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Kelileh va Demneh Persian manuscript copy dated 1429, from Herat, depicts the Jackal trying to lead the Lion astray. The Iranian cultural region - consisting of the modern nations of Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and The visual arts are art forms that focus on the creation of works which are primarily Visual in nature such as Painting, Photography Persian painting has several branches most famously the classical art of the Persian miniature, and including the modern popular form of "Qahveh Khanehei" Painting A Persian miniature is a small painting whether a book illustration or a separate work of art intended to be kept in an album of such works The decorative arts are traditionally defined as ornamental and functional works in Ceramic, Wood, Glass, Metal, or Textile. Iran (Persia possesses an extraordinary treasure of royal Jewelry, including a copious amount of Mother-of-pearl from the Persian Gulf. Persian embroidery is one of the many forms of the multi-faceted Persian arts. Persia ( Iran) has an ancient tradition of its own design of motifs Iranian craftwork, are Handicrafts works that are useful in ordinary life or are decorative This article has references but they are not inline references Iranian pottery (sometimes known as gombroon) production presents a continuous Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter By Persian Mythology is meant the myths and sacred narratives of the culturally and linguistically related group of ancient peoples who inhabited the Iranian Plateau Iranian folklore including jokes legends games folklore heroes and beliefs is sophisticated and complex Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual Architecture in " Greater Iran " has a continuous history from at least 5000BCE to the present with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area from Syria Persian cuisine or the cuisine of Iran is diverse with each province featuring dishes culinary traditions and styles distinct to their regions The Persian carpet ( Pahlavi bōb Persian farš فرش meaning "to spread" and qāli) is an essential part of The tradition and style of Garden design of Persian gardens ( Persian باغ ایرانی influenced the design of gardens from Andalusia to India This article is about Performance art For other uses see Performance (disambiguation Persian dance refers to the type of Dancing from Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan. The music of Iran or Persian music has thousands of years of history dating back to the Neolithic age as seen in the archeological The cinema of Iran (or Persian cinema) is a flourishing film industry with a long history The history of literature is the historical development of Writings in Prose or Poetry which attempt to provide Entertainment, enlightenment The History of literature begins with the History of writing, in Bronze Age Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, although the oldest literary Sumerian literature is the oldest literature in the worldThe Sumerians invented the first writing system beginning with cuneiform Logograms Ancient Egyptian literature comprises texts written in the Egyptian language during the pharaonic period of Egypt. Babylonian literature is one of the world's oldest Drawing on the traditions of Sumerian literature, the Babylonians compiled a vast textual tradition of mythological A classical language, is a language with a Literature that is "classical"&mdashie "it should be ancient it should be an independent tradition that arose mostly Chinese classic texts or Chinese canonical texts ( refer to the pre- Qin Chinese texts especially the Confucian Four Books and Five Classics Ancient Greek literature refers to Literature written in the Greek language until the 4th century AD Latin literature, the body of written works in the Latin language remains an enduring legacy of the culture of Ancient Rome. Middle Persian literature is Persian literature of the 1st millennium AD, especially of the Sassanid period Pali literature is concerned mainly with Theravada Buddhism, of which Pali is the traditional language Literature in Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India; the golden age of Classical Syriac literature is Literature written in the Syriac language, an eastern Aramaic language. Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years 300 BCE and 600 CE Medieval literature is a broad subject encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe beyond and during the Middle Ages (encompassing the one thousand Anglo-Saxon literature (or Old English literature) encompasses Literature written in Anglo-Saxon (Old English during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers Byzantine literature may be defined as the Greek literature of the Middle Ages, whether written in the territory of the Byzantine Empire or outside Medieval French literature is for the purpose of this article Literature written in Oïl languages (particularly Old French and early Middle Medieval German literature refers to Literature written in Germany stretching from the Carolingian dynasty; various dates have been given for the end of the See also Israeli literature. Hebrew literature consists of ancient medieval and modern writings in the Hebrew language. Indian literature is generally acknowledged as one of the oldest in the world The earliest Irish authors It is unclear when literacy first came to Ireland This is a list of Japanese classic texts. These classical works of Japanese literature are grouped by genres in a chronological order Kannada literature is the body of literature of Kannada, a Dravidian language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka and written in the Nepal Bhasa literature refers to Literature in Nepal Bhasa History Nepal Bhasa has a long history as regards literature Old Norse literature refers to the vernacular literature of the Scandinavian peoples up to ca Mediaeval Welsh literature is the literature written in the Welsh language during the Middle Ages. The History of literature of the Early Modern period ( 16th, 17th and partly 18th century literature) Renaissance Literature refers to the period in European literature, which began in Italy during the 15th century and spread around Europe through Baroque art redirects here Please disambiguate such links to Baroque painting, Baroque sculpture, etc The History of literature in the Modern period in Europe begins with the Age of Enlightenment and the conclusion of the Baroque period in the 18th century See also 17th century in literature, other events of the 18th century, 19th century in literature, List of years in literature. See also 18th century in literature, other events of the 19th century, 20th century in literature, List of years in literature. See also 19th century in literature, other events of the 20th century, 21st century in literature, List of years in literature. The Panchatantra (also spelled Pañcatantra, in Sanskrit: पञ्चतन्त्र 'Five Principles' or Kalīleh o Demneh area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt.

Nizami Mausoleum in the Republic of Azerbaijan. The Nezami Mausoleum, built in honor of Nezāmī Ganjavī, stands just outside the city of Ganja, Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South

Persian literature (Persian: ادبیات پارسی) spans two and a half millennia, though much of the pre-Islamic material has been lost. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Its sources often come from far-flung regions beyond the borders of present-day Iran, as the Persian language flourished and survives across wide swaths of Central Asia. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south For instance, Rumi, one of Persia's best-loved poets, wrote in Persian but lived in Konya, now in Turkey and then the capital of the Seljuks. Konya ( قونیه; also Koniah, Konieh, Konia, and Qunia; historically also known as Iconium ( Latin Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled The Ghaznavids conquered large territories in Central and South Asia and adopted Persian as their court language. The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk. There is thus Persian literature from areas that are now part of Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Central Asia. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Not all this literature is written in Persian, as some consider works written by ethnic Persians in other languages, such as Greek and Arabic, to be included. Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language

Surviving works in Persian languages (such as Old Persian or Middle Persian) date back as far as 650 BCE, the date of the earliest surviving Achaemenid inscriptions. The Old Persian language is one of the two attested Old Iranian languages (besides Avestan) Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of The bulk of the surviving Persian literature, however, comes from the times following the Islamic conquest of Persia circa 650 CE. The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia After the Abbasids came to power (750 CE), the Persians became the scribes and bureaucrats of the Islamic empire and, increasingly, also its writers and poets. Persians wrote both in Arabic and Persian; Persian predominated in later literary circles. Persian poets such as Sa'di, Hafiz, Rumi and Omar Khayyam are well known in the world and have influenced the literature of many countries. Khwāja Šamsu d-Dīn Muḥammad Hāfez-e Šīrāzī, or simply Hāfez ( was a Persian mystic and Poet. For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین

Classical Persian literature

Pre-Islamic Persian literature

Template:Also see Very few literary works remain from ancient Persia. Most of these consist of the royal inscriptions of Achaemenid kings, particularly Darius I (522–486 BC) and his son Xerxes. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Zoroastrian writings mainly were destroyed in the Islamic conquest of Persia. The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia The Parsis who fled to India, however, took with them some of the books of the Zoroastrian canon, including some of the Avesta and ancient commentaries (Zend) thereof. The Avesta is the primary collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language. Some works of Sassanid geography and travel also survived albeit in Arabic translations.

No single text devoted to literary criticism has survived from pre-Islamic Persia. Literary criticism is the study discussion evaluation and interpretation of Literature. However, some essays in Pahlavi such as ‘’Ayin-e name nebeshtan" and "Bab-e edteda’I-ye" (Kalile va Demne) have been considered as literary criticism (Zarrinkoub, 1959). The Panchatantra (also spelled Pañcatantra, in Sanskrit: पञ्चतन्त्र 'Five Principles' or Kalīleh o Demneh ^[1] Some researchers have quoted the Sho’ubiyye as asserting that the pre-Islamic Persians had books on eloquence, such as'Karvand'. No trace remains of such books. There are some indications that some among the Persian elite were familiar with Greek rhetoric and literary criticism (Zarrinkoub, 1947).

Persian literature of the medieval and pre-modern periods

While initially overshadowed by Arabic during the Umayyad and early Abbasid caliphates, modern Persian soon became a literary language again of the Central Asian lands. Islamization in post-conquest Iran, a long process by which Islam was gradually adopted by the majority population occurred as a result of the Islamic conquest Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The rebirth of the language in its new form is often accredited to Ferdowsi, Unsuri, Daqiqi, Rudaki, and their generation, as they used pre-Islamic nationalism as a conduit to revive the language and customs of ancient Persia. Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. Abul Qasim Hasan Unsuri ( (d 1039/1040 was a 10-11th century Persian ( Tajik) poet Abu Mansur Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Daqiqi Balkhi (935/942-976/980 (in ابو منصور محمد بن احمد دقیقی sometimes referred to as Daqiqi (also Dakiki Daghighi Abdullah Jafar Ibn Mohammad Rudaki, (ابوعبدالله جعفر ابن محمد رودکی entitledآدم الشعرا Ādam ul-Shoara or Adam of Poets also written

In particular, says Ferdowsi himself in his Shahnama: بسی رنج بردم در این سال سی
عجم زنده کردم بدین پارسی "For thirty years, I endured much pain and strife,
with Persian I gave the Ajam verve and life". Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc

Poetry

So strong is the Persian aptitude for versifying everyday expressions that one can encounter poetry in almost every classical work, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. In short, the ability to write in verse form was a pre-requisite for any scholar. For example, almost half of Avicenna's medical writings are in verse. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born

Works of the early era of Persian poetry are characterized by strong court patronage, an extravagance of panegyrics, and what is known as سبک فاخر "exalted in style". A panegyric is a formal public speech, or (in later use written verse delivered in high praise of a Person or thing, a generally highly studied and discriminating The tradition of royal patronage began perhaps under the Sassanid era and carried over through the Abbasid and Samanid courts into every major Persian dynasty. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The Samanids (819–999 ( Sāmāniyān) were a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan, named after its founder Saman The following is a comprehensive list of kings of Persia, which includes all of the empires ruling over geographical Iran The Qasida was perhaps the most famous form of panegyric used, though quatrains such as those in Omar Khayyam's Ruba'iyyat are also widely popular. Qasida (also spelled qasidah) in Arabic: قصيدة, plural qasā'id, قــصــائـد; in Persian: قصیده A quatrain is a Poem, or a Stanza within a poem that consists always of four lines For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam ( Persian: رباعیات عمر خیام The Rubáiyát ( Arabic: رباعیات is a collection of Poems

