The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation, on August 14, 1947 and August 15, 1947, respectively, of the sovereign states of the Dominion of Pakistan (later Islamic Republic of Pakistan and People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Union of India (later Republic of India). The term South Asia usually refers to the political entities of the Sub- Himalayan region - namely Republic of India, Pakistan, This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in the South Asia. Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: مﮩرگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BCE in and around the Punjab region which is located on the The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H culture also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition Mahajanapadas ( Sanskrit: महाजनपद Mahājanapadas) literally "Great Kingdoms" (from Maha, "great" and Janapada Magadha (मगध formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas ( Sanskrit, "great countries" or regions in ancient India. The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 2nd century BC since the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding The Sātavāhanas ( Marathi: सातवाहन Telugu:శాతవాహనులు were a Dynasty which ruled from Junnar ( The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C The Pala Empire was a dynasty in control of the northern and eastern Indian subcontinent, mainly the Bengal and Bihar regions from the 8th to The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ( Sanskrit: राष्ट्रकूट rāṣṭrakūṭa, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ was a royal The Western Chalukya Empire ( Kannada: ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) ruled most of the western Deccan, South The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian Dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083CE to 1323CE During the late Middle Ages, several Islamic Empires were established in South Asia. The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim -ruled late medieval kingdoms–- Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826 called Kingdom of Assam in medieval times was a medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam that maintained its The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most The Maratha Empire ( Marathi: मराठा साम्राज्य Marāṭhā Sāmrājya; also transliterated Mahratta The Sikh Confederacy was a nation that existed from 1716 to 1799 The Sikh Confederacy was a nation that existed from 1716 to 1799 The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British History of Bengal Bangladesh became one of the last major nation states following its secession in 1971 from the nation of Pakistan which achieved its independence from the British Bhutan 's early history is steeped in Mythology and remains obscure The History of the Republic of India began on August 15, 1947 when India became an independent Dominion within the British Commonwealth The Maldives is a nation consisting of 26 natural Atolls, comprising 1192 islands Historical setting Since very ancient times the Maldives were ruled The History of Nepal (नेपालको इतिहास is characterized by its isolated position in the Himalayas and its two dominant neighbors India The history of Pakistan as a modern nation began with independence from British India on 14 August 1947, although Traditionally the recorded History of Sri Lanka boasts of 25 chronicled centuries The history of Assam is the history of a confluence of peoples from the east west and the north the confluence of the Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic and The Baloch people are an Iranian ethnic group that are mainly settled in the Balochistan areas of Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan. See also History of Bangladesh The history of Bengal (including Bangladesh and West Bengal) dates back four millennia The history of Himachal Pradesh dates back to the time when the Indus valley civilisation flourished Orissa formed in 1926 was known as Kalinga in ancient times Kalinga was a prosperous nation whose merchants traded with the lands of Java and Sumatra The former subdivisions of Pakistan are states provinces and territories which mainly existed between 1947 and 1975 when the current provinces The first known use of the word Punjab is in the book Tarikh-e-Sher Shah Suri (1580 which mentions the construction of a fort by "Sher Khan of Punjab" The history of South India covers a span of over two thousand years during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires Tibetan history is characterized by a special dedication to the Buddhist religion both in the eyes of its own people as well as for the Mongol and Manchu Coinage of India, issued by Imperial dynasties and smaller Middle kingdoms of India began during the 1st millennium BCE, and consisted The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several Lists of incumbents. Economic history of India, in the sense of the meaning of the term economic in its current sense is at least 5000 years old Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies Originating over 5000 years ago the linguistic history of India describes the evolution and transformation of early human communications techniques - from pictures pictorial scripts Indian literature is generally acknowledged as one of the oldest in the world Indian maritime history begins during the 3rd millennium BCE when the inhabitants of the Indus Valley initiate trading with Mesopotamia. India has a long military history dating back several millennia This is a timeline of Indian history. It includes the history of South Asia ( Indian subcontinent) especially the history of the regions now known In politics, a partition is a change of political Borders cutting through at least one community’s homeland For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. The Dominion of Pakistan was a federal entity that was established in 1947 as a result of the Partition of India into two sovereign dominions the Union Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially The History of the Republic of India began on August 15, 1947 when India became an independent Dominion within the British Commonwealth India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country "Partition" here refers not only to the division of the Bengal province of British India into East Pakistan and West Bengal (India), and the similar partition of the Punjab province into Punjab (West Pakistan) and Punjab (India), but also to the respective divisions of other assets, including the British Indian Army, the Indian Civil Service and other administrative services, the railways, and the central treasury. The Partition of Bengal in 1947 part of the Partition of India, was a partition that divided Bengal into the two separate entities of West Bengal Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang East Pakistan ( Bengali: পূর্ব পাকিস্তান Purbo Pakistan, Urdu: مشرقی پاکستان Mashriqi Pakistan) was West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c The Punjab ( Urdu:) province of West Pakistan was the popular and sometimes official (1955&ndash1970 name of the western wing of Pakistan until 1971 when the eastern wing became independent Punjab (ਪੰਜਾਬ पंजाब pəɲdʒaːb is a state in northwest India. See Indian Army for the post-independence (and post- partition) army of the Republic of India. The Indian Civil Service, popularly known by its acronym ICS, originated as the elite Civil service of the Indian Government under British colonial This article is part of the History of rail transport by country series
The secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in the 1971 is not covered by the term Partition of India, nor is the earlier separation of Burma (now Myanmar) from the administration of British India, or the even earlier separation of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). The Bangladesh Liberation War (i ( Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho) was an armed conflict between West Pakistan (later ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island Ceylon, part of the Madras Presidency of British India from 1795 until 1798, became a separate Crown Colony in 1798. Madras Presidency, also known as Madras Province and known officially as Presidency of Fort St The British Overseas Territories are fourteen territories that are under the Sovereignty of the United Kingdom, but which do not form part of the United Kingdom Burma, gradually annexed by the British during 1826–86 and governed as a part of the British Indian administration until 1937, was directly administered thereafter. [1] Burma was granted independence on January 4, 1948 and Ceylon on February 4, 1948. Events 46 BC - Titus Labienus defeats Julius Caesar in the Battle of Ruspina. Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 211 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus dies leaving the Roman Empire in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. (See History of Sri Lanka and History of Burma. Traditionally the recorded History of Sri Lanka boasts of 25 chronicled centuries The History of Burma, now officially Myanmar, is long and complicated ) The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a princely state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however, the issue of sovereignty was left undefined. Sikkim ( Nepali:, also Sikhim) is a Landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas It is the least populous state in India For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a [2] In 1947, Sikkim became an independent kingdom under the suzerainty of India and remained so until 1975 when it was absorbed into India as the 22nd state. Suzerainty (ˈsjuːzərənti RP or /ˈsjuːzəreɪnti/ RP) (/ˈsuːzərənti/ GA) is a situation in which a Region or people is a
The remaining countries of present-day South Asia are Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives. Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. The Kingdom of Bhutan (buːˈtɑːn is a Landlocked nation in South Asia. The Maldives ( or, or Maldive Islands) officially the Republic of Maldives, is an Island nation consisting of a group of atolls stretching The first two, Nepal and Bhutan, having signed treaties with the British designating them as independent states, were never a part of British India, and therefore their borders were not affected by the partition. [3] The Maldives, which became a protectorate of the British crown in 1887 and gained its independence in 1965, was also unaffected by the partition. In International law, a protectorate is a autonomous territory that is "protected" by a stronger state or entity hense the protector which engages to protect TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy
Partition was accompanied by the largest and most rapid population transfer in history, with 17. 9 million people leaving their homes. Of these, only 14. 5 million arrived, suggesting that 3. 4 million went "missing"[4].
Contents |
Pakistan and India
Two self governing countries legally came into existence at the stroke of midnight on 15 August 1947. In Political geography and International politics, a country is a Political division of a geographical entity Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The ceremonies for the transfer of power were held a day earlier in Karachi, at the time the capital of the new state of Pakistan, so that the last British Viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, could attend both the ceremony in Karachi as well as the ceremony in Delhi. (ڪراچي) is the largest city in Pakistan. It is the world's second largest city proper behind Mumbai in terms of population which exceeds 10 million The Dominion of Pakistan was a federal entity that was established in 1947 as a result of the Partition of India into two sovereign dominions the Union The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI, Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population Pakistan celebrates Independence Day on August 14, while India celebrates it on August 15. Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed
Background
Late 19th and early 20th century
 1909 Prevailing Religions, Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the prevailing majority religions of the population for different districts. |  1909 Percentage of Muslims, Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing percentage of Muslims in different districts. |  1909 Percentage of Hindus, Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing percentage of Hindus in different districts. |  1909 Percentage of Buddhists, Sikhs, and Jains. Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing percentages in different districts. |
 1909 Prevailing Languages (Northern Region), Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the prevailing (Aryan) languages of the population for different districts. |  1901 Population Density, Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the population density in 1901. |
1920–1932
The All India Muslim League (AIML) was formed in Dhaka in 1906 by Muslims who were suspicious of the mainstream, secular but Hindu-majority Indian National Congress. The All India Muslim League ( Urdu: آل انڈیا مسلم لیگ Bengali:?????? ??? founded at Dhaka in 1906 was a political party in British Dhaka (also known as Dacca ( Bangla: ঢাকা ɖʱaka is the Capital of Bangladesh and the principal city of Dhaka District. Indian National Congress-I (also known as the Congress Party and abbreviated INC) is a major Political party in India. A number of different scenarios were proposed at various times. Among the first to make the demand for a separate state was the writer/philosopher Allama Iqbal, who, in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt a separate nation for Muslims was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated subcontinent. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical The Sindh Assembly passed a resolution making it a demand in 1935. Iqbal, Jouhar and others then worked hard to draft Mohammad Ali Jinnah, who had till then worked for Hindu-Muslim unity, to lead the movement for this new nation. Note: Do not confuse with Maulana Muhammad Ali Lahori Muhammad Ali (the Muslim boxer or any other people named Muhammad Ali see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation Muhammad Ali Jinnah Urdu: (December 25 1876 – September 11 1948 was a Pakistani politician and leader of the All India Muslim League who founded Pakistan By 1930, Jinnah had begun to despair of the fate of minority communities in a united India and had begun to argue that mainstream parties such as the Congress, of which he was once a member, were insensitive to Muslim interests. The 1932 communal award which seemed to threaten the position of Muslims in Hindu-majority provinces catalysed the resurgence of the Muslim League, with Jinnah as its leader. However, the League did not do well in the 1937 provincial elections, demonstrating the hold of the conservative and local forces at the time.
