ( Βύβλος) is the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gebal (earlier Gubla) Tyre ( Arabic صور Ṣūr, Phoenician Phoenician wawsvg|12px|ו]] Ṣur, Hebrew Sidon,or Saïda, ( Arabic ar صيدا; Phoenician phoenician yodh Zemar ( Egypt Smr; Akkad Sumuru; Assyrian Simirra) was a Phoenician city in what is now Lebanon. Arwad ( أرواد) &ndash formerly known as Arado ( Άραδο) Arados (Greek Άραδος) Arvad, Arpad Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2

This league of independent city-state ports, with others on the islands and along other coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, was ideally suited for trade between the Levant area, rich in natural resources, and the rest of the ancient world. A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Suddenly, during the early Iron Age, in around 1200 BC an unknown event occurred, historically associated with the appearance of the Sea Peoples from the north who were perhaps driven south by crop failures and mass starvation following the eruption at the island Thera. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. The Sea Peoples is the term used for a confederacy of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, caused political The powers that had previously dominated the area, notably the Egyptians and the Hittites, became weakened or destroyed; and in the resulting power vacuum a number of Phoenician cities established themselves as significant maritime powers. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established

An ancient Phoenician coin.

Authority seems to have stabilized because it derived from three power-bases: the king; the temple and its priests; and councils of elders. Byblos soon became the predominant center from where they proceeded to dominate the Mediterranean and Erythraean (Red) Sea routes, and it is here that the first inscription in the Phoenician alphabet was found, on the sarcophagus of Ahiram (ca. Ahiram or Ahirom was the Phoenician king of Byblos (ca 1000 BC) Ahiram was succeeded by his son Ittobaal as king of Byblos 1200 BC). However, by around 1000 BC Tyre and Sidon had taken its place, and a long hegemony was enjoyed by Tyre beginning with Hiram I (969-936 BC), who subdued a rebellion in the colony of Utica. Hiram I ( Hebrew: חִירָם "high-born" Standard Hebrew Ḥiram, Tiberian vocalization Ḥîrām) according to Utica is an ancient city northwest of Carthage near the outflow of the Medjerda River into the Mediterranean Sea, traditionally considered to be the first The priest Ittobaal (887-856 BC) ruled Phoenicia as far north as Beirut, and part of Cyprus. Carthage was founded in 814 BC under Pygmalion (820-774 BC). Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Events and trends 817 BC — Pedubastis I declares himself king of Egypt, founding the Twenty-third Dynasty. Pygmalion (also known as Pumayyaton) was king of Tyre from 820 to 774 BC and a son of King Mattan I (829-821 BC The collection of city-kingdoms constituting Phoenicia came to be characterized by outsiders and the Phoenicians themselves as Sidonia or Tyria, and Phoenicians and Canaanites alike came to be called Zidonians or Tyrians, as one Phoenician conquest came to prominence after another.

Phoenician gods

Further information: Canaanite religion

Phoenician trade

Map of Phoenicia and trade routes

The Phoenicians were amongst the greatest traders of their time and owed a great deal of their prosperity to trade. Canaanite religion is the name for the group of Ancient Semitic religions observed by the Canaanites living in the ancient Levant from at least the early Adonis (Άδωνης also Άδωνις is a figure of West Semitic origin where he is a central cult figure in various Mystery religions, who enters The word Amen (; آمين, ’Āmīn; "So be it truly" Its use in Judaism dates back to its earliest texts Astarte (from Greek Ἀστάρτη ( Astártē) is the name of a Goddess as known from Northwestern Semitic regions cognate in name origin Ba‘alat Gebal, 'Lady of Byblos ' was the goddess of the city of Byblos sometimes known to the Greeks as Baaltis. Eshmun (or Eshmoun, less accurately Esmun or Esmoun) was a Phoenician god of healing and the tutelary god of Sidon. Isis is a goddess in Ancient Egyptian religious beliefs and is celebrated in their mythology as the ideal mother and wife patron of nature and magic friend of slaves sinners Melqart, properly Phoenician Milk-Qart "King of the City" less accurately Melkart, Melkarth Osiris ( Greek language, also Usiris; the Egyptian language name is variously transliterated Asar, Aser, Ausar, Ausir A shed is typically a simple single- story structure in a Back garden or on an allotment that is used for Storage, hobbies, or Resheph or Reshef (Canaanite/Hebrew sem-Latn ršp he רשף was a Canaanite deity of plague and war. The Phoenicians' initial trading partners were the Greeks, with whom they used to trade wood, slaves, glass and a Tyrian Purple powder. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions This powder was used by the Greek elite to color clothes and other garments and was not available anywhere else. Without trade with the Greeks they would not be known as Phoenicians, as the word for Phoenician is derived from the Ancient Greek word phoinikèia meaning "purple". The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c