"Khorasani style", whose followers mostly were associated with Greater Khorasan, is characterized by its supercilious diction, dignified tone, and relatively literate language. Greater Khorasan (خراسان بزرگ (also written Khorasaan, Khurasan and Khurasaan) is a modern term for eastern territories of ancient Persia The chief representatives of this lyricism are Asjadi, Farrukhi Sistani, Unsuri, and Manuchehri. Abu Nazar Abdul Aziz ibn Mansur Asjadi was a 10th century and 11th century royal Persian ( Tajik) poet of Ghaznavid empire located in Ghazni province of Abul Hasan Ali ibn Julugh Farrukhi Sistani was a 10th century and 11th century royal poet of Ghaznavids. Abul Qasim Hasan Unsuri ( (d 1039/1040 was a 10-11th century Persian ( Tajik) poet Abu Najm Ahmad ibn Ahmad ibn Qaus Manuchehri (ابونجم احمد ابن احمد ابن قوص منوچهری دامغانی a Panegyric masters such as Rudaki were known for their love of nature, their verse abounding with evocative descriptions. Abdullah Jafar Ibn Mohammad Rudaki, (ابوعبدالله جعفر ابن محمد رودکی entitledآدم الشعرا Ādam ul-Shoara or Adam of Poets also written

Through these courts and system of patronage emerged the epic style of poetry, with Ferdowsi's Shahnama at the apex. Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc By glorifying the Iranian historical past in heroic and elevated verses, he and other notables such as Daqiqi and Asadi Tusi presented the "Ajam" with a source of pride and inspiration that has helped preserve a sense of identity for the Iranian peoples over the ages. See Also Persian Empire History of Iran and Greater Iran (also referred to as the " Iranian Cultural Continent Abu Mansur Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Daqiqi Balkhi (935/942-976/980 (in ابو منصور محمد بن احمد دقیقی sometimes referred to as Daqiqi (also Dakiki Daghighi Abu Mansur Ali ibn Ahmad Asadi Tusi (born Tus, Iranian province of Khorasan - died 1072 Tabriz, Iran) is arguably the second most The Iranian people are a collection of Ethnic groups defined along linguistic lines as speaking Iranian languages. Ferdowsi set a model to be followed by a host of other poets later on.

The thirteenth century marks the ascendancy of lyric poetry with the consequent development of the ghazal into a major verse form, as well as the rise of mystical and Sufi poetry. In Poetry, the ghazal ( Arabic / Persian / Urdu: غزل; Hindi: ग़ज़ल Turkish gazel) is a Sufi poetry has been written in many languages both for private devotional reading and as lyrics for music played during worship or Dhikr. This style is often called "the Eraqi style", and is known by its emotional lyric qualities, rich meters, and the relative simplicity of its language. Emotional romantic poetry was not something new however, as works such as Vis o Ramin by Asad Gorgani, and Yusof o Zoleikha by Am'aq exemplify. Fakhruddin As'ad Gurgani, also spelled as Fakhraddin Asaad Gorgani (in فخرالدين اسعد گرگاني was a 11th century Persian Poet. Shihabuddin Am'aq (عمعق was a 12th century Persian ( Tajik) poet Poets such as Sana'i and Attar (who ostensibly have inspired Rumi), Khaqani Shirvani, Anvari, and Nezami, were highly respected ghazal writers. Hakim Abul-Majd Majdūd ibn Ādam Sanā'ī Ghaznavi ( was a Persian Sufi ( Tajik) Poet who lived in Ghazna, in what is now Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm (born 1145-46 in Nishapur &ndash died c Khāqāni or Khāghāni ( 1121 / 1122) &ndash 1190) (Persian خاقانی a Persian poet who was born in Shirvan, under the Anvari (1126–1189 full name Awhad ad-Din 'Ali ibn Mohammad Khavarani or Awhad ad-Din 'Ali ibn Mahmud ( was one of the greatest Persian Poets Nezāmi-ye Ganjavi ( Nîzamî Gencewî نیزامی گه‌نجه‌وی Nizami Gəncəvi نظامی گنجوی;‎ 1141 – 1209 or Nezāmi ( whose full name However, the elite of this school are Rumi, Sadi, and Hafez. Sheikh Saadi (in سعدی full name in English Muslih-ud-Din Mushrif ibn Abdullah) (1184 &ndash 1283/1291? is one of the major Persian Poets of Khwāja Šamsu d-Dīn Muḥammad Hāfez-e Šīrāzī, or simply Hāfez ( was a Persian mystic and Poet.

Regarding the tradition of Persian love poetry during the Safavid era, Persian historian Ehsan Yarshater notes, "As a rule, the beloved is not a woman, but a young man. The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz Ehsan Yarshater ( born April 3, 1920, Hamadan, Iran) is the director of The Center for Iranian Studies and Hagop Kevorkian Professor Emeritus In the early centuries of Islam, the raids into Central Asia produced many young slaves. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Slaves were also bought or received as gifts. They were made to serve as pages at court or in the households of the affluent, or as soldiers and bodyguards. Young men, slaves or not, also, served wine at banquets and receptions, and the more gifted among them could play music and maintain a cultivated conversation. It was love toward young pages, soldiers, or novices in trades and professions which was the subject of lyrical introductions to panegyrics from the beginning of Persian poetry, and of the ghazal. Pederasty or paederasty refers to an erotic relationship sexually expressed or not between an adolescent boy and an adult male outside his immediate family "^[2]

In the didactic genre one can mention Sanai's Hadiqatul Haqiqah as well as Nezami's Makhzan-ul-Asrār. Didacticism is an artistic philosophy that emphasizes instructional and informative qualities in Literature and other types of Art. Hakim Abul-Majd Majdūd ibn Ādam Sanā'ī Ghaznavi ( was a Persian Sufi ( Tajik) Poet who lived in Ghazna, in what is now Nezāmi-ye Ganjavi ( Nîzamî Gencewî نیزامی گه‌نجه‌وی Nizami Gəncəvi نظامی گنجوی;‎ 1141 – 1209 or Nezāmi ( whose full name Some of Attar's works also belong to this genre as do the major works of Rumi, although some tend to classify these in the lyrical type due to their mystical and emotional qualities. Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm (born 1145-46 in Nishapur &ndash died c In addition, some tend to group Naser Khosrow's works in this style as well; however the true gem of this genre is Sadi's Bustan, a heavyweight of Persian literature. Abu Mo’in Hamid ad-Din Nasir ibn Khusraw al-Qubadiani or Nasir Khusraw Qubadyani spelled ''Khusrow'' (1004 - 1088 AD ( was a Persian ( Tajik) poet philosopher

After the fifteenth century, the Indian style of Persian poetry (sometimes also called Isfahani or Safavi styles) took over. This style has its roots in the Timurid era and produced the likes of Amir Khosrow Dehlavi, and Bhai Nand Lal Goya [1][2]. Ab'ul Hasan Yamīn al-Dīn Khusrow ( Hindi: hi अबुल हसन यमीनुद्दीन ख़ुसरो (1253-1325 CE better known as Amīr Khusrow Bhai Nand Lal (1633-1713 was a 17th century Persian, and Arabic poet in Punjab region.

Illustration from Attar's The Conference of the Birds. Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm (born 1145-46 in Nishapur &ndash died c A popular sufi poem. Sufi poetry has been written in many languages both for private devotional reading and as lyrics for music played during worship or Dhikr.

Bahram Gur and the Indian princess in the black pavilion. Bahram V ( Persian:بهرام گور was the fourteenth Sassanid King of Persia (421&ndash438 Depiction from Nizami's Khamsa (Quintet). Nizami may refer to Nizami Nezami Nizami Armenia Nizami raion, Baku Azerbaijan

Illustration from Jami's Rose Garden of the Pious, 1553. Nur ad-Din Abd ar-Rahman Jami (نورالدین عبدالرحمن جامی ( August 18, 1414 &ndash November 19, 1492) was one of the greatest The image blends Persian poetry and Persian miniature into one, as is the norm for many works of Persian literature. A Persian miniature is a small painting whether a book illustration or a separate work of art intended to be kept in an album of such works

Essays

The most significant essays of this era are Nizami Arudhi Samarqandi's "Chahār Maqāleh" as well as Zahiriddin Nasr Muhammad Aufi's anecdote compendium Jawami ul-Hikayat. Ahmad ibn Umar ibn Alī, known as Nizamī-i Arūzī-i Samarqandī ( was a Persian Poet and prose writer of the 12th century Sadiduddin Muhammad Aufi (1171-124سدید الدین محمد عوفی (–2 was a Persian historian scientist and author For other uses see Anecdota. For a comparison of anecdote with other kinds of stories see Myth legend fairy tale and fable. Jawāmi ul-Hikāyāt wa Lawāmi' ul-Riwāyāt (also transcribed Djami al-Hikayat and Jami al-Hikayat (جوامع الحکایات و لوامع الروایات is a famous Shams al-Mo'ali Abol-hasan Ghaboos ibn Wushmgir's famous work, the Qabus nama (A Mirror for Princes), is a highly esteemed Belles-lettres work of Persian literature. Shams al-Mo'ali Abol-hasan Ghaboos ibn Wushmgir (alt Qabus) (d Qabus nama or Qabus nameh Qabusnamah Qabousnameh Ghabousnameh or Ghaboosnameh in Persian قابوس‌نامه book of Qabus is a major work of Persian literature See also Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. Belles-lettres or belles lettres is a term that is used to describe a category Also highly regarded is Siyasatnama, by Nizam al-Mulk, a famous Persian vizier. Siyāsatnāma / Siyāsat nāmeh ( Persian: سياست نامه " Book of Government " also known as Siyar al-muluk For info about rulers of Hyderabad state, see the page Nizam state of Hyderabad. A Vizier ( - wazīr) (sometimes also spelled Vazir Vizir Vasir Wazir Vesir, or Vezir - grammatical vowel changes are common in many western Asian Kelileh va Demneh, translated from Indian folk tales, can also be mentioned in this category. The Panchatantra (also spelled Pañcatantra, in Sanskrit: पञ्चतन्त्र 'Five Principles' or Kalīleh o Demneh India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country It is seen as a collection of adages in Persian literary studies and thus does not convey folkloric notions.