1932–1942
In 1940, Jinnah made a statement at the Lahore conference, which seemed to be calling for a separate Muslim 'nation'. However, the document was ambiguous and opaque, and did not evoke a Muslim nation in a territorial sense. This idea, though, was taken up by Muslims and particularly Hindus in the next seven years, and given a more territorial element.
Hindu organisations such as the Hindu Mahasabha, though against the division of the country, were also insisting on the same chasm between Hindus and Muslims. Akhil Bhāratīya Hindū Mahāsabhā (अखिल भारत हिन्दू महासभा All-Indian Hindu Assembly a Hindu nationalist organization was originally In 1937 at the 19th session of the Hindu Mahasabha held at Ahmedabad, Veer Savarkar in his presidential address asserted:[5]
| “ | India cannot be assumed today to be Unitarian and homogeneous nation, but on the contrary there are two nations in the main — the Hindus and the Muslims. Ahmedabad (અમદાવાદ Amdāvād, Hindi: अहमदाबाद) is the largest city in Vināyak Dāmodar Sāvarkar (विनायक दामोदर सावरकर (born May 28, 1883 in Bhagur – February 26, | ” |
Most of the Congress leaders were secularists and resolutely opposed the division of India on the lines of religion. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs Mohandas Gandhi was both religious and irenic, believing that Hindus and Muslims could and should live in amity. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January He opposed the partition, saying,
| “ | My whole soul rebels against the idea that Hinduism and Islam represent two antagonistic cultures and doctrines. To assent to such a doctrine is for me a denial of God. | ” |
For years, Gandhi and his adherents struggled to keep Muslims in the Congress Party (a major exit of many Muslim activists began in the 1930s), in the process enraging both Hindu Nationalists and Indian Muslim Nationalists. (Gandhi was assassinated soon after Partition by Hindu Nationalist Nathuram Godse, who believed that Gandhi was appeasing Muslims at the cost of Hindus. Nathuram Vinayak Godse (नथूराम विनायक गोडसे (May 19 1910 – November 15 1949 was the ) Politicians and community leaders on both sides whipped up mutual suspicion and fear, culminating in dreadful events such as the riots during the Muslim League's Direct Action Day of August 1946 in Calcutta, in which more than 5,000 people were killed and many more injured. Direct Action Day, also known as the Great Calcutta Riot, was on 16 August 1946 —a day of widespread riot and manslaughter in the city of Calcutta As public order broke down all across northern India and Bengal, the pressure increased to seek a political partition of territories as a way to avoid a full-scale civil war.
1942–1946
Until 1946, the definition of Pakistan as demanded by the League was so flexible that it could have been interpreted as a sovereign nation Pakistan, or as a member of a confederated India. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and
Some historians believe Jinnah (whose catch-phrase was that India would be "divided or destroyed") intended to use the threat of partition as a bargaining chip in order to gain more independence for the Muslim dominated provinces in the west from the Hindu dominated center. [6]
Other historians claim that Jinnah's real vision was for a Pakistan that extended into Hindu-majority areas of India, by demanding the inclusion of the East of Punjab and West of Bengal, including Assam, all Hindu-majority country. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang Assam) ( Assamese: অসম Ôxôm) is a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur, a suburb of the city Jinnah also fought hard for the annexation of Kashmir, a Muslim majority state with Hindu ruler; and the accession of Hyderabad and Junagadh, Hindu-majority states with Muslim rulers. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Hyderābād and Berar (హైదరాబాదు حیدر آباد under the Nizams was the largest Princely state in the erstwhile Indian Empire See Junagarh for disambiguation Junagadh is a city and a Municipal corporation, the headquarters of Junagadh district
The British colonial administration did not directly rule all of "India". There were several different political arrangements in existence: Provinces were ruled directly and the Princely States with varying legal arrangements, like paramountcy. For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a The doctrine of paramountcy is the legal principle that reconciles contradicting or conflicting laws in a federalist state
The British Colonial Administration consisted of Secretary of State for India, the India Office, the Governor-General of India, and the Indian Civil Service. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The office of Secretary of State for India or India Secretary was created in 1858 when Company rule in India ended and India was brought under direct British rule The India Office was the British government department responsible for the direct administration of India during the British Raj. The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and The Indian Civil Service, popularly known by its acronym ICS, originated as the elite Civil service of the Indian Government under British colonial
The Indian Political Parties were (alphabetically) All India Muslim League, Communist Party of India, Hindu Mahasabha, Indian National Congress, and the Unionist Muslim League (mainly in the Punjab). The All India Muslim League ( Urdu: آل انڈیا مسلم لیگ Bengali:?????? ??? founded at Dhaka in 1906 was a political party in British The Communist Party of India (CPI is a Political party in India. Akhil Bhāratīya Hindū Mahāsabhā (अखिल भारत हिन्दू महासभा All-Indian Hindu Assembly a Hindu nationalist organization was originally Indian National Congress-I (also known as the Congress Party and abbreviated INC) is a major Political party in India. The Unionist Muslim League, also known simply as the Unionist party was a political party based in the province of Punjab during British Raj in India
The Partition: 1947
Mountbatten Plan
The actual division between the two new dominions was done according to what has come to be known as the 3rd June Plan or Mountbatten Plan.