In the centuries following 1200 BC, the Phoenicians formed the major naval and trading power of the region. Phoenician trade was founded on Tyrian Purple, a violet-purple dye derived from the Murex sea-snail's shell, once profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea but exploited to local extinction. Murex is a Genus of medium to large sized Predatory tropical sea Snails These are carnivorous marine Gastropod James B. Pritchard's excavations at Sarepta in present day Lebanon revealed crushed Murex shells and pottery containers stained with the dye that was being produced at the site. James Bennett Pritchard ( October 4, 1909 – January 1, 1997) was an American Archeologist whose work explicated the interrelationships For the modern Lebanese town on the site see Sarafand The Phoenicians established a second production center for the purple dye in Mogador, in present day Morocco. Essaouira (الصويرة eṣ-ṣauīrah formerly known as Mogador, its older name is a City / Wilaya and tourist resort in the western Moroccan Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Brilliant textiles were a part of Phoenician wealth, and Phoenician glass was another export ware. Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many

From elsewhere they obtained other materials, perhaps the most important being silver from Iberian Peninsula and tin from Great Britain, the latter of which when smelted with copper (from Cyprus) created the durable metal alloy bronze. Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus Strabo states that there was a highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.

The Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the Mediterranean, the most strategically important being Carthage in North Africa, directly across the narrow straits in Sicily and the island of Malta in the center of the Mediterranean; carefully selected with the design of monopolizing the Mediterranean trade beyond that point and keeping their rivals from passing through. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands Other colonies were planted in Cyprus, Corsica, Sardinia, the Iberian Peninsula, and elsewhere. Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily Sardinia (sɑrˈdɪnɪə Sardegna Sardigna or Sardinnya is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily) The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra They also founded innumerable small outposts a day's sail away from each other all along the North African coast on the route to Iberia's mineral wealth.

The date when several of these cities were founded has been very controversial. Greek sources put the foundation of many cities very early. Gades (Cadiz) in Spain was traditionally founded in 1110 BC, while Utica in Africa was supposedly founded in 1101 BC. Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight Utica is an ancient city northwest of Carthage near the outflow of the Medjerda River into the Mediterranean Sea, traditionally considered to be the first However, no archaeological remains have been dated to such a remote era. The traditional dates may reflect the establishment of rudimentary way stations that left little archaeological trace, and only grew into full cities centuries later. (The World of the Phoenicians, Sabatino Moscati, 1965). Alternatively, the early dates may reflect Greek historians' belief that the legends of Troy (mentioning these cities) were historically reliable.

Phoenician ships used to ply the coast of southern Spain and along the coast of Portugal. It is often mentioned that Phoenicians ventured north into the Atlantic ocean as far as Great Britain, where the tin mines in what is now Cornwall provided them with tin, although no archaeological evidence supports this belief and reliable academic authors see this belief as hollow (see Malcolm Todd - 1987, reference below). They also sailed south along the coast of Africa. A Carthaginian expedition led by Hanno the Navigator explored and colonized the Atlantic coast of Africa as far as the Gulf of Guinea; and according to Herodotus, a Phoenician expedition sent down the Red Sea by pharaoh Necho II of Egypt (c. Hanno the Navigator was a Carthaginian explorer who flourished c The Gulf of Guinea is the part of the Atlantic Ocean southwest of Africa. The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. Necho II (sometimes Nekau) was a king of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt (610 BC - 595 BC and the son of Psammetichus I by his Great Royal 600 BC) even circumnavigated Africa and returned through the Pillars of Hercules in three years. The Pillars of Hercules was the phrase that was applied in Antiquity to the promontories that flank the entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar.

The Phoenicians were not an agricultural people, because most of the land was not arable; therefore, they focused on commerce and trading instead. They did, however, raise sheep and sell them and their wool.