Biographies, hagiographies, and historical works

Among the major historical and biographical works in classical Persian, one can mention Abolfazl Beyhaghi's famous Tarikh-i Beyhaqi, Lubab ul-Albab of Zahiriddin Nasr Muhammad Aufi (which has been regarded as a reliable chronological source by many experts), as well as Ata al-Mulk Juvayni's famous Tarikh-i Jahangushay-i Juvaini (which spans the Mongolid and Ilkhanid era of Iran). TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abolfazl Beyhaghi (995-1077 Ibn Zeyd ibn Muhammad Abul-Fazl Mohammad ibn Hossein Lubab ul-Albab (لباب الالباب is a famous anthology written by Zahiriddin Nasr Muhammad Aufi in the early 13th century in eastern Persia. Sadiduddin Muhammad Aufi (1171-124سدید الدین محمد عوفی (–2 was a Persian historian scientist and author Ala'iddin Ata-Malik Juvayni (1226 &ndash 1283 (Persian علاءالدين عطا ملك جويني was a Persian historian who wrote an account of the Mongol Empire Tarikh-i Jahangushay-i Juvaini ("The History of The World Conqueror" is a detailed historical account written by the Persian Ata al-Mulk Juvayni describing The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Attar's Tadkhirat al-Awliya ("Biographies of the Saints") is also a detailed account of Sufi mystics, which is referenced by many subsequent authors and considered a significant work in mystical hagiography. Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm (born 1145-46 in Nishapur &ndash died c Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Hagiography ( is the study of Saints. A hagiography, from Greek (hağios (ἅγιος "holy" or "saint" and graphē (γραφή

Literary criticism

See also: Literary criticism in Iran

The oldest surviving work of Persian literary criticism after the Islamic conquest of Persia is Muqaddame-ye Shahname-ye Abu Mansuri, which was written in the Samanid period. Literary criticism ( is a relatively young discipline in Iran since there had been no comparable tradition of Literary criticism before the nineteenth century The work deals with the myths and legends of Shahname and is considered the oldest surviving example of Persian prose. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc It also shows an attempt by the authors to evaluate literary works critically.

Persian story writing

One Thousand and One Nights (Persian: هزار و یک شب) is a medieval Persian literary epic which tells the story of Scheherazade (Šarzād in Persian), a Sassanid queen who must relate a series of stories to her malevolent husband, King Shahryar (Šahryār), to delay her execution. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Scheherazade (ʃəˌhɛrəˈzɑːd -ˈzɑːdə sometimes Scheherazadea, Persian transliteration Shahrazad or Shahrzād (شهرزاد Šahrzād The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire This is a list of characters within the Medieval collection of Middle Eastern Folk tales One Thousand and One Nights. The stories are told over a period of one thousand and one nights, and every night she ends the story with a suspenseful situation, forcing the King to keep her alive for another day. The individual stories were created over many centuries, by many people and in many styles, and many have become famous in their own right. Notable examples include Aladdin, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, and The Seven Voyages of Sinbad the Sailor. Aladdin (an Anglicisation of the Arabic name (originally Syrian Alāʼ ad-Dīn, Arabic: علاء الدين literally "nobility of the faith" Ali Baba ( Arabic, Persian: علي بابا is a Fictional character based in Ancient Arabia.

The nucleus of the stories is formed by a Pahlavi Sassanid Persian book called Hazār Afsānah^[3] (Thousand Myths, in Persian: هزارافسانه), a collection of ancient Indian and Persian folk tales. During the reign of the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid in the eighth century, Baghdad had become an important cosmopolitan city. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Hārūn al-Rashīd (and Persian: هارون الرشيد) also spelled Harun ar-Rashid; English: Aaron the Upright, Aaron the The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Merchants from Persia, China, India, Africa, and Europe were all found in Baghdad. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country During this time, many of the stories that were originally folk stories were thought to have been collected orally over many years and later compiled into a single book. The compiler and ninth-century translator into Arabic is reputedly the storyteller Abu abd-Allah Muhammad el-Gahshigar. The frame story of Shahrzad seems to have been added in the fourteenth century. A frame story (also frame tale, frame narrative, etc is a narrative technique whereby an introductory main story is composed at least in part for the purpose of

Dictionaries

Dehkhoda names 200 Persian lexicographical works in his monumental Dehkhoda Dictionary, the earliest, Farhang-i Avim (فرهنگ اویم) and Farhang-i Menakhtay (فرهنگ مناختای), from the late Sassanid era. Note In some Wikipedia articles the word "Dehkhoda" can refer to "Dehkhoda's Dictionary" or Dehkhoda himself Dehkhoda Dictionary ( is the largest comprehensive Persian Dictionary ever published in 15 volumes (26000 pages The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The most widely used Persian lexicons in the Middle Ages were those of Abu Hafs Soghdi (فرهنگ ابو حفص سغدی) and Asadi Tusi (فرهنگ لغت فرس), written in 1092. In Linguistics, the lexicon (from Greek Λεξικόν of a language is its Vocabulary, including its words and expressions Abu Mansur Ali ibn Ahmad Asadi Tusi (born Tus, Iranian province of Khorasan - died 1072 Tabriz, Iran) is arguably the second most Also highly regarded in the Persian literature lexical corpus are the works of Mohammad Moin. Mohammad Moin ( ( July 12, 1914, Rasht, Iran &mdash July 4, 1971, Tehran, Iran was a prominent Iranian

In 1645, Ravius and Lugduni completed a Persian-Latin dictionary. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. This was followed by J. Richardson's two-volume Oxford edition (1777) and Gladwin-Malda's (1770) Persian-English Dictionaries, Scharif and S. Peters' Persian-Russian Dictionary (1869), and 30 other Persian lexicographical translations through the 1950s.

In 2002, Professor Hassan Anvari published his Persian-to-Persian dictionary, Farhang-e Bozorg-e Sokhan, in eight volumes by Sokhan Publications.

Currently English-Persian dictionaries of Manouchehr Aryanpour and Soleiman Haim are widely used in Iran. Soleiman Haim (1897-1970 was an Iranian Jew and one of the first dictionary writers of the Persian language.

Persian phrases

The influence of Persian literature on World literature

Sufi literature

William Shakespeare referred to Iran as the "land of the Sophy". William Shakespeare ( baptised ^[4] Some of Persia's best-beloved medieval poets were Sufis, and their poetry was, and is, widely read by Sufis from Morocco to Indonesia. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. Rumi (Maulānā) in particular is renowned both as a poet and as the founder of a widespread Sufi order. The themes and styles of this devotional poetry have been widely imitated by many Sufi poets. See also the article on Sufi poetry. Sufi poetry has been written in many languages both for private devotional reading and as lyrics for music played during worship or Dhikr.

Many notable texts in Persian mystic literature are not poems, yet highly read and regarded. Among those are Kimiya-yi sa'ādat and Asrar al-Tawhid. Kimiya-yi Sa'ādat (كيمياى سعادت translated the Alchemy of Happiness, is a book written by Al-Ghazali. Asrar al-Tawhid fi Maghamat al-Sheikh Abusa'id (اسرار التوحید فی مقامات ابو سعید which translates as ("The Mysteries of Unification" is a famous work

Areas once under Ghaznavid or Mughal rule

Afghanistan and Central Asia

Afghanistan and the Transoxiana can claim to be the birthplace of Modern Persian. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود Most of the great patrons of Persian literature such as Sultan Sanjar and the courts of the Samanids and Ghaznavids were situated in this region, as were writers such as Rudaki, Unsuri, and Ferdowsi. Mu'iz ud-Dīn Ahmad-e Sanjar (Sultan Sancar (1084/1086 &ndash May 8 1157) was the Sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire from 1118 to 1153 The Samanids (819–999 ( Sāmāniyān) were a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan, named after its founder Saman The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk. Abdullah Jafar Ibn Mohammad Rudaki, (ابوعبدالله جعفر ابن محمد رودکی entitledآدم الشعرا Ādam ul-Shoara or Adam of Poets also written Abul Qasim Hasan Unsuri ( (d 1039/1040 was a 10-11th century Persian ( Tajik) poet Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. As such, this rich literary heritage continues to survive well into the present in countries like Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Afghanistan. Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly

Indian subcontinent

With the emergence of the Japanese Ghaznavids and their successors such as the Ghurids, Timurids and Mughal Empire, Persian culture and its literature gradually moved into the vast Indian subcontinent. The Ghurids (or Ghorids; self-designation Shansabānī) ( were a Persian Sunni - Ismaili Muslim dynasty in Khorasan The Timurids, self-designated Gurkānī ( were a Persianate Central Asian Sunni Muslim dynasty The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most To best understand Iran and its people one must first attempt to acquire an understanding of its ancient culture This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. Persian was the language of the nobility, literary circles, and the royal Mughal courts for hundreds of years. (In modern times, Persian has been generally supplanted by Urdu, a heavily Persian-influenced dialect of Hindustani. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised Hindustani (हिन्दुस्तानी ہندوستانی Hindustānī, hɪn̪d̪ʊst̪aːniː also known as " Hindi-Urdu," is a term covering )

Under the Moghul Empire of India during the sixteenth century, the official language of India became Persian. Only in 1832 did the British army force the Indian subcontinent to begin conducting business in English. (Clawson, p. 6) Persian poetry in fact flourished in these regions while post-Safavid Iranian literature stagnated. The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Dehkhoda and other scholars of the 20th century, for example, largely based their works on the detailed lexicography produced in India, using compilations such as Ghazi khan Badr Muhammad Dehlavi's Adat al-Fudhala (اداه الفضلا), Ibrahim Ghavamuddin Farughi's Farhang-i Ibrahimi ( فرهنگ ابراهیمی), and particularly Muhammad Padshah's Farhang-i Anandraj (فرهنگ آناندراج). Note In some Wikipedia articles the word "Dehkhoda" can refer to "Dehkhoda's Dictionary" or Dehkhoda himself Famous South Asian poets and scholars such as Amir Khosrow Dehlavi and Muhammad Iqbal of Lahore found many admirers in Iran itself. Ab'ul Hasan Yamīn al-Dīn Khusrow ( Hindi: hi अबुल हसन यमीनुद्दीन ख़ुसरो (1253-1325 CE better known as Amīr Khusrow ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics.

Western literature

Main article: Persian literature in the West

Persian literature was little known in the West before the nineteenth century. literature]] has had influences on many writers and cultures outside of its boundaries It became much better known following the publication of several translations from the works of late medieval Persian poets, and it inspired works by various Western poets and writers.