The border between India and Pakistan was determined by a British Government-commissioned report usually referred to as the Radcliffe Line after the London lawyer, Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who wrote it. The Radcliffe Line became the border between India and Pakistan on 17 August 1947 after the Partition of India. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Cyril John Radcliffe 1st Viscount Radcliffe GBE, PC (1899 - 1977 was a British lawyer and law lord most famous for his partitioning of the British Imperial Pakistan came into being with two non-contiguous enclaves, East Pakistan (today Bangladesh) and West Pakistan, separated geographically by India. East Pakistan ( Bengali: পূর্ব পাকিস্তান Purbo Pakistan, Urdu: مشرقی پاکستان Mashriqi Pakistan) was West Pakistan was the popular and sometimes official (1955&ndash1970 name of the western wing of Pakistan until 1971 when the eastern wing became independent India was formed out of the majority Hindu regions of the colony, and Pakistan from the majority Muslim areas. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion
On July 18, 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act that finalized the partition arrangement. This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. Events 390 BC - Roman - Gaulish Wars Battle of the Allia - a Roman army is defeated by raiding Gauls, Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories The Indian Independence Act 1947 was the statute (10 and 11 Geo VI c The Government of India Act 1935 was adapted to provide a legal framework for the two new dominions. The Government of India Act 1935 ( 26 Geo 5 & 1 Edw 8 c 2) was the last pre-independence constitution of the British Raj. Following partition, Pakistan was added as a new member of the United Nations, The union formed from the combination of the Hindu states assumed the name India which automatically granted it the seat of British India as a successor state. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Succession of states is a theory in International relations regarding the recognition and acceptance of a newly created State by other states based on [7]
The 625 Princely States were given a choice of which country to join. For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a
Geography of the partition: the Radcliffe Line
The Punjab — the region of the five rivers east of Indus: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej — consists of interfluvial doabs, or tracts of land lying between two confluent rivers. The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd HeadMarala3jpg|200px|right|thumb|A View of Marala Headworks on Chenab near Sialkot]] The Chenab River (ਚਨਾਬ, चनाब چناب literally 'Moon( The Ravi River (रवि ਰਾਵੀ راوی is a River in Pakistan and India. The Sutlej River (alternatively spelled as Satluj River (ਸਤਲੁਜ शतद्रु or सुतुद्री, ستلج and सतलुज is the longest A Doab ( Persian, Urdu: dō, "two" + āb, "water" or "river" is a term used in India and These are the Sind-Sagar doab (between Indus and Jhelum), the Jech doab (Jhelum/Chenab), the Rechna doab (Chenab/Ravi), the Bari doab (Ravi/Beas), and the Bist doab (Beas/Sutlej) (see map). In early 1947, in the months leading up to the deliberations of the Punjab Boundary Commission, the main disputed areas appeared to be in the Bari and Bist doabs, although some areas in the Rechna doab were claimed by the Congress and Sikhs. In the Bari doab, the districts of Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Lahore, and Montgomery were all disputed. [8] All districts (other than Amritsar, which was 46. 5% Muslim) had Muslim majorities; albeit, in Gurdaspur, the Muslim majority, at 51. 1%, was slender. At a smaller area-scale, only three tehsils (sub-units of a district) in the Bari doab had non-Muslim majorities. A tehsil ( Urdu: تحصیل) (or tahsil, tahasil, taluka, taluk, taluq, mandal) is an Administrative division These were: Pathankot (in the extreme north of Gurdaspur, which was not in dispute), and Amritsar and Tarn Taran in Amritsar district. In addition, there were four Muslim-majority tehsils east of Beas-Sutlej (with two where Muslims outnumbered Hindus and Sikhs together). [8]
Before the Boundary Commission began formal hearings, governments were set up for the East and the West Punjab regions. Their territories were provisionally divided by "notional division" based on simple district majorities. In both the Punjab and Bengal, the Boundary Commission consisted of two Muslim and two non-Muslim judges with Sir Cyril Radcliffe as a common chairman. Cyril John Radcliffe 1st Viscount Radcliffe GBE, PC (1899 - 1977 was a British lawyer and law lord most famous for his partitioning of the British Imperial [8] The mission of the Punjab commission was worded generally as: "To demarcate the boundaries of the two parts of the Punjab, on the basis of ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it will take into account other factors. " Each side (the Muslims and the Congress/Sikhs) presented its claim through counsel with no liberty to bargain. The judges too had no mandate to compromise and on all major issues they "divided two and two, leaving Sir Cyril Radcliffe the invidious task of making the actual decisions. "[8]
Independence and population exchanges
Massive population exchanges occurred between the two newly-formed states in the months immediately following Partition. Population transfer is the movement of a large group of people from one region to another by state policy or international authority most frequently on the basis of ethnicity or religion Once the lines were established, about 14. 5 million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was the relative safety of religious majority. Based on 1951 Census of displaced persons, 7,226,000 Muslims went to Pakistan from India while 7,249,000 Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from Pakistan immediately after partition. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. About 11. 2 million or 78% of the population transfer took place in the west, with Punjab accounting for most of it; 5. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c 3 million Muslims moved from India to West Punjab in Pakistan, 3. 4 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from Pakistan to East Punjab in India; elsewhere in the west 1. 2 million moved in each direction to and from Sind.