Art

Decline

The Siege of Tyre by Andre Castaigne

Cyrus the Great conquered Phoenicia in 539 BC. Events and trends 539 BC — Babylon is conquered by Cyrus, defeating Nabonidus; noted in such documents as that of Africanus Phoenicia was divided into four vassal kingdoms by the Persians: Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos, and prospered, furnishing fleets for the Persian kings. Sidon,or Saïda, ( Arabic ar صيدا; Phoenician phoenician yodh Tyre ( Arabic صور Ṣūr, Phoenician Phoenician wawsvg|12px|ו]] Ṣur, Hebrew Arwad ( أرواد) &ndash formerly known as Arado ( Άραδο) Arados (Greek Άραδος) Arvad, Arpad Byblos ( Βύβλος) is the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gebal (earlier Gubla) However, Phoenician influence declined after this. It is also reasonable to suppose that much of the Phoenician population migrated to Carthage and other colonies following the Persian conquest, as it is roughly then (under King Hanno) that we first hear of Carthage as a powerful maritime entity. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers In 350 or 345 BC a rebellion in Sidon led by Tennes was crushed by Artaxerxes III, and its destruction was described, perhaps too dramatically, by Diodorus Siculus. Artaxerxes III of Persia ( Ca 425 BC &ndash 338 BC ( Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠 transliterated as Artaxšaçrā) was the Great

Alexander the Great took Tyre in 332 BC following the Siege of Tyre. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Events By place Persian Empire The Persian King Darius III twice sends Alexander letters of friendship In 332 BC, Alexander the Great set out to conquer Tyre, a strategic coastal base in the war between the Greeks and the Persians. Alexander was exceptionally harsh to Tyre, executing 2000 of the leading citizens, but he maintained the king in power. He gained control of the other cities peacefully: the ruler of Aradus submitted; the king of Sidon was overthrown. The rise of Hellenistic Greece gradually ousted the remnants of Phoenicia's former dominance over the Eastern Mediterranean trade routes, and Phoenician culture disappeared entirely in the motherland. The Hellenistic period of European history was the period between the death of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon in 323 BC and the annexation However, its North African offspring, Carthage, continued to flourish, mining iron and precious metals from Iberia, and using its considerable naval power and mercenary armies to protect its commercial interests, until it was finally destroyed by Rome in 146 BC at the end of the Punic Wars. Precious Metal is the eighteenth episode in the of the popular American Crime drama, which is set in Las Vegas, Nevada. The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient

As for the Phoenician homeland, following Alexander it was controlled by a succession of Hellenistic rulers: Laomedon (323 BC), Ptolemy I (320), Antigonus II (315), Demetrius (301), and Seleucus (296). Laomedon (in Greek Λαoμέδων; lived 4th century BC) native of Mytilene and son of Larichus was one of Alexander the Great 's For the astronomer see Ptolemy; for others named "Ptolemy" or "Ptolemaeus" see Ptolemy (disambiguation. Antigonus II Gonatas (lit "knock-knees" ( Greek Αντίγονος B΄ Γονατᾶς ca Demetrius I (337-283 BC Greek: Δημήτριος) called Poliorcetes (Greek Πολιορκητής) ("The Besieger" son of Seleucus I (surnamed for later generations Nicator, Greek: Σέλευκος Νικάτωρ, i Between 286 and 197 BC, Phoenicia (except for Aradus) fell to the Ptolemies of Egypt, who installed the high priests of Astarte as vassal rulers in Sidon (Eshmunazar I, Tabnit, Eshmunazar II). Events By place Greece The Spartan ruler Nabis, acquires the important city of Argos from Philip V of Macedon Astarte (from Greek Ἀστάρτη ( Astártē) is the name of a Goddess as known from Northwestern Semitic regions cognate in name origin In 197 BC, Phoenicia along with Syria reverted to the Seleucids, and the region became increasingly Hellenized, although Tyre actually became autonomous in 126 BC, followed by Sidon in 111. Syria, including Phoenicia, were seized by king Tigranes the Great from 82 until 69 BC when he was defeated by Lucullus, and in 65 BC Pompey finally incorporated it as part of the Roman province of Syria. This article is about a king of Armenia in the 1st century BCE. Year 69 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus For his grandfather and namesake see Lucius Licinius Lucullus. Year 65 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome In response to the illegal exercise of Citizen rights Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation

Important Phoenician cities and colonies

Map of Phoenician and Greek colonies at about 550 BC (with German legend).