German literature

• In 1819, Goethe published his West-östlicher Divan, a collection of lyric poems inspired by a German translation of Hafiz (1326–1390). ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Khwāja Šamsu d-Dīn Muḥammad Hāfez-e Šīrāzī, or simply Hāfez ( was a Persian mystic and Poet.
• The German essayist and philosopher Nietzsche was the author of the book Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883–1885),^[5] referring to the ancient Persian prophet Zoroaster (circa 1700 BCE). Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist Thus Spoke Zarathustra (German Also sprach Zarathustra, sometimes translated Thus Spake Zarathustra) subtitled A Book for All and None Zoroaster ( Latinized from Greek variants) or Zarathushtra (from Avestan Zaraθuštra) also referred to as Zartosht (زرتشت

English literature

• A selection from Ferdowsi's Shahnameh (935–1020) was published in 1832 by James Atkinson, a physician employed by the British East India Company. Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc James Atkinson may refer to James Atkinson (software developer, founder of the phpBB project James Atkinson (inventor, inventor of The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or
• A portion of this abridgment was later versified by the British poet Matthew Arnold in his 1853 Rustam and Sohrab.
• The American poet Ralph Waldo Emerson was another admirer of Persian poetry. Ralph Waldo Emerson (May 25 1803 &ndash April 27 1882 was an American essayist philosopher poet and leader of the Transcendentalist movement in the early 19th century He published several essays in 1876 that discuss Persian poetry: Letters and Social Aims, From the Persian of Hafiz, and Ghaselle.

Perhaps the most popular Persian poet of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was Omar Khayyam (1048–1123), whose Rubaiyat was freely translated by Edward Fitzgerald in 1859. For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam ( Persian: رباعیات عمر خیام The Rubáiyát ( Arabic: رباعیات is a collection of Poems Edward Fitzgerald may refer to Edward FitzGerald 7th Duke of Leinster Lord Edward FitzGerald, Irish revolutionary Khayyam is esteemed more as a scientist than a poet in his native Persia, but in Fitzgerald's rendering, he became one of the most quoted poets in English. Khayyam's line, "A loaf of bread, a jug of wine, and thou", is known to many who could not say who wrote it, or where.

The Persian poet and mystic Rumi (1207–1273) (known as Molana in Iran) has attracted a large following in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Popularizing translations by Coleman Barks have presented Rumi as a New Age sage. Coleman Barks (born 1937 is an American Poet. Although he neither speaks nor reads Persian, he is nonetheless renowned as a Translator of New Age ( New Age Movement and New Age Spirituality) is a Social Collective Phenomenon and a Spiritual Nature There are also a number of more literary translations by scholars such as A.J. Arberry. Arthur John Arberry ( Portsmouth, May 12 1905 &ndash Cambridge, October 2 1969) was a respected and most prolific scholar

The classical poets (Hafiz, Sa'di, Khayyam, Rumi, Nezami and Ferdowsi) are now widely known in English and can be read in various translations. Nezāmi-ye Ganjavi ( Nîzamî Gencewî نیزامی گه‌نجه‌وی Nizami Gəncəvi نظامی گنجوی;‎ 1141 – 1209 or Nezāmi ( whose full name Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. Other works of Persian literature are untranslated and little known.

Swedish literature

During the last century, numerous works of classical Persian literature have been translated into Swedish by baron Eric Hermelin. Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the Eric Axel Hermelin Baron Hermelin ( June 22, 1860 – November 8, 1944) was a Swedish author and prolific translator of Persian He translated works by, among others, Farid al-Din Attar, Rumi, Ferdowsi, Omar Khayyam, Sa'adi and Sana'i. Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm (born 1145-46 in Nishapur &ndash died c Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین Hakim Abul-Majd Majdūd ibn Ādam Sanā'ī Ghaznavi ( was a Persian Sufi ( Tajik) Poet who lived in Ghazna, in what is now Influenced by the writings of the Swedish mystic Emanuel Swedenborg, he was especially attracted to the religious or Sufi aspects of classical Persian poetry. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. (born Emanuel Swedberg; February 8 1688–March 29 1772 was a Swedish Scientist, Philosopher, Christian mystic, and Theologian Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف

More recently Rumi, Hafiz and Fakhruddin 'Iraqi are available in translation by Ashk Dahlén, scholar in Iranian Studies, who has made Persian literature known to a wider audience in Sweden. Fakhr al-dīn Ibrahīm ( June 10 1213 - 1289 known simply as Araqi or Iraqi was a Persian Philosopher and mystic of the Islamic Ashk Peter Dahlén (b 1972 in Tehran) is a researcher in Iranian Studies and translator of Persian literature into Swedish. Iranian Studies ( ايران شناسیis an interdisciplinary field dealing with the study of the Iranian cultural region (or the Iranian "cultural continent" "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation.

Contemporary Persian literature

History

Some leading figures of Iranian literary intellectuals: (L to R) Morteza Keyvan, Ahmad Shamlou, Nima Yooshij, Siavash Kasraie, and Hushang Ebtehaj

In the nineteenth century, Persian literature experienced dramatic change and entered a new era. The beginning of this change was exemplified by an incident in the mid-nineteenth century at the court of Nasereddin Shah, when the reform-minded prime minister, Amir Kabir, chastised the poet Habibollah Qa'ani for "lying" in a panegyric qasida written in Kabir's honor. Nasser al-Din Shah Qajar ( July 16, 1831 - May 1, 1896) () was the King and Shah of Persia from September 17 Amir Kabir ( 1807 - January 11, 1852( also known as Mirza Taqi Khan Amir-Nezam ( served as Prime Minister of Persia (Iran under Kabir saw poetry in general and the type of poetry that had developed during the Qajar period as detrimental to "progress" and "modernization" in Iranian society, which he believed was in dire need of change. Such concerns were also expressed by others such as Fath-'Ali Akhundzadeh, Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani, and Mirza Malkom Khan. Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani was an Iranian literary critic Kirmānī emphasized "that it is meaning not the mode of expression that exerts the real influence on the reader" Mirza Malkam Khan (1833-1908 also spelled as Malkom Khan, was an Iranian proponent of Freemasonry active during the period leading up to the Iranian Constitutional Khan also addressed a need for a change in Persian poetry in literary terms as well, always linking it to social concerns.

The new Persian literary movement cannot be understood without an understanding of the intellectual movements among Iranian philosophical circles. Intellectual movements in Iran involve the Iranian experience of Modernity and its associated art science literature poetry and political structures that have Given the social and political climate of Persia (Iran) in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which led to the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906–1911, the idea that change in poetry was necessary became widespread. The Iranian Constitutional Revolution (also known as the Persian Constitutional Revolution or Constitutional Revolution of Iran) took place between 1905 and 1911 Many argued that Persian poetry should reflect the realities of a country in transition. This idea was propagated by notable literary figures such as Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda and Abolqasem Aref, who challenged the traditional system of Persian poetry in terms of introducing new content and experimentation with rhetoric, lexico-semantics, and structure. Note In some Wikipedia articles the word "Dehkhoda" can refer to "Dehkhoda's Dictionary" or Dehkhoda himself Dehkhoda, for instance, used a lesser-known traditional form, the mosammat, to elegize the execution of a revolutionary journalist. 'Aref employed the ghazal, "the most central genre within the lyrical tradition" (p. 88), to write his "Payam-e Azadi" (Message of Freedom).

Some researchers argue that the notion of "sociopolitical ramifications of esthetic changes" led to the idea of poets "as social leaders trying the limits and possibilities of social change. "

An important movement in modern Persian literature centered on the question of modernization and Westernization and whether these terms are synonymous when describing the evolution of Iranian society. The idea of modernization comes from a view of societies as having a standard Evolutionary pattern as described in the Social evolutionism theories Westernization or occidentalization (from occident, see wiktionary) is a process whereby societies come under or adopt the Western It can be argued that almost all advocates of modernism in Persian literature, from Akhundzadeh, Kermani, and Malkom Khan to Dehkhoda, 'Aref, Bahar, and Rafat, were inspired by developments and changes that had occurred in Western, particularly European, literatures. Such inspirations did not mean blindly copying Western models but, rather, adapting aspects of Western literature and changing them to fit the needs of Iranian culture.

Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub, master of Persian literature and literary criticism

Following the pioneering works of Ahmad Kasravi, Sadeq Hedayat and many others, the Iranian wave of comparative literature and literary criticism reached a symbolic crest with the emergence of Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub, Shahrokh Meskoob, Houshang Golshiri and Ebrahim Golestan. Abdolhossein Zarinkoob (in عبدالحسين زرين‌کوب also spelled Zarrinkoub) was a prominent scholar of Iranian literature history of literature Persian Ahmad Kasravi ( 29 September, 1890 - March 11, 1946) ( was a notable Iranian linguist, Historian, and Sadeq (or Sadegh) Hedayat (in Persian: صادق هدایت February 17 1903, Tehran &mdash 4 April, 1951 Abdolhossein Zarinkoob (in عبدالحسين زرين‌کوب also spelled Zarrinkoub) was a prominent scholar of Iranian literature history of literature Persian Shahrokh Meskoob (1924, Babol, Iran - April 12, 2005, Paris, France) ( was an outstanding Iranian writer translator Houshang Golshiri (هوشنگ گلشیری in Persian; March 16, 1938 — June 6, 2000) was an Iranian fiction writer critic Ebrahim Golestan (also spelt Ibrahim Golestan,, born 1922 in Shiraz Iran) is an Iranian Filmmaker and literary figure with a career spanning

Persian literature in Afghanistan

Persian literature in Afghanistan has also experienced a dramatic change during last century. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Afghanistan was confronted with economic and social change, which sparked a new approach to literature. In 1911, Mahmud Tarzi, who came back to Afghanistan after years of exile in Turkey and was influential in government circles, started a fortnightly publication named Saraj’ul Akhbar. Mahmūd Bēg Tarzī (1865 - 1933 ( Pashto: محمود طرزي,) was one of Afghanistan 's greatest Intellectuals He is known as the father of Saraj was not the first such publication in the country, but in the field of journalism and literature it launched a new period of change and modernization. Saraj not only played an important role in journalism, it also gave new life to literature as a whole and opened the way for poetry to explore new avenues of expression through which personal thoughts took on a more social colour.

In 1930 (1309 AH), after months of cultural stagnation, a group of writers founded the Herat Literary Circle. A year later, another group calling itself the Kabul Literary Circle was founded in the capital. Both groups published regular magazines dedicated to culture and Persian literature. Both, especially the Kabul publication, had little success in becoming venues for modern Persian poetry and writing. In time, the Kabul publication turned into a stronghold for traditional writers and poets, and modernism in Dari literature was pushed to the fringes of social and cultural life.

