Map of Pangaea

Pangaea, Pangæa or Pangea (IPA: /pænˈdʒiːə/^[1], from παν, pan, meaning entire, and Γαῖα, Gaea, meaning Earth in Ancient Greek) was the supercontinent that existed during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras about 250 million years ago, before each of the component continents were separated into their current configuration ^[2]. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c In Geology, a supercontinent is a Landmass comprising more than one Continental core or Craton. The Paleozoic or Palaeozoic Era (from the Greek palaio (παλαιο "old" and zoe (ζωη "life" meaning "ancient life" The Mesozoic Era is one of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic eon. A continent is one of several large Landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by Convention rather than any strict criteria with seven regions

The name was first used by the German originator of the continental drift theory, Alfred Wegener, in the 1920 edition of his book The Origin of Continents and Oceans (Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane), in which a postulated supercontinent Pangaea played a key role. The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as Continental drift is the movement of the Earth 's Continents relative to each other Alfred Lothar Wegener ( November 1, 1880 – November 2 or 3 1930 was a German Scientist and Meteorologist.

Configuration of Pangaea

Physical map of the supercontinent Pangaea (~230 million years ago)

Paleogeographic reconstructions show Pangaea as a roughly C-shaped landmass that was spread across the equator. Palaeogeography (sometimes spelled paleogeography) is the study of what the Geography was in times past The equator (sometimes referred to colloquially as "the Line") is the intersection of the Earth 's surface with the plane perpendicular to the The body of water that was enclosed within the resulting crescent has been named the Tethys Sea. A body of water is any significant accumulation of Water, usually covering the Earth or another planet The Tethys Ocean was a Mesozoic era Ocean that existed between the continents of Gondwana and Laurasia before the opening of the Indian Owing to Pangaea's massive size, the inland regions appear to have been very dry. The large supercontinent would potentially have allowed terrestrial animals to migrate freely.

The vast ocean that surrounded the supercontinent of Pangaea has been named Panthalassa, which means, "The Great Sea. In Geology, a supercontinent is a Landmass comprising more than one Continental core or Craton. Panthalassa ( Greek, meaning 'all seas' also known as the Panthalassic Ocean, was the vast global Ocean that surrounded the Supercontinent " The break-up of Pangaea began about 180 million years ago (180 mya) in the Jurassic Period, first into two supercontinents (Gondwana to the south and Laurasia to the north), thereafter into the seven continents we have today. Annum is one form of the Latin noun meaning Year, not a form normally used for derivatives in modern languages the accusative singular The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about Ma (million years ago to  Ma that is from the end of the Triassic to the beginning Gondwana (ɡɒnˈdwɑːnə originally Gondwanaland) was a southern Supercontinent that existed about 500 to 200 Ma ago Laurasia (lɔˈreɪʃiə lɔˈreɪʒə was a Supercontinent that most recently existed as a part of the split of the Pangaean supercontinent in the late Mesozoic In mathematics Seven is the fourth Prime number. It is not only a Mersenne prime (since 23 &minus 1 = 7 but also a A continent is one of several large Landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by Convention rather than any strict criteria with seven regions

Formation of Pangaea

Rodinia, which formed 1. For the Genus of Metalmark butterflies, see Rodinia (butterfly. 3 billion years ago during the Proterozoic, was the supercontinent from which all subsequent continents, sub or super, derived. The Proterozoic (ˌproʊtərəˈzoʊɪk is a geological eon representing a period before the first abundant complex life on Earth. Rodinia does not preclude the possibility of prior supercontinents as the breakup and formation of supercontinents appears to be cyclical through Earth's 4. Vaalbara is the Earth's theorized first Supercontinent. According to radiometric data of the encompassing Cratons that constituted Vaalbara it is believed The supercontinent cycle describes the quasi-periodic aggregration and dispersal of Earth 's Continental crust. 6 billion years.

Gondwana followed with several iterations before the formation of Pangaea, which succeeded Pannotia, before the beginning of the Paleozoic Era (545 Ma) and the Phanerozoic Eon. Gondwana (ɡɒnˈdwɑːnə originally Gondwanaland) was a southern Supercontinent that existed about 500 to 200 Ma ago Pannotia, first described by Ian W D Dalziel in 1997 is a hypothetical Supercontinent that existed from the Pan-African orogeny about 600 million years ago to the The Paleozoic or Palaeozoic Era (from the Greek palaio (παλαιο "old" and zoe (ζωη "life" meaning "ancient life" The Phanerozoic (occasionally Phanaerozoic) Eon is the current eon in the Geologic timescale, and the one during which abundant animal life has existed

The minor supercontinent of Proto-Laurasia drifted away from Gondwana and moved across the Panthalassic Ocean. Panthalassa ( Greek, meaning 'all seas' also known as the Panthalassic Ocean, was the vast global Ocean that surrounded the Supercontinent A new ocean was forming between the two continents, the Proto-Tethys Ocean. The Proto-Tethys Ocean was an ancient Ocean that existed from the latest Ediacaran to the Carboniferous (550-330 Ma) Soon, Proto-Laurasia drifted apart itself to create Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica. Laurentia (also known as the North American craton) like all Craton land was created as continents moved about the surface of the Earth Siberia is the Craton located in the heart of the region of Siberia. Baltica redirects here For the Russian beer, see Baltika Breweries Baltica is a name applied by geologists to a late- Proterozoic, The rifting also spawned two new oceans, the Iapetus and Khanty Oceans. The Iapetus Ocean was an Ocean that existed in the Southern Hemisphere between Laurentia ( Scotland and North America) and Baltica Khanty Ocean was an ancient small ocean that existed near the end of the Precambrian time to the Silurian. Baltica remained east of Laurentia, and Siberia sat northeast of Laurentia.

In the Cambrian the independent continent of Laurentia on what would become North America sat on the equator, with three bordering oceans: the Panthalassic Ocean to the north and west, the Iapetus Ocean to the south and the Khanty Ocean to the east. The Cambrian is a geologic period and system that began about Ma (million years ago at the end of the Proterozoic eon and ended about Ma with Laurentia (also known as the North American craton) like all Craton land was created as continents moved about the surface of the Earth The equator (sometimes referred to colloquially as "the Line") is the intersection of the Earth 's surface with the plane perpendicular to the Panthalassa ( Greek, meaning 'all seas' also known as the Panthalassic Ocean, was the vast global Ocean that surrounded the Supercontinent The Iapetus Ocean was an Ocean that existed in the Southern Hemisphere between Laurentia ( Scotland and North America) and Baltica Khanty Ocean was an ancient small ocean that existed near the end of the Precambrian time to the Silurian. In the Earliest Ordovician, the microcontinent of Avalonia, a landmass that would become the northeastern United States, Nova Scotia and England, broke free from Gondwana and began its journey to Laurentia. The Ordovician is a geologic period and system, the second of six of the Paleozoic era, and covers the time between 488 Avalonia was an ancient Microcontinent or Terrane whose history formed much of the older rocks of Western Europe, Atlantic Canada and parts of