From the 10th century BC, their expansive culture established cities and colonies throughout the Mediterranean. Canaanite deities like Baal and Astarte were being worshipped from Cyprus to Sardinia, Malta, Sicily, Spain, Portugal, and most notably at Carthage in modern Tunisia. Ba'al (pronounced; Hebrew בעל (ordinarily spelled Baal in English is a Northwest Semitic title and honorific meaning "master" or "lord" Astarte (from Greek Ἀστάρτη ( Astártē) is the name of a Goddess as known from Northwestern Semitic regions cognate in name origin

In the Phoenician homeland:

Phoenician colonies, including some of lesser importance (this list might be incomplete):

Countries and Cities that derive their names from Phoenician

There are many countries and cities around the world that derive their names from the Phoenician Language. Arqa (originally Irqata, Arkite in the Bible) is a village near Miniara in the Akkar district of northern Lebanon Arwad ( أرواد) &ndash formerly known as Arado ( Άραδο) Arados (Greek Άραδος) Arvad, Arpad Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 The coastal city of Batroun (Greek Βοτρύς Arabic البترون located in northern Lebanon is one of the oldest cities of the world Byblos ( Βύβλος) is the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gebal (earlier Gubla) Safita ( صا فيتا,) is a city in north-western Syria, located to the southeast of Tartous and to the northwest of Krak des Chevaliers For the modern Lebanese town on the site see Sarafand Sidon,or Saïda, ( Arabic ar صيدا; Phoenician phoenician yodh Tripoli ( Lebanese Arabic: طرابلس Ṭrāblos or Ṭrēblos locally Ṭrōbles Standard Arabic: Ṭarābulus Τρίπολις Tripolis is the second-largest Tyre ( Arabic صور Ṣūr, Phoenician Phoenician wawsvg|12px|ו]] Ṣur, Hebrew Ugarit ( Ugaritic: ʼugrt; Hebrew:; Arabic:) (modern Ras Shamra رأس شمرة ("top/head/cape of the wild Fennel Zemar ( Egypt Smr; Akkad Sumuru; Assyrian Simirra) was a Phoenician city in what is now Lebanon. Zemar ( Egypt Smr; Akkad Sumuru; Assyrian Simirra) was a Phoenician city in what is now Lebanon. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Hippo Regius is the ancient name of the modern city of Annaba (formerly Bône Algeria. Annaba (عنابة formerly Bône, historically Hippo) is a city in the northeastern corner of Algeria near the river Seybouse and Algiers (الجزائر Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation Kabyle: Ledzayer, Alger) is the Capital and largest Cherchell (older Cherchel) is a seaport town in the Province of Tipaza, Algeria, 55 Miles West of Algiers. Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía Larnaca, ( Greek: Λάρνακα, Turkish: Larnaka) is a City of the Republic of Cyprus situated on the southern coast Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Genoa ( Genova, ˈdʒɛːnova in Italian; Zena in Genoese and Ligurian; Genua in Latin and archaically in English Sardinia (sɑrˈdɪnɪə Sardegna Sardigna or Sardinnya is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily) Nora is an ancient Roman and pre-Roman town placed on a peninsula near Pula, near to Cagliari in Sardinia. Olbia ( Sardinian: Terranoa, Gallurese: Tarranoa) is a town of approximately 51000 inhabitants in northeastern This article refers to Sulci the city For the plural of sulcus see Sulcus disambiguation For the ancient city in Crete see Tarra Crete. Tharros (also spelled Tharras, Greek:, Ptol Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Marsala is a seaport city located in the Province of Trapani on the island of Sicily in Italy. Motya ( Greek:; Italian: Mozia ot Mothia Sicilian: Mozzia was an ancient and powerful city on an island off the west coast of Sicily Palermo ( Sicilian: Palermu, Greek: Panormus, al-Madinah during Muslim rule is a historic City in Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Leptis Magna,(لبدة also known as Lectis Magna (or Lepcis Magna as it is sometimes spelled also called Lpqy or Neapolis, was a prominent city Tripolis ( Arabic: طرابلس Ṭarābulus - also طرابلس الغرب Ṭarā-bu-lus al-Gharb Libyan vernacular: Sabratha in the Zawia district in the northwestern corner of modern Libya, was the westernmost of the "three cities" of Tripolis. Mauritania (موريتانيا Mūrītāniyā officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa The Acra was a fortress or citadel built in Jerusalem by Antiochus Epiphanes, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, after his conquest of the city in 168 BCE Essaouira (الصويرة eṣ-ṣauīrah formerly known as Mogador, its older name is a City / Wilaya and tourist resort in the western Moroccan Lixus is the site of an ancient city located in Morocco just north of the modern seaport of Larache on the bank of the Loukkos River. Larache (also El Araich) is an important harbour town in the region Tanger-Tétouan in northern Morocco. Tangier or Tangiers ]] ( Tanja طنجة in Berber and Arabic, Tánger in Spanish Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Abdera was an ancient seaport town on the south coast of Spain, between Malaca (now Málaga) and Carthago Nova (now Cartagena) in Ceuta is an autonomous city of Spain located on the Mediterranean, on the North African side of the Strait of Gibraltar, which ||-||} Alicante ( Spanish language) or Alacant ( Valencian) is a city in Spain, the capital of the province of Alicante and of the Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight Ibiza (Eivissa is an island located in the Mediterranean Sea about 80 km off the coast of Spain Huelva is a city in southwestern Spain, the capital of the province of Huelva in the autonomous region of Andalusia. Cartagena ( is a Spanish Mediterranean city and naval station in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula in the autonomous community of Region of Murcia Cartagena ( is a Spanish Mediterranean city and naval station in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula in the autonomous community of Region of Murcia Melilla is an autonomous city of Spain located on the Mediterranean, on the North African coast Almuñécar is a municipality in the Spanish Autonomous Region of Andalusia on the Costa del Sol between Nerja ( Málaga) and Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Hadrume(ntum (sometimes called Adrametum or Adrametus) was a Phoenician colony that pre-dated Carthage and stood on the site of modern-day Sousse ( Arabic سوسة Sousa) is a city of Tunisia. Located 140 km south of Tunis, the city has 173 047 inhabitants (2004 Bizerte or Bizerta ( Arabic: بنزرت transliterated: Banzart Italian Biserta) is a capital city of Bizerte Governorate in Tunisia Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Thapsus (less commonly Tapsus) was an ancient city in what is modern day Tunisia. Bekalta, Arabic: البقالطة (al-Bikalita is a Tunisian coastal town, around 30 km Utica is an ancient city northwest of Carthage near the outflow of the Medjerda River into the Mediterranean Sea, traditionally considered to be the first Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Finike (ancient Phoenicus) is a district on the Mediterranean coast of Antalya Province of Turkey, 90 minutes west of the city of Antalya Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar Below is a list with the respective meanings:

• Altiburus: City in Algeria, SW of Carthage. From Phoenician: "Iltabrush"

• Bosa: City in Sardinia: From Phoenician "Bis'en"

• Cadiz: City in Spain: From Phoenician "Gadir"

• Dhali (Idalion): City in Central Cyprus: From Phoenician "Idyal"

• Erice: City in Sicily: From Phoenician "Eryx"

• Malta: Island in the Mediterranean: From Phoenician "Malat" ('refuge')

• Marion: City in West Cyprus: From Phoenician "Aymar"

• Oed Dekri: City in Algeria: From Phoenician: "Idiqra"

• Spain: From Phoenician: "I-Shaphan", meaning "Land of Hyraxes". Later Latinized as "Hispania"

Language and literature

Main articles: Phoenician languages, Phoenician alphabet, and Alphabet

The Phoenician alphabet

The Phoenicians are credited with spreading the Phoenician alphabet throughout the Mediterranean world. Phoenician was a language originally spoken in the coastal region then called Pūt in Ancient Egyptian Canaan in Phoenician, Hebrew, and The Phoenician alphabet is a continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, by convention taken to originate around 1050 BC An alphabet is a standardized set of letters basic written symbols each of which roughly represents a Phoneme, a Spoken language, either The Phoenician alphabet is a continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, by convention taken to originate around 1050 BC The Phoenician alphabet is a continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, by convention taken to originate around 1050 BC It was a variant of the Semitic alphabet of the Canaanite area developed centuries earlier in the Sinai region, or in central Egypt. Phoenician traders disseminated this writing system along Aegean trade routes, to coastal Anatolia, the Minoan civilization of Crete, Mycenean Greece, and throughout the Mediterranean. Mycenaean Greece is a cultural period of ancient Greece taking its name from the archaeological site of Mycenae in northeastern Argolis, in the Peloponnese