Three of the most prominent classical poets in Afghanistan at the time were Qari Abdullah, Abdul Haq Betab and Khalil Ullah Khalili. Khalilullah Khalili (1908–1987 - Ḫalīl Allāḥ Ḫalīlī; alternative spellings Khalilollah, Khalil Ullah) was Afghanistan 's foremost The first two received the honorary title Malek ul Shoara (King of Poets). Khalili, the third and youngest, was drawn toward the Khorasan style of poetry instead of the usual Hendi style. He was also interested in modern poetry and wrote a few poems in a more modern style with new aspects of thought and meaning. In 1318 (AH), after two poems by Nima Youshij titled "Gharab" and "Ghaghnus" were published, Khalili wrote a poem under the name "Sorude Kuhestan" or "The Song of the Mountain" in the same rhyming pattern as Nima and sent it to the Kabul Literary Circle. Nimā Yushij (نیما یوشیج in Persian) ( November 12, 1896 - January 6, 1960) also called Nimā, born Ali Esfandiāri The traditionalists in Kabul refused to publish it because it was not written in the traditional rhyme. They criticized Khalili for modernizing his style.

Very gradually new styles found their way into literature and literary circles despite the efforts of traditionalists. The first book of new poems was published in the year 1957 (1336 AG), and in 1962 (1341 AH), a collection of modern Persian poetry was published in Kabul. The first group to write poems in the new style consisted of Mahmud Farani, Baregh Shafi’i, Solayman Layeq, Sohail, Ayeneh and a few others. Later, Vasef Bakhtari, Asadullah Habib and Latif Nazemi, and others joined the group. Wasef Bakhtari (Born 1942 in Balkh, Afghanistan) is a renowned Persian poet literary figure and intellectual Latif Nazemi (Born in Herat, Afghanistan) is a Poet and Literary. Each had his own share in modernizing Persian poetry in Afghanistan. Other notable figures include Leila Sarahat Roshani, Sayed Elan Bahar and Parwin Pazwak. Parwin Pazwak (Born 1967 Kabul) is a Tajik artist and a modern Persian poet and writer Poets like Mayakovsky, Yase Nien and Lahouti (an Iranian poet living in exile in Russia) exerted a special influence on the Persian poets in Afghanistan. The influence of Iranians (e. g. Farrokhi Yazdi and Ahmad Shamlou) on modern Afghan prose and poetry, especially in the second half of the twentieth century, must also be taken into consideration. Mirza Mohammad Farrokhi Yazdi (1887– October 18, 1939) was a Persian/Iranian poet and senior politician of the Reza Pahlavi era Ahmad Shamlou ( ( December 12, 1925 — July 24, 2000) was a Persian poet writer and journalist ^[6]

Prominent Afghanistani writers like Asef Soltanzadeh, Reza Ebrahimi, Ameneh Mohammadi, and Abbas Jafari grew up in Iran and were influenced by Iranian writers and teachers.

Persian literature in Tajikistan

The new poetry in Tajikistan is mostly concerned with the way of life of people and is revolutionary. From the 1950s until the advent of new poetry in France, Asia and Latin America, the impact of the modernization drive was strong. In the 1960s, modern Iranian poetry and that of Mohammad Iqbal Lahouri made a profound impression in Tajik poetry. This period is probably the richest and most prolific period for the development of themes and forms in Persian poetry in Tajikistan. Some Tajik poets were mere imitators, and one can easily see the traits of foreign poets in their work. Only two or three poets were able to digest the foreign poetry and compose original poetry. In Tajikistan, the format and pictorial aspects of short stories and novels were taken from Russian and European literature. Some of Tajikistan's prominent names in Persian literature are Golrokhsar Safi Eva,^[7] Mo'men Ghena'at,^[8] Farzaneh Khojandi^[9] and Layeq Shir-Ali. Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Golrokhsar Safi (born 1947) is a prominent Iranologist, Persian literary figure and Tajikistan 's national poet Inoyat Hojieva ( Иноят Ҳоҷиева/عنایت حاجی‌یوا mostly known as Farzana ( Фарзона/فرزانه is a renowned Tajik poet and writer Layeq Shir-Ali (born 1940 Tajiki / Persian: Лоиқ Шералӣ/لایق شیرعلی was a Tajik poet Iranologist and one of the most cellebrated

Novels

Laiq Sher-Ali, prominent Persian poet from Tajikistan

Well-known novelists include:

• Simin Daneshvar
• Bozorg Alavi
• Ebrahim Golestan
• Zoya Pirzad

see also Persian Novel

Satire

Main article: Persian satire

• Iraj Mirza
• Ebrahim Nabavi
• Kioumars Saberi Foumani
• Hadi Khorsandi
• Obeid Zakani
• Dehkhoda
• Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi
• Emran Salahi

Literary criticism

Shahrokh Meskoob, Prominent literary critic and Shahnameh expert

Pioneers of Persian literary criticism in nineteenth century include Mirza Fath `Ali Akhundzade, Mirza Malkom Khan, Mirza `Abd al-Rahim Talebof and Zeyn al-`Abedin Maraghe`i. Layeq Shir-Ali (born 1940 Tajiki / Persian: Лоиқ Шералӣ/لایق شیرعلی was a Tajik poet Iranologist and one of the most cellebrated Simin Dāneshvar ( Persian: سیمین دانشور (born on April 28 1921 in Shiraz Iran) is an Iranian academic renowned novelist fiction writer Bozorg Alavi (بزرگ علوی in Persian) ( February 2, 1904 &ndash February 18, 1997) was an influential Iranian writer Ebrahim Golestan (also spelt Ibrahim Golestan,, born 1922 in Shiraz Iran) is an Iranian Filmmaker and literary figure with a career spanning Zoya Pirzad (born 1952 in Abadan) is a renowned Iranian-Armenian writer and novelist Persian satire refers to Satires in Persian language. History of Persian satire Ancient Persian satire Perhaps Iraj Mirza tombjpg|thumb|right|Iraj Mirza's tombstone in Darband, Shemiran, Tehran. Seyyed Ebrahim Nabavi (سید ابراهیم نبوی born 1958 is a prolific Iranian Satirist, Writer, Diarist, and researcher Kioumars Saberi Foumani ( August 29, 1941 - April 30, 2004 ( also known with his Pen name Gol-Agha ( Persian:گل آقا Hadi Khorsandi is a contemporary Iranian Poet and Satirist. Since 1979 he has been the editor and writer of the satirical journal Asghar Agha. Nejam od-Din Obeyde Zâkâni (نجم الدین عبید زاکانی or simply Ubayd-i Zākāni (عبيد زاکانى d Note In some Wikipedia articles the word "Dehkhoda" can refer to "Dehkhoda's Dictionary" or Dehkhoda himself Bibi Khānoom Astarābādi ( بی بی خانوم استرآبادی) (1858 or 1859 – 1921 was a notable Iranian writer Satirist, and one of the pioneering Mirza Malkam Khan (1833-1908 also spelled as Malkom Khan, was an Iranian proponent of Freemasonry active during the period leading up to the Iranian Constitutional Zeyn al-Abedin Maraghei ( Maragheh, 1840 - Istanbul, 1910 was the first Iranian novelist.

Prominent twentieth century critics include:

• Allameh Dehkhoda
• Badiozzaman Forouzanfar
• Mohammad-Taqi Bahar
• Jalal Homaei
• Mohammad Moin
• Saeed Nafisi
• Parviz Natel-Khanlari
• Sadeq Hedayat
• Ahmad Kasravi. Note In some Wikipedia articles the word "Dehkhoda" can refer to "Dehkhoda's Dictionary" or Dehkhoda himself Badǐ'ozzamān Forǔzānfar (c1899 Boshrooyeh in Ferdows County - 1970 Tehran) ( was a scholar of Persian literature, Iranian Mohammad-Taqí Bahār (محمد تقی بهار in Persian) ( November 6, 1884, Mashhad, Iran &mdash April 22, 1951 Jalal Homaei, also known as Ostad jalalaldin Homaei, is known for his contributions to Persian literature, Iranian linguistics, and Iranian culture Mohammad Moin ( ( July 12, 1914, Rasht, Iran &mdash July 4, 1971, Tehran, Iran was a prominent Iranian Saeed Nafisi (also Naficy) ( 8 June, 1896 - November 13, 1966) was an Iranian scholar fiction writer and poet Parviz Natel-Khanlari (1914 - 1991 Tehran, Iran) ( was a Iranologist, linguist, Author, Researcher and university Sadeq (or Sadegh) Hedayat (in Persian: صادق هدایت February 17 1903, Tehran &mdash 4 April, 1951 Ahmad Kasravi ( 29 September, 1890 - March 11, 1946) ( was a notable Iranian linguist, Historian, and
• Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub
• Shahrokh Meskoob

Saeed Nafisi analyzed and edited several critical works. Abdolhossein Zarinkoob (in عبدالحسين زرين‌کوب also spelled Zarrinkoub) was a prominent scholar of Iranian literature history of literature Persian Shahrokh Meskoob (1924, Babol, Iran - April 12, 2005, Paris, France) ( was an outstanding Iranian writer translator Saeed Nafisi (also Naficy) ( 8 June, 1896 - November 13, 1966) was an Iranian scholar fiction writer and poet He is well known for his works on Rudaki and Sufi literature. Abdullah Jafar Ibn Mohammad Rudaki, (ابوعبدالله جعفر ابن محمد رودکی entitledآدم الشعرا Ādam ul-Shoara or Adam of Poets also written Parviz Natel-Khanlari and Gholamhossein Yousefi, who belong to Nafisi's generation, were also involved in modern literature and critical writings. Parviz Natel-Khanlari (1914 - 1991 Tehran, Iran) ( was a Iranologist, linguist, Author, Researcher and university ^[10] Natel-Khanlari is distinguished by the simplicity of his style. He did not follow the traditionalists, nor did he advocate the new. Instead, his approach accommodated the entire spectrum of creativity and expression in Persian literature. Another critic, Ahmad Kasravi, an experienced authority on literature, attacked the writers and poets whose works served despotism. Ahmad Kasravi ( 29 September, 1890 - March 11, 1946) ( was a notable Iranian linguist, Historian, and ^[11]