The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000. [9]
Punjab
The Indian state of Punjab was created in 1947, when the Partition of India split the former Raj province of Punjab between India and Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan's Punjab Province; the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became India's Punjab state. Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and so the partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. Lahore and Amritsar were at the center of the problem, the British were not sure where to place them - make them part of India or Pakistan. ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. Amritsar (ਅੰਮ੍ਰਿਤਸਰ meaning The Lake of the Holy Nectar, is the administrative headquarters of the Amritsar District in the state The British did make a decision to hand both cities to Pakistan, however, due to lack of control and regulation for the border Amritsar became part of India whilst Lahore became part of Pakistan. Amritsar (ਅੰਮ੍ਰਿਤਸਰ meaning The Lake of the Holy Nectar, is the administrative headquarters of the Amritsar District in the state ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi.
Bengal
The province of Bengal was divided into the two separate entities of West Bengal belonging to India, and East Bengal belonging to Pakistan. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. East Bengal ( Bengali: পূর্ববঙ্গ Purbobôngo) was the name used during two periods in the 20th century for a territory that roughly corresponded East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan in 1955, and later became the independent nation of Bangladesh after the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971. East Pakistan ( Bengali: পূর্ব পাকিস্তান Purbo Pakistan, Urdu: مشرقی پاکستان Mashriqi Pakistan) was ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially The Bangladesh Liberation War (i ( Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho) was an armed conflict between West Pakistan (later
Sindh
At the time of Partition there were 1,400,000 Hindu Sindhis; in a space of less than a year approximately 1,200,000 of them had left for India, leaving their property behind.
Perspectives
The Partition was a highly controversial arrangement, and remains a cause of much tension on the subcontinent today. British Viceroy Louis Mountbatten has not only been accused of rushing the process through, but also is alleged to have influenced the Radcliffe Line in India's favor since everyone agreed India would be a more desirable country for most. A viceroy is a royal official who governs a country or province in the name of and as representative of the Monarch. Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI, The Radcliffe Line became the border between India and Pakistan on 17 August 1947 after the Partition of India. [10] [11] However, the commission took so long to decide on a final boundary that the two nations were granted their independence even before there was a defined boundary between them. Even then, the members were so distraught at their handiwork (and its results) that they refused compensation for their time on the commission.
Some critics allege that British haste led to the cruelties of the Partition. [12] Because independence was declared prior to the actual Partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new state line. It was an impossible task, at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to Richard Symonds[13]
| “ | at the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless | ” |
However, some argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground. [14], Law and order had broken down many times before Partition, with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After World War II, Britain had limited resources[15], perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another view point is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had no real options left and he achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances[16]. Historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mounbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative being getting involved in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out[17]
Some have argued that much of the blame for the massacres lies with Pakistani nationalists such as Jinnah[18].