This alphabet has been termed an abjad or a script that contains no vowels. An Abjad is a type of Writing system in which each symbol stands for a Consonant; the reader must supply the appropriate Vowel. A cuneiform abjad originated to the north in Ugarit, a Canaanite city of northern Syria, in the 14th century BC. Ugarit ( Ugaritic: ʼugrt; Hebrew:; Arabic:) (modern Ras Shamra رأس شمرة ("top/head/cape of the wild Fennel Their language, Phoenician, is classified as in the Canaanite subgroup of Northwest Semitic. Phoenician was a language originally spoken in the coastal region then called Pūt in Ancient Egyptian Canaan in Phoenician, Hebrew, and The Canaanite languages or Hebraic languages are a subfamily of the Semitic languages, which were spoken by the ancient peoples of the Canaan region The Semitic languages are a Language family whose living representatives are spoken by more than 467 million people across much of the Middle East, Its later descendant in North Africa is termed Punic. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Punics, (from Latin pūnicus meaning Phoenician were a group of Western Semitic speaking peoples originating from Carthage

The earliest known inscriptions in Phoenician come from Byblos and date back to ca. 1000 BC. Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian Era. In Phoenician colonies around the western Mediterranean, beginning in the 9th century BC, Phoenician evolved into Punic. The 9th century BC started the first day of 900 BC and ended the last day of 801 BC Punic Phoenician was still spoken in the 5th century CE: St. Augustine, for example, grew up in North Africa and was familiar with the language. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan

Cadmus fighting the dragon. Side A of a black-figured amphora from Euboea, ca. An amphora (plural amphorae or amphoras) is a type of Ceramic Vase with two handles and a long neck narrower than the body For the mythological figure see Euboea (mythology Euboea ( Modern Greek, Εύβοια - Évia &mdash 560–550 BC, Louvre

Phoenician Influence in the Mediterranean

Phoenician culture had a huge effect upon the cultures of the Mediterranean basin in the early Iron Age. The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France For example, in Greece, the tripartite division between Zeus, Hades and Poseidon, seems to have been influenced by the Phoenician division between Baal, Mot and Yam. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology Hades (from Greek, Hadēs, originally, Haidēs or, Aidēs, probably from Indo-European *n̥-wid- 'unseen' refers both to the ancient In Greek mythology, Poseidon ( Greek:; Latin: Neptūnus) was the god of the Sea and as "Earth-Shaker" Ba'al (pronounced; Hebrew בעל (ordinarily spelled Baal in English is a Northwest Semitic title and honorific meaning "master" or "lord" In Ugaritic Mot 'Death' (spelled mt) is personified as a god of death Yamm, from the Canaanite word Yam, meaning "Sea" is one name of the Ugaritic god of Rivers and Sea Stories like the Rape of Europa, and the coming of Cadmus also draw upon Phoenician influence. Europa ( Greek Εὐρώπη was a Phoenician woman of high lineage in Greek mythology, from whom the name of the Continent Europe Cadmus, or Kadmos (Κάδμος in Greek mythology, was a Phoenician prince son of Agenor and the brother of Phoenix, Cilix The recovery of the Mediterranean economy after the late Bronze Age collapse, seems to have been largely due to the work of Phoenician traders and merchant princes, who re-established long distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th century BC. The Bronze Age collapse is the name given by those historians who see the transition from the Phoenician motifs are also present in the Orientalising period of Greek art, and Phoenicians also played a formative role in Etruscan civilisation in Tuscany. In the history of Ancient Greece the Orientalizing Period is the cultural and art historical period informed by the art of Syria and Phoenicia Greece has a rich and varied artistic history spanning some 5000 years Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy Phoenician temples in various Mediterranean ports sacred to Phoenician Melkart, during the classical period, were recognized as sacred to Hercules. Melqart, properly Phoenician Milk-Qart "King of the City" less accurately Melkart, Melkarth Hercules is the Roman name for the Mythical Greek hero Heracles, son of Zeus and the mortal Alcmena. The Ionian revolution was led by philosophers such as Thales of Miletus or Pythagoras, both of whom had Phoenician fathers. The history of Philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time Thales of Miletus According to Bertrand Russell, "Philosophy begins with Thales "Pythagoras of Samos" redirects here For the Samian statuary of the same name see Pythagoras (sculptor.

Phoenicians in the Bible

Hiram (also spelled Huran) associated with the building of the temple.

This is the architect of the Temple, Hiram Abiff of Masonic lore. Hiram Abiff is a character who figures prominently in an allegorical play that is presented during the third degree of Craft Freemasonry. They are vastly famous for their purple dye.