Contemporary Persian literary criticism reached its maturity after Sadeq Hedayat, Ebrahim Golestan, Houshang Golshiri, Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub and Shahrokh Meskoob. Literary criticism is the study discussion evaluation and interpretation of Literature. Sadeq (or Sadegh) Hedayat (in Persian: صادق هدایت February 17 1903, Tehran &mdash 4 April, 1951 Ebrahim Golestan (also spelt Ibrahim Golestan,, born 1922 in Shiraz Iran) is an Iranian Filmmaker and literary figure with a career spanning Houshang Golshiri (هوشنگ گلشیری in Persian; March 16, 1938 — June 6, 2000) was an Iranian fiction writer critic Abdolhossein Zarinkoob (in عبدالحسين زرين‌کوب also spelled Zarrinkoub) was a prominent scholar of Iranian literature history of literature Persian Shahrokh Meskoob (1924, Babol, Iran - April 12, 2005, Paris, France) ( was an outstanding Iranian writer translator Among these figures, Zarrinkoub held academic positions and had a reputation not only among the intelligentsia but also in academia. Besides his significant contribution to the maturity of Persian language and literature, Zarrinkoub boosted comparative literature and Persian literary criticism. Comparative literature (sometimes abbreviated "Comp lit" is critical scholarship dealing with the Literature of two or more different Linguistic ^[12] Zarrinkoub's Serr e Ney is a critical and comparative analysis of Rumi's Masnavi. In turn, Shahrokh Meskoob worked on Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, using the principles of modern literary criticism. Shahrokh Meskoob (1924, Babol, Iran - April 12, 2005, Paris, France) ( was an outstanding Iranian writer translator Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc

Mohammad Taghi Bahar's main contribution to this field is his book called Sabk Shenasi (Stylistics). Mohammad-Taqí Bahār (محمد تقی بهار in Persian) ( November 6, 1884, Mashhad, Iran &mdash April 22, 1951 It is a pioneering work on the practice of Persian literary historiography and the emergence and development of Persian literature as a distinct institution in the early part of the twentieth century. It contends that the exemplary status of Sabk-shinasi rests on the recognition of its disciplinary or institutional achievements. It further contends that, rather than a text on Persian ‘stylistics’, Sabk-shinasi is a vast history of Persian literary prose, and, as such, is a significant intervention in Persian literary historiography. ^[13]

Jalal Homaei, Badiozzaman Forouzanfar and his student, Mohammad Reza Shafiei-Kadkani, are other notable figures who have edited a number of prominent literary works. Jalal Homaei, also known as Ostad jalalaldin Homaei, is known for his contributions to Persian literature, Iranian linguistics, and Iranian culture Badǐ'ozzamān Forǔzānfar (c1899 Boshrooyeh in Ferdows County - 1970 Tehran) ( was a scholar of Persian literature, Iranian Mohammad Reza Shafiei-Kadkani ( Nishapur, Razavi Khorasan, Iran; 1939) is a celebrated Persian writer Poet, literary ^[14]

Critical analysis of Jami's works has been carried out by Ala Khan Afsahzad. His classic book won the prestigious award of Iran's Year Best book in the year 2000. ^[15]

Persian short stories

Historically, the modern Persian short story has undergone three stages of development: a formative period, a period of consolidation and growth, and a period of diversity. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation As a Literary genre of High culture, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic Prose and verse Narrative A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story For the Wikipedia guideline regarding editing articles see WikipediaManual of Style. 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Australian literature began soon after the settlement of the country by Europeans Common themes include indigenous and settler identity alienation exile and relationship New Zealand claims as its own many writers even those immigrants born overseas like South African-born Robin Hyde, or those emigrants who went into Exile but Asian literature is the literature produced in Asia. 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The term Bengali literature refers to literary works written in Bengali language particularly from Bangladesh and Indian province of West Bengal Gujarati is an Indian language spoken in the state of Gujarat. Hindi literature, is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles being Bhakti (devotional - Kabir Raskhan Shringar (beauty - Keshav Kannada literature is the body of literature of Kannada, a Dravidian language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka and written in the Kashmiri literature (कॉशुर साहित्‍य has a history of at least 2500 years going back to its glory days of Sanskrit. The term Malayalam literature refers to Literature written in Malayalam language Marathi literature (मराठी साहित्य is the body of literature of Marathi, a Sankrit-derived language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Maharashtra Nepali Literature (नेपाली साहित्य refers to literature written in the Nepali language. Literature Rajasthani has a vast literature written in various Genres starting from 1000 AD Sindhi language ( Sindhi: سنڌي) is Ancient and rich in Literature. Tamil literature refers to the Literature in the Tamil language. Telugu literature is the Literature of the Telugu people, an ethnic group based in southern India. Urdu literature has a long and colorful history that is inextricably tied to the development of that very language Urdu, in which it is written Indian English Literature (IEL refers to the body of work by writers in India who write in the English language and whose native or co-native language could be one Moroccan literature is a Literature written in (Moroccan Arabic, Berber or French, and of course particularly by people of Morocco Elleke Boehmer (cf Cullhed 2006 79 writes “Nationalism like patriarchy favours singleness—one identity one growth pattern one birth and blood for all. Swahili literature is generally speaking Literature written in the Swahili language particularly by Swahili people of the East African Asian Theatre Indian Theatre See also Theatre in India, Sanskrit drama Folk theatre and dramatics can be traced to the religious ritualism The Literary genre of Science fiction is diverse and since there is little consensus of definition among scholars or devotees its origin is an open question The history of ideas is a field of Research in History that deals with the expression preservation and change of human Ideas over time Intellectual history refers to the History of the people who create discuss write about and in other ways propagate Ideas Although the field emerged from This page gives a chronological list of years in literature (descending order with notable publications listed with their respective years ^[16]

The formative period

The formative period was ushered in by Mohammad Ali Jamalzadeh's collection Yak-i Bud Yak-i Nabud (1921; tr. Mohammad-Ali Jamalzadeh ( January 13, 1892, Isfahan, Iran &mdash November 7, 1997, Geneva, Switzerland H. Moayyad and P. Sprachman as Once Upon a Time, New York, 1985), and gained momentum with the early short stories of Sadeq Hedayat (1903–51). Sadeq (or Sadegh) Hedayat (in Persian: صادق هدایت February 17 1903, Tehran &mdash 4 April, 1951 Jamalzadeh (1895–1997) is usually considered as the first writer of modern short stories in Persian. His stories focus on plot and action rather than on mood or character development and in that respect are reminiscent of the works of Guy de Maupassant and O. Henry. In contrast, Sadeq Hedayat, the writer who introduced modernism to Persian literature, brought about a fundamental change in Persian fiction. In addition to his longer stories, "Bgf-e kur" (his masterpiece; see above ii. ) and "Haji Aqa" (1945), he wrote collections of short stories including Seh Ghatra Khun (Three Drops of Blood, 1932; tr. into French by G. Lazard as Trois gouuttes de sang, Paris 1996) and Zenda be Gur (Buried Alive, 1930). His stories were written in a simple and lucid language, but he employed a variety of approaches, from realism and naturalism to surrealistic fantasy, breaking new ground and introducing a whole range of literary models and presenting new possibilities for the further development of the genre. He experimented with disrupted chronology and non-linear or circular plots, applying these techniques to both his realistic and surrealist writings. Unlike Hedayat, who focused on the psychological complexity and latent vulnerabilities of the individual, Bozorg Alavi depicts ideologically motivated personages defying oppression and social injustice. Bozorg Alavi (بزرگ علوی in Persian) ( February 2, 1904 &ndash February 18, 1997) was an influential Iranian writer Such characters, seldom portrayed before in Persian fiction, are Alavi's main contribution to the thematic range of the modem Persian short story. This commitment to social issues is emulated by Fereydun Tonokaboni (b. 1937), Mahmud Dawlatabadi (b. 1940), Samad Behrangi (q. Samad Behrangi ( صمد بهرنگی, sæmæd behrængiː ( June 24, 1939 - August 31, 1967) was an Iranian Azeri v. ; 1939–68), and other writers of the left in the next generation.

Sadeq Chubak was one of the first authors to break the taboo. Sādeq Chubak (صادق چوبک sometimes Sādegh Choubak, ( August 5 1916 &mdash July 3 1998) was an author of short fiction Following the example of William Faulkner, John Steinbeck, Erskine Caldwell, and Ernest Hemingway, his blunt approach appears in the early short story collections Khayma Shab-bazi (The Puppet Show, 1945) and Antar-i ke Luti-ash Morda Bud (1949; tr. William Faulkner (born William Cuthbert Falkner) ( September 25, 1897 – July 6, 1962) was an American Author John Steinbeck III (February 27 1902—December 20 1968 was one of the best-known and most widely read American writers of the 20th century Erskine Preston Caldwell (December 17 1903 Coweta County Georgia – April 11 1987 was an American Author. Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21 1899 — July 2 1961 was an American novelist short-story writer, and Journalist. P. Avery as "The Baboon Whose Buffoon was Dead", New World Writing 11, 1957, pp. 14-24), Later stories like "Zir-e Cheragh-e Ghermez", "Pirahan-e Zereski", and "Chera Darya Tufani Shoda Bud" describe the naked bestiality and moral degradation of the personages with no trace of squeamishness. His short stories mirror rotting society, populated by the crushed and the defeated. Chubak picks marginal characters—vagrants, pigeon-racers, corpse-washers, prostitutes, and opium addicts—who rarely appear in the fiction of his predecessors, and whom he portrays with vividness and force. His readers come face to face with grim realities and incidents that they have often witnessed for themselves in everyday life but have shunned out of their mind through complacency.

A distinctive trait of post-war Persian fiction in all the three stages of development is the attention devoted to narrative styles and techniques. In matters of style two main trends prevail. Some authors, like Chubak and Al-e Ahmad, follow colloquial speech patterns; others, such as Ebrahim Golestan (b. Ebrahim Golestan (also spelt Ibrahim Golestan,, born 1922 in Shiraz Iran) is an Iranian Filmmaker and literary figure with a career spanning 1922) and Mohammad Etemadzadeh "Behazin" (b. 1915), have adopted a more literary and lyrical tone. Although the work of all four writers stretch into later periods, some brief remarks about their differing techniques, which delineated future paths, need mentioning at the outset. Golestan experimented with different narrative styles, and it was only in two late collections of stories, Juy o Divar o Teshna (The Stream and the Wall and the Parched, 1967) and Madd o Meh (The Tide and the Mist, 1969) that he managed to find a style and voice of his own. His poetic language draws inspiration both from syntactical forms of classical Persian prose and the experiments of modernist writers, most notably Gertrude Stein. The influence of modernism is evident also in the structure of Golestan's short stories, in which the traditional linear plot line is abandoned in favor of disrupted chronology and free association of ideas. Contrary to most other modern Persian authors, Golestan pays little heed to the state of the poor and the dispossessed. Instead, his short stories are devoted to the world of Persian intellectuals, their concerns, anxieties and private obsessions. His short stories resemble well-made decorative objects d'art, pleasing perhaps to the cognoscenti but leaving the majority of readers unmoved. Golestan's brand of modernism has influenced the later generation of writers like Bahman Forsi (b. 1933) and Hooshang Golshiri (b. 1937). Although the stories of Behazin show similar indebtedness to classical Persian models, he does not follow Golestan's modernist experiments with syntax. Behazin is an author whose stories, delivered in a lucid literary style, express his leftist social beliefs. In some of his later works like the short story collection Mohra-ye Mar (The Snake Charm, 1955), he turns to literary allegory, imbuing ancient tales with a new message, a technique, which allows him to express his critical views obliquely. Behazin's predecessors in the sub-genre of the allegorical tale were Hedayat (in Ab-e Zendegi, 1931) and Chubak ("Esa'a-ye Adab" in the collection Khayma-Shab-Bazi).