Conservative elements in England consider the partition of India to be the moment that the British Empire ceased to be a world power, following Curzon's dictum that "While we hold on to India, we are a first-rate power. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. George Nathaniel Curzon 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, KG, GCSI, GCIE, PC ( 11 January 1859 &ndash 20 March If we lose India, we will decline to a third-rate power. " The 'flick' of the pen with which Clement Atlee signed the independence treaty is, where remembered, considered sadly; not for the loss of India, but for the loss of what holding India meant. Clement Richard Attlee 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC ( 3 January 1883 &ndash 8 October 1967
Delhi Punjabi refugees
An estimated 20 million people - Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs - crossed the newly carved borders to reach their new homelands. These estimates are based on comparisons of decadal censuses from 1941 and 1951 with adjustments for normal population growth in the areas of migration. In northern India - undivided Punjab and North Western Frontier Province (NWFP) - nearly 12 million were forced to move from as early as March 1947 following the Rawalpindi violence. Delhi received the highest number of refugees for a single city - the population of Delhi grew rapidly in 1947 from under 1 million (917. 939) to a little less than 2 million (1. 744. 072) between the period 1941-1951. (Census of India, 1941 and 1951). The refugees were housed in various historical and military locations such as the Old Fort Purana Qila), Red Fort (Red Fort), and military barracks in Kingsway (around the present Delhi university). The latter became the site of one of the largest refugee camps in northern India with more than 35,000 refugees at any given time besides Kurukshetra camp near Panipat. The camp sites were later converted into permanent housing through extensive building projects undertaken by the Government of India from 1948 onwards. A number of housing colonies in Delhi came up around this period like Lajpat Nagar, Rajinder Nagar, Nizamuddin, Punjabi Bagh, Rehgar Pura, Jungpura and Kingsway. A number of schemes such as provision of education, employment opportunities, easy loans to start businesses etc. were provided for the refugees at all-India level. The Delhi refugees, however, able to make use of these facilities much better than their counterparts elsewhere. [19]
Refugees settled in India
Many Sikhs and Hindu Punjabis settled in the Indian parts of Punjab and Delhi. Hindus migrating from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) settled across Eastern India and Northeastern India, many ending up in close-by states like West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura. ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially This article refers to the region in the Indian subcontinent. North-East India refers to the easternmost region of India consisting of the contiguous Seven Sister States and Sikkim. West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. Assam) ( Assamese: অসম Ôxôm) is a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur, a suburb of the city ( Bengali script: ত্রিপুরা is a state in North-East India. Some migrants were sent to the Andaman islands.
Hindu Sindhis found themselves without a homeland. The responsibility of rehabilitating them was borne by their government. Refugee camps were set up for Hindu Sindhis. However non sindhi Hindus had very little help from the Government of India and many never received compensation of any sort from the Indian Government.
Many refugees overcame the trauma of poverty. The loss of a homeland has had a deeper and lasting effect on their Sindhi culture,it may be in decline in India.
In late 2004, the Sindhi diaspora vociferously opposed a Public Interest Litigation in the Supreme Court of India which asked the government of India to delete the word "Sindh" from the Indian National Anthem (written by Rabindranath Tagore prior the partition) on the grounds that it infringed upon the sovereignty of Pakistan. Sindhis ( Sindhi: سنڌي) are a Sindhi speaking socio-ethnic group of people originating in Sindh in Pakistan. Public Interest Litigation, in Indian law, means Litigation for the protection of Public interest. The Supreme Court of India is the highest court of the land as established by Part V Chapter IV of the Constitution of India. Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. Jana Gana Mana (জন গণ মন Jôno Gôno Mono) is the National anthem of India.
Refugees settled in Pakistan
Refugees or Muhajirs in Pakistan came from various parts of India. See Muhajir page for all Muhajir groups in the world Muhajir or Panahgir (مہاجر is a diverse term used to describe the There was a large influx of Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab fleeing the riots. Despite severe physical and economic hardships, East Punjabi refugees to Pakistan did not face problems of cultural and linguistic assimilation after partition. The Punjabi people ( Punjabi: ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی also Panjabi people) are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group from South Asia. However, there were many Muslim refugees who migrated to Pakistan from other Indian states. These refugees came from many different ethnic groups and regions in India, including Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh (then known as "United Provinces of Agra and Awadh", or UP), Madhya Pradesh (then Central Province or "CP"), Gujarat, Bihar, what was then the princely state of Hyderabad and so on. According to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race Rājasthān ( Devanāgarī: राजस्थान raːdʒəst̪ʰaːn is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area Uttar Pradesh (उत्तर प्रदेश اتر پردیش pronounced, Translation: Northern Province) referred to as '''U Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP) ( Hindī: मध्य प्रदेश pronounced, Translation: Middle Province) often Gujarat (ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt, pronounced) is a state in western India. Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a Hyderābād and Berar (హైదరాబాదు حیدر آباد under the Nizams was the largest Princely state in the erstwhile Indian Empire The descendants of these non-Punjabi refugees in Pakistan often refer to themselves as Muhajir whereas the assimilated Punjabi refugees no longer make that political distinction. See Muhajir page for all Muhajir groups in the world Muhajir or Panahgir (مہاجر is a diverse term used to describe the Large numbers of non-Punjabi refugees settled in Sindh, particularly in the cities of Karachi and Hyderabad. (ڪراچي) is the largest city in Pakistan. It is the world's second largest city proper behind Mumbai in terms of population which exceeds 10 million ( Urdu, Sindhi:; Haidarābād is located in the Sindh province of Pakistan. They are united by their refugee status and their native Urdu language and are a strong political force in Sindh. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised
Artistic depictions of the Partition
In addition to the enormous historical literature on the Partition, there is also an extensive body of artistic work (novels, short stories, poetry, films, plays, paintings, etc. The Partition of India and the associated bloody riots inspired many creative minds in India and Pakistan to create literary/cinematic depictions of this event ) that deals imaginatively with the pain and horror of the event.