Later, reforming prophets railed against the practice of drawing royal wives from among foreigners: Elijah execrated Jezebel, the princess from Tyre who became a consort of King Ahab and introduced the worship of her gods. Elijah or Elias ( was a Prophet in Israel in the 9th century BC Jezebel ( is the name of two women in the Bible. In the Hebrew Scriptures In the Tanakh (the Hebrew Scriptures and Ahab (or Ach'av or) was king of Israel and the son and successor of Omri ( 1 Kings 1629-34 Polytheism is belief in or worship of multiple Gods (usually assembled in a pantheon) together with associated Mythology and Rituals

Long after Phoenician culture had flourished, or Phoenicia had existed as any political entity, Hellenized natives of the region where Canaanites still lived were referred to as "Syro-Phoenician", as in the Gospel of Mark 7:26: "The woman was a Greek, a Syrophoenician by birth. Content Authorship The gospel itself is anonymous but as early as Papias in the early 2nd century a text was attributed to Mark, a cousin . . "

The word Bible itself ultimately derives through Greek from the word Byblos which means Book, and not from the Hellenised Phoenician city of Byblos (which was called Gebal), before it was named by the Greeks as Byblos. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Byblos ( Βύβλος) is the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gebal (earlier Gubla) A Book is a set or collection of written printed illustrated or blank sheets made of Paper, Parchment, or other material usually fastened together Byblos ( Βύβλος) is the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gebal (earlier Gubla) The Greeks called it Byblos because it was through Gebal that bublos (Bύβλος ["Egyptian papyrus"]) was imported into Greece. Present day Byblos is under the current Arabic name of Jbeil (جبيل Ǧubayl) derived from Gebal.

Genetics of the Phoenicians

Further information: Genetics of the Ancient World

In 2004, two Harvard University educated geneticists and leading scientists of the National Geographic Genographic Project, Dr. The archaeogenetics of the Near East involves the study of aDNA or Ancient DNA, identifying Haplogroups and Haplotypes of ancient skeletal remains from The Genographic Project, launched in April 2005, is a five-year genetic anthropology study that aims to map historical human migration patterns by collecting and analyzing Pierre Zalloua and Dr. Spencer Wells identified the haplogroup of the Phoenicians as haplogroup J2, with avenues open for future research. Spencer Wells (born April 6 1969 in Georgia United States) is a Geneticist and Anthropologist, and an Explorer-in-Residence at the In the study of Molecular evolution, a haplogroup, from "ἁπλο-" (Greek haplo-: simple or single + "group" is a group of similar Haplotypes ^[9] As Dr. Wells commented, "The Phoenicians were the Canaanites—and the ancestors of today's Lebanese. "^[10] The male populations of Tunisia and Malta were also included in this study and shown to share overwhelming genetic similarities with the Lebanese-Phoenicians.

See also

• Phoenicianism
• Punic
• Carthage
• Names of the Levant

References

• Aubet, Maria Eugenia, The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade, tr. Mary Turton (Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 2001: review)

• The History of Phoenicia, first published in 1889 by George Rawlinson is available under Project Gutenberg at: http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2331 Rawlinson's 19th century text needs updating for modern improvements in historical understanding. Canon George Rawlinson ( 23 November, 1812 &ndash 7 October, 1902) was a 19th century English Scholar and Historian Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works

• Todd, Malcolm; Andrew Fleming (1987). Malcolm Todd is a British historian and Archaeologist with an interest in the interaction between the Roman Empire and Western Europe The South West to AD 1,000 (Regional history of England series No. :8). Harlow, Essex: Longman. ISBN 0-582-49274-2 (Paperback), 0-582-49273-4 (hardback).  , for a critical examination of the evidence of Phoenician trade with the South West of the U. K

• Markoe, Glenn (2000). Phoenicians. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-226135 (hardback).  , for a critical examination of the evidence of Phoenician trade with the South West of the U. K

• Thiollet, Jean-Pierre, Je m'appelle Byblos, H & D, Paris, 2005. ISBN 2 914 266 04 9

External links

• University of Pennsylvania Museum offers simplified but unbiased information on Canaan and Phoenicians, emphasizing common aspects of culture among Israel and the other kingdoms in Canaan.
• Phoenicians in Cadiz bay (Spain) Punic Phoenician archaeology in Cadiz bay (Spain)
• "Phœnicia". Catholic Encyclopedia. The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language Encyclopedia published by The Encyclopedia (1913). New York: Robert Appleton Company.