Period of growth and development

This second period in the development of the modern Persian short story began with the coup of 19 August 1953, and ended with the revolution of 1979. Mohammad Mosaddeq ( (, pronounced mosæddeq}} also Mosaddegh or Mossadegh) ( May 19 1882 – 5 March 1967) was a major Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed

Mehdi Akhavan Sales and Fereydoon Moshiri, modern Persian poets

Jalal Al-e Ahmad is among the proponents of new political and cultural ideas whose influence and impact straddle the first and the second periods in the history of modern Persian fiction. Mehdi Akhavan-Sales (مهدی اخوان ثالث or Akhavan-Saless (1928 Mashhad, Iran &mdash 1990 Tehran, Iran) was a Fereydoon Moshiri ( b August 1926 in Tehran, Iran - d October 24 2000 in Tehran was one of the prominent contemporary Persian Jalal Al-e-Ahmad ( December 2, 1923 &mdash September 9, 1969) was a prominent Iranian writer thinker and social and political critic His writings show an awareness of the works of Franz Fanon and the new generation of third-world writers concerned with the problems of cultural domination by colonial powers. Al-e Ahmad, Behazin, Tonekaboni, and Behrangi can all be described as engaged writers because most of their stories are built around a central ideological tenet or thesis and illustrate the authors' political views and leanings. Among poets of this period, Forough Farrokhzad (1935–1967) has a special place as the first female poet of the Persian language acclaimed by her contemporaries and who left a lasting legacy despite her short life. Forugh Farrokhzad (فروغ فرخزاد ( January 5, 1935 — February 14, 1967) was an Iranian poet and film director Her legacy and influence is not primarily (or uniquely) political; however, she was among the first women able to set a personal and original mark. In this sense she is elevated to iconic status.

Another notable author from this period is Simin Daneshvar (b. Simin Dāneshvar ( Persian: سیمین دانشور (born on April 28 1921 in Shiraz Iran) is an Iranian academic renowned novelist fiction writer 1921), the first woman writer of note in contemporary Persian literature. Her reputation rests largely on her popular novel Savusun ("The Mourners of Siyāvosh," 1969). Simin Daneshvar's short stories deserve mention because they focus on the plight and social exclusion of women in Persian society and address topical issues from a woman's point of view.

Gholam Hossein Saedi's (1935–85) short stories, which he called ghessa, often transcend the boundaries of realism and attain a symbolic significance. Gholām-Hossein Sā'edi, MD (غلامحسین ساعدی ( January 4, 1936 &mdash November 23, 1985) alias Gohar Morād His allegorical stories, which occasionally resemble folkloric tales and fables, are inhabited by displaced persons, trapped in dead ends (Sepanlu, p. 117). They emphasize the anxieties and the psychological perturbations of his deeply troubled characters. Sadeghi (1936–84) was yet another author who focused on the anxieties and secret mental agonies of his characters.

Hooshang Golshiri (b. 1937) and Asghar Elahi (b. 1944) created memorable psychological portraits through interim monologue and stream of consciousness techniques. Golshiri, the author of the long story "Shazda Ehtejab" (Prince Ehtejab, 1968), is particularly noted for his successful experiments with extended interior monologues. A bold, innovative writer eager to explore modern methods and styles, Golshiri uses stream of consciousness narrative to reassess familiar theories and events.

Period of diversity

Poetry

Of the hundreds of contemporary Persian poets (classical and modern), notable figures include [3] Mehdi Akhavan-Sales, Simin Behbahani, Forough Farrokhzad, Bijan Jalali, Siavash Kasraie, Fereydoon Moshiri, Nader Naderpour, Sohrab Sepehri, Mohammad-Reza Shafiei-Kadkani, Ahmad Shamlou, Nima Yushij, Manouchehr Atashi, Houshang Ebtehaj, Mirzadeh Eshghi (classical), Mohammad Taghi Bahar (classical), Aref (classical), Parvin Etesami (classical), and Shahriar (classical). Mehdi Akhavan-Sales (مهدی اخوان ثالث or Akhavan-Saless (1928 Mashhad, Iran &mdash 1990 Tehran, Iran) was a Simin Beh'bahāni ( Persian: سیمین بهبهانی (born July 20, 1927 Tehran, Iran) is one of the most prominent figures of the modern Forugh Farrokhzad (فروغ فرخزاد ( January 5, 1935 — February 14, 1967) was an Iranian poet and film director Bijan Jalali (Born 1927 Tehran Iran) is one of outstanding figures in the history of modern Persian poetry Siavuŝ Kasrâie or Siavash Kasraie ( Persian: سياوش كسرايي variation Kasrai also spelled as Siavash Kasraii or Siavash Kassraii ( February 25 Fereydoon Moshiri ( b August 1926 in Tehran, Iran - d October 24 2000 in Tehran was one of the prominent contemporary Persian Nader Naderpour ( June 6, 1929 - February 18, 2000 was an Iranian born Poet. Sohrab Sepehri () ( October 7, 1928 - April 21, 1980 was a notable modern Persian poet and a painter Mohammad Reza Shafiei-Kadkani ( Nishapur, Razavi Khorasan, Iran; 1939) is a celebrated Persian writer Poet, literary Ahmad Shamlou ( ( December 12, 1925 — July 24, 2000) was a Persian poet writer and journalist Nimā Yushij (نیما یوشیج in Persian) ( November 12, 1896 - January 6, 1960) also called Nimā, born Ali Esfandiāri Manouchehr Atashi ( ( September 25, 1931 - November 20, 2005 born in 1931 in Dashtestan, Bushehr province was a Persian Hushang Ebtehaj (هوشنگ ابتهاج with the Pen name of H Mirzadeh Eshghi (In Persian: میرزاده عشقی (born as Sayed Mohammad Reza Kordestani) ( 1893 - July 3, 1924 was a political writer Mohammad-Taqí Bahār (محمد تقی بهار in Persian) ( November 6, 1884, Mashhad, Iran &mdash April 22, 1951 Parvin E'tesami (پروین اعتصامی March 16, 1907 &ndash April 5, 1941) also Parvin Etesami was a 20th century Seyyed Mohammad Hossein Behjat-Tabrizi (سید محمدحسین بهجت تبریزی‎ ( 1906 - September 18, 1988) chiefly known by his Pen

Nima Yushij, founder of modern Persian poetry

Classical Persian poetry in modern times

A few notable classical poets have arisen since the nineteenth century, among whom Mohammad Taghi Bahar and Parvin Etesami have been most celebrated. Nimā Yushij (نیما یوشیج in Persian) ( November 12, 1896 - January 6, 1960) also called Nimā, born Ali Esfandiāri Mohammad Taghi Bahar had the title "king of poets" and had a significant role in the emergence and development of Persian literature as a distinct institution in the early part of the twentieth century. ^[17] The theme of his poems was the social and political situation of Iran.

Parvin Etesami may be called the greatest Persian poetess writing in the classical style. One of her remarkable series, called Mast va Hoshyar (The Drunk and the Sober), won admiration from many of those involved in romantic poetry. ^[18]

Modern Persian poetry

Nima Yushij is considered the father of modern Persian poetry, introducing many techniques and forms to differentiate the modern from the old. Nimā Yushij (نیما یوشیج in Persian) ( November 12, 1896 - January 6, 1960) also called Nimā, born Ali Esfandiāri Nevertheless, the credit for popularizing this new literary form within a country and culture solidly based on a thousand years of classical poetry goes to his few disciples such as Ahmad Shamlou, who adopted Nima's methods and tried new techniques of modern poetry.

The transformation brought about by Nima Youshij, who freed Persian poetry from the fetters of prosodic measures, was a turning point in a long literary tradition. It broadened the perception and thinking of the poets that came after him. Nima offered a different understanding of the principles of classical poetry. His artistry was not confined to removing the need for a fixed-length hemistich and dispensing with the tradition of rhyming but focused on a broader structure and function based on a contemporary understanding of human and social existence. His aim in renovating poetry was to commit it to a "natural identity" and to achieve a modern discipline in the mind and linguistic performance of the poet. ^[19]

Nima held that the formal technique dominating classical poetry interfered with its vitality, vigor and progress. Although he accepted some of its aesthetic properties and extended them in his poetry, he never ceased to widen his poetic experience by emphasizing the "natural order" of this art. What Nima Youshij founded in contemporary poetry, his successor Ahmad Shamlou continued. Ahmad Shamlou ( ( December 12, 1925 — July 24, 2000) was a Persian poet writer and journalist

The Sepid poem (which translates to white poem), which draws its sources from this poet, avoided the compulsory rules which had entered the Nimai’ school of poetry and adopted a freer structure. Sepid poetry is a type of Modern Persian poetry The word "sepid" means "white" and it refers to a certain class of Persian poetry initiated by Ahmad This allowed a more direct relationship between the poet and his or her emotional roots. In previous poetry, the qualities of the poet’s vision as well as the span of the subject could only be expressed in general terms and were subsumed by the formal limitations imposed on poetic expression.

Khalilollah Khalili on the cover of "Deewaan-e Khalilullah Khalili"

Simin Daneshvar, Iran's first female novelist and short story writer. Khalilullah Khalili (1908–1987 - Ḫalīl Allāḥ Ḫalīlī; alternative spellings Khalilollah, Khalil Ullah) was Afghanistan 's foremost Simin Dāneshvar ( Persian: سیمین دانشور (born on April 28 1921 in Shiraz Iran) is an Iranian academic renowned novelist fiction writer

Nima’s poetry transgressed these limitations. It relied on the natural function inherent within poetry itself to portray the poet’s solidarity with life and the wide world surrounding him or her in specific and unambiguous details and scenes. Sepid poetry continues the poetic vision as Nima expressed it and avoids the contrived rules imposed on its creation. However, its most distinct difference with Nimai’ poetry is to move away from the rhythms it employed. Nima Yioushij paid attention to an overall harmonious rhyming and created many experimental examples to achieve this end. ^[19]

Ahmad Shamlu discovered the inner characteristics of poetry and its manifestation in the literary creations of classical masters as well as the Nimai’ experience. He offered an individual approach. By distancing himself from the obligations imposed by older poetry and some of the limitations that had entered the Nimai’ poem, he recognized the role of prose and music hidden in the language. In the structure of Sepid poetry, in contrast to the prosodic and Nimai’ rules, the poem is written in more "natural" words and incorporates a prose-like process without losing its poetic distinction. Sepid poetry is a developing branch of Nimai’ poetry built upon Nima Youshij's innovations. Nima thought that any change in the construction and the tools of a poet’s expression is conditional on his/her knowledge of the world and a revolutionized outlook. Sepid poetry could not take root outside this teaching and its application.