See also
- British East India Company
- British Empire
- British India
- List of Indian Princely States
- Indian independence movement
- Pakistan Movement
- East Bengal
- History of Bangladesh
- History of India
- History of Pakistan
- Indo-Pakistani War of 1947
- Artistic depictions of the partition of India
- India (disambiguation)
References
- ^ Sword For Pen, TIME Magazine, April 12, 1937
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. "Sikkim."
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. "Nepal.", Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. "Bhutan."
- ^ Bharadwaj, Prashant, Khwaja, Asim Ijaz and Mian, Atif R. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British Hundreds of Princely states in British India existed prior to the independence of India and Pakistan (including the present Bangladesh The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant Pakistan Movement or Tehrik-e-Pakistan ( Urdu: تحریک پاکستان) was the struggle carried out by the Muslims of British India East Bengal ( Bengali: পূর্ববঙ্গ Purbobôngo) was the name used during two periods in the 20th century for a territory that roughly corresponded History of Bengal Bangladesh became one of the last major nation states following its secession in 1971 from the nation of Pakistan which achieved its independence from the British This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 The history of Pakistan as a modern nation began with independence from British India on 14 August 1947, although The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, sometimes known as the First Kashmir War, was fought between India and Pakistan over the region of Kashmir from The Partition of India and the associated bloody riots inspired many creative minds in India and Pakistan to create literary/cinematic depictions of this event Time (trademarked in capitals as TIME) is a weekly American Newsmagazine, similar to Newsweek and , "The Big March: Migratory Flows after the Partition of India" . http://ssrn.com/abstract=1124093 Available at SSRN. ]
- ^ V. D. Savarkar, Samagra Savarkar Wangmaya Hindu Rasthra Darshan (Collected works of V. D. Savarkar) Vol VI, Maharashtra Prantik Hindusabha, Poona, 1963, p 296
- ^ Jalal, Ayesha Jalal (1985). The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, The Muslim League and the Demand Pakistan. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Thomas RGC, Nations, States, and Secession: Lessons from the Former Yugoslavia, Mediterranean Quarterly, Volume 5 Number 4 Fall 1994, pp. 40–65, Duke University Press
- ^ a b c d (Spate 1947, pp. 126-137)
- ^ Death toll in the partition
- ^ K. Z. Islam, 2002, The Punjab Boundary Award, Inretrospect
- ^ Partitioning India over lunch, Memoirs of a British civil servant Christopher Beaumont
- ^ Stanley Wolpert, 2006, Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-515198-4
- ^ Richard Symonds, 1950, The Making of Pakistan, London, ASIN B0000CHMB1, p 74
- ^ "Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India" Lawrence J. Butler, 2002, Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World, p 72
- ^ Lawrence J. Butler, 2002, Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World, p 72
- ^ Ronald Hyam, Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 1918-1968, page 113; Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521866499, 2007
- ^ Lawrence James, Rise and Fall of the British Empire
- ^ Dennis Judd, in The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600-1947 notes some of the ways Jinnah exacerbated the situation
- ^ [See an ethnographic account of Delhi refugees in Since 1947: Partition Narratives among Punjabi Migrants of Delhi" http://oup.co.in/search_detail.php?id=144071]
Further reading
Popularizations
- Collins, Larry and Dominique Lapierre: Freedom at Midnight. London: Collins, 1975. ISBN 0-00-638851-5
- Zubrzycki, John. (2006) The Last Nizam: An Indian Prince in the Australian Outback. Pan Macmillan, Australia. ISBN 978-0-3304-2321-2.
Memoir
- Azad, Maulana Abul Kalam: India Wins Freedom, Orient Longman, 1988. Maulana Abul Kalam Muhiyuddin Ahmed (11 November 1888 &ndash 22 February 1958 was a Muslim scholar and a senior political leader of the Indian independence ISBN 81-250-0514-5
Academic monographs
- Ansari, Sarah. 2005. Life after Partition: Migration, Community and Strife in Sindh: 1947—1962. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 256 pages. ISBN 019597834X.
- Butalia, Urvashi. 1998. The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 308 pages. ISBN 0822324946
- Chatterji, Joya. 2002. Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932—1947. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. 323 pages. ISBN 0521523281.
- Gilmartin, David. 1988. Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan. Berkeley: University of California Press. 258 pages. ISBN 0520062493.
- Gossman, Partricia. 1999. Riots and Victims: Violence and the Construction of Communal Identity Among Bengali Muslims, 1905-1947. Westview Press. 224 pages. ISBN 0813336252
- Hansen, Anders Bjørn. 2004. "Partition and Genocide: Manifestation of Violence in Punjab 1937-1947", India Research Press. ISBN 9788187943259.
http://www.ipgbook.com/showbook.cfm?bookid=8187943254&userid=34B857EC-803F-2B7A-0AB0EB5C597EBC4
- Hasan, Mushirul (2001), written at Oxford and Delhi, India's Partition: Process, Strategy and Mobilization, Oxford University Press, 444 pages, ISBN 0195635043.