According to Simin Behbahani, Sepid poetry did not received general acceptance before Bijan Jalali's works. Simin Beh'bahāni ( Persian: سیمین بهبهانی (born July 20, 1927 Tehran, Iran) is one of the most prominent figures of the modern Bijan Jalali (Born 1927 Tehran Iran) is one of outstanding figures in the history of modern Persian poetry He is considered the founder of Sepid poetry according to Behbahani. ^[20][21] Behbahani herself used the "Char Pareh" style of Nima, and subsequently turned to ghazal, a free-flowing poetry style similar to the Western sonnet. In Poetry, the ghazal ( Arabic / Persian / Urdu: غزل; Hindi: ग़ज़ल Turkish gazel) is a Simin Behbahani contributed to a historic development in the form of the ghazal, as she added theatrical subjects, and daily events and conversations into her poetry. She has expanded the range of traditional Persian verse forms and produced some of the most significant works of Persian literature in the twentieth century.

A reluctant follower of Nima Yushij, Mehdi Akhavan-Sales published his Organ (1951) to support contentions against Nima Yushij's groundbreaking endeavors. Mehdi Akhavan-Sales (مهدی اخوان ثالث or Akhavan-Saless (1928 Mashhad, Iran &mdash 1990 Tehran, Iran) was a But before long he realized that Nima and the modernists emulating him had more to offer than a just a change in rhythm, rhyme, and the general application of the classical Arabic meters. ^[22] In Persian poetry, Mehdi Akhavan Sales has established a bridge between the Khorassani and Nima Schools. The critics consider Mehdi Akhavan Sales as one of the best contemporary Persian poets. He is one of the pioneers of free verse (new style poetry) in Persian literature, particularly of modern style epics. It was his ambition, for a long time, to introduce a fresh style to Persian poetry. ^[23]

M. T. Bahar, the greatest classical poet of modern times

Forough Farrokhzad is important in the literary history of Iran for three reasons. Forugh Farrokhzad (فروغ فرخزاد ( January 5, 1935 — February 14, 1967) was an Iranian poet and film director First, she was among the first generation to embrace the new style of poetry, pioneered by Nima Yushij during the 1920s, which demanded that poets experiment with rhyme, imagery, and the individual voice. Second, she was the first modern Iranian woman to graphically articulate private sexual landscapes from a woman's perspective. Finally, she transcended her own literary role and experimented with acting, painting, and documentary film-making. ^[24]

Fereydoon Moshiri is best known as conciliator of classical Persian poetry with the New Poetry initiated by Nima Yooshij. Fereydoon Moshiri ( b August 1926 in Tehran, Iran - d October 24 2000 in Tehran was one of the prominent contemporary Persian One of the major contributions of Moshiri's poetry, according to some observers, is the broadening of the social and geographical scope of modern Persian literature. ^[25]

A poet of the last generation before the Islamic Revolution worthy of mention is Mohammad-Reza Shafiei-Kadkani (M. Mohammad Reza Shafiei-Kadkani ( Nishapur, Razavi Khorasan, Iran; 1939) is a celebrated Persian writer Poet, literary Sereshk). Though he is from Khorassan and sways between allegiance to Nima Youshij and Akhavan Saless, in his poetry he shows the influences of Hafez and Mowlavi. He uses simple, lyrical language and is mostly inspired by the political atmosphere. He is the most successful of those poets who in the past four decades have tried hard to find a synthesis between the two models of Ahmad Shamloo and Nima Youshij. ^[26]

Among the prominent Persian poets of the younger generation is Mana Aghaee and Ziba Karbasi. Mana Aghaee ( Persian: مانا آقائى i (1973- is a Persian poet and author Mana Aghaee is a female poet who combines the form of the previous generation (especially Farrokhzad and Sepehri) with new topics and metaphors relevant to the 21st century. Mana Aghaee ( Persian: مانا آقائى i (1973- is a Persian poet and author Female (♀ is the Sex of an Organism, or a part of an organism which produces ova (egg cells

Persian literature awards

• Sadegh Hedayat Award
• National Ferdowsi Prize
• Houshang Golshiri Award
• Bijan Jalali Award
• Iran's Annual Book Prize
• Ala Khan Afsahzad Award
• Mehrgan Adab Prize
• Parvin Etesami Award
• Yalda Literary Award
• Isfahan Literary Award

Authors and poets

Main article: List of Persian poets and authors

Notes and references

International conference on Homer and Ferdowsi (2006)

See also

International conference on Bidel Dehlavi in Tehran (2006)

• Persian mythology
• Academy of Persian Language and Literature
• Persianate
• Persian language
• Pahlavi literature
• Middle Persian
• Persian literature in the West
• Persian culture
• Persian Mysticism
• Persian cinema
• Golha Radio program of Persian poetry

Further reading

• Aryanpur, Manoochehr. Abul Ma'āni Mirzā Abdul-Qāder Bedil or Mawlānā Abul Ma'āni Abdul Qader Bedil also Bidel Dehlavi (1642&ndash1720 (مولانا ابوالمعانی عبدالقادر By Persian Mythology is meant the myths and sacred narratives of the culturally and linguistically related group of ancient peoples who inhabited the Iranian Plateau Iran 's Academy of Persian Language and Literature ( Persian:فرهنگستان زبان و ادب فارسی farhangestɒn e zabɒn o adab e fɒrsi is a body controlled A Persianate society ( - Djāma-ye Pārsīzabān) is a society that is either based on or strongly influenced by the Persian language, culture, literature Middle Persian literature is Persian literature of the 1st millennium AD, especially of the Sassanid period Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect literature]] has had influences on many writers and cultures outside of its boundaries To best understand Iran and its people one must first attempt to acquire an understanding of its ancient culture Persian mysticism, or the Persian love tradition, is a traditional interpretation of existence life and love in Iran. The cinema of Iran (or Persian cinema) is a flourishing film industry with a long history The Golha ( radio programmes ( Flowers of Persian Song and Poetry) comprise 1578 radio programmes consisting of approximately 847 hours of programmes broadcast over a period A History of Persian Literature. Tehran: Kayhan Press, 1973
• Clawson, Patrick. Eternal Iran. Macmillan, 2005. ISBN 1-4039-6276-6.
• Browne, E.G.. Edward Granville Browne (1862&ndash1926 born in Stouts Hill, Uley, Gloucestershire, England was a British Orientalist who published Literary History of Persia. [4] 1998. ISBN 0-7007-0406-X
• Browne, Edward G.. Edward Granville Browne (1862&ndash1926 born in Stouts Hill, Uley, Gloucestershire, England was a British Orientalist who published Islamic Medicine. 2002. ISBN 81-87570-19-9
• Rypka, Jan. History of Iranian Literature. Reidel Publishing Company, 1968. OCLC 460598. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose ISBN 90-277-0143-1
• ʻAbd al-Ḥusayn Zarrīnʹkūb (1379 (2000)). Abdolhossein Zarinkoob (in عبدالحسين زرين‌کوب also spelled Zarrinkoub) was a prominent scholar of Iranian literature history of literature Persian Dū qarn-i sukūt : sarguz̲asht-i ḥavādis̲ va awz̤āʻ-i tārīkhī dar dū qarn-i avval-i Islām (Two Centuries of Silence). Tihrān: Sukhan. OCLC 46632917 ISBN 964-5983-33-6. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
• Tikku, G. L. Persian Poetry in Kashmir. 1971. ISBN 0-520-09312-7
• Walker, Benjamin. Benjamin Walker ( November 25, 1913) is the truncated pen name of George Benjamin Walker who also writes under the pseudonym Jivan Bhakar Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran. Calcutta: Arya Press, 1950.
• Mana Aghaee, Ketabshenasi-ye she'r-e zanan-e iran (A Bibliography of Iranian Women Poets), Stockholm, 2007. Mana Aghaee ( Persian: مانا آقائى i (1973- is a Persian poet and author (Persian)

External links

In English

• The Packard Humanities Institute: Persian Texts in Translation
• More on Persian literature
• Another portal on Persian Literature
• "Persian undercurrent in Islamic civilization"
• The Persian Novel
• The Persian Short Story
• Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam in e-book format
• Forough Farrokhzad Poetry in English

In Persian

• Sokhan - Persian Books and Literature
• Fal e Hafez - Complete database of Hafez poems and Fals.
• Iran and Persian language in the western world
• National Committee for the Expansion of the Persian Language and Literature (شورای گسترش زبان و ادبيات فارسی)
• Modern Persian poetry essay by Khosro Naghed. Khosro Naghed ( Persian: خسرو ناقد, born 1950 Shiraz Iran) is a Persian scholar Iranist and linguist.
• Raha - World independent writers' home
• Ghabil - Persian literature Magazine
• Persopedia - Comprehensive Persian Literature Reference
• More Persian books

edit	Persian literature series
	شاهنامه فردوسی Shahnameh of Ferdowsi
Characters:	Abteen | Arash | Afrāsiāb | Akvan-e Div | Bahman | Bizhan | Div-e Sepid | Esfandiār | Fereydun |Garshasp | Goodarz | Gordāfarid | Haoma | Homa | Hushang | Īraj | Jamasp | Jamshid | Kāveh | Kai Kavoos | Kai Khosrow | Kei Qobád |Kiumars | Luarsab | Manuchehr | Manizheh | Mehrab Kaboli | Nowzar |Pashang | Rakhsh | Rohām | Rostam | Rostam Farrokhzad | Rudābeh | Salm | Sām | Shaghād | Siāmak | Siāvash | Simurgh | Sohrāb |Sudabeh | Tahmineh | Tahmuras |Tur | Zāl | Zahhāk
Places:	Alborz (Hara_Berezaiti) | Irān | Māzandarān | Samangān | Turān | Zābolestān | Kābul | Birjand | Ark of Bukhara
See also:	Asadi Tusi | Derafsh Kaviani | Shahnameh | Bijan and Manijeh | Daqiqi | Sadeh | Kayanian | Jaam-e Jam