- Ikram, S. M. 1995. Indian Muslims and Partition of India. Delhi: Atlantic. ISBN 8171563740
- Jalal, Ayesha (1993), written at Cambridge, UK, The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan, Cambridge University Press, 334 pages, ISBN 0521458501
- Kaur, Ravinder. 2007. "Since 1947: Partition Narratives among Punjabi Migrants of Delhi". Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195683776. http://oup.co.in/search_detail.php?id=144071
- Khan, Yasmin (September 18, 2007), written at New Haven and London, The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan, Yale University Press, 250 pages (published 2007), ISBN 0300120788
- Page, David, Anita Inder Singh, Penderel Moon, G. Events 96 - Nerva is proclaimed Roman Emperor after Domitian is assassinated Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. D. Khosla, and Mushirul Hasan. 2001. The Partition Omnibus: Prelude to Partition/the Origins of the Partition of India 1936-1947/Divide and Quit/Stern Reckoning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195658507
- Pandey, Gyanendra. 2002. Remembering Partition:: Violence, Nationalism and History in India. Cambride, UK: Cambridge University Press. 232 pages. ISBN 0521002508
- Raza, Hashim S. 1989. Mountbatten and the partition of India. New Delhi: Atlantic. ISBN 81-7156-059-8
- Shaikh, Farzana. 1989. Community and Consensus in Islam: Muslim Representation in Colonial India, 1860—1947. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 272 pages. ISBN 0521363284.
- Talbot, Ian and Gurharpal Singh (eds). 1999. Region and Partition: Bengal, Punjab and the Partition of the Subcontinent. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 420 pages. ISBN 0195790510.
- Talbot, Ian. 2002. Khizr Tiwana: The Punjab Unionist Party and the Partition of India. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 216 pages. ISBN 0195795512.
- Talbot, Ian. 2006. Divided Cities: Partition and Its Aftermath in Lahore and Amritsar. Oxford and Karachi: Oxford University Press. 350 pages. ISBN 0195472268.
- Wolpert, Stanley. 2006. Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 272 pages. ISBN 0195151984.
- J. Butler, Lawrence. 2002. Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World. London: I. B. Tauris. 256 pages. ISBN 186064449X
- Khosla, G. D. Stern reckoning : a survey of the events leading up to and following the partition of India New Delhi: Oxford University Press:358 pages Published: February 1990 ISBN 0195624173
Articles
- Review by Chudhry Manzoor Ahmed Marxist MP in Pakistani Parliament book by Lal Khan 'Partition can it be undone?'
- Gilmartin, David. 1998. "Partition, Pakistan, and South Asian History: In Search of a Narrative. " The Journal of Asian Studies, 57(4):1068-1095.
- Jeffrey, Robin. 1974. "The Punjab Boundary Force and the Problem of Order, August 1947" - Modern Asian Studies 8(4):491-520.
- Kaur Ravinder. 2007. "India and Pakistan: Partition Lessons". Open Democracy. [1]
- Kaur, Ravinder. 2006. "The Last Journey: Social Class in the Partition of India". Economic and Political Weekly, June 2006. www. epw. org. in
- Mookerjea-Leonard, Debali. 2005. "Divided Homelands, Hostile Homes: Partition, Women and Homelessness". Journal of Commonwealth Literature, 40(2):141-154.
- Morris-Jones. 1983. "Thirty-Six Years Later: The Mixed Legacies of Mountbatten's Transfer of Power". International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs), 59(4):621-628.
- Spate, O. H. K. (1947), "The Partition of the Punjab and of Bengal", The Geographical Journal 110 (4/6): 201-218
- Spear, Percival. Oskar Hermann Khristian Spate ( London, England 1911 - Canberra, Australia 2000 was a geographer best known for his role in strengthening 1958. "Britain's Transfer of Power in India. " Pacific Affairs, 31(2):173-180.
- Talbot, Ian. 1994. "Planning for Pakistan: The Planning Committee of the All-India Muslim League, 1943-46". Modern Asian Studies, 28(4):875-889.
- Visaria, Pravin M. 1969. "Migration Between India and Pakistan, 1951-61" Demography, 6(3):323-334.
External links
Bibliographies
- Select Research Bibliography on the Partition of India, Compiled by Vinay Lal, Department of History, UCLA; University of California at Los Angeles list
- A select list of Indian Publications on the Partition of India (Punjab & Bengal); University of Virginia list
- South Asian History: Colonial India — University of California, Berkeley Collection of documents on colonial India, Independence, and Partition]
- Indian Nationalism — Fordham University archive of relevant public-domain documents]
Other links
- Can Partition be undone? Economic and Political Review India by Ranabir Sammadar
- Partition of India by A. The University of California Los Angeles (generally known as UCLA) is a public research university located in Westwood Los Angeles, California, United The University of Virginia (also called UVa, UVA, Mr Jefferson's University, or The University) is a highly selective public research The University of California Berkeley (also referred to as Cal, Berkeley and UC Berkeley) is a major research university located in Berkeley Fordham University is a private University in the United States, with three campuses located in and around New York City. G. Noorani.
- Clip from 1947 newsreel showing Indian independence ceremony
- Partition of Bengal, 1947, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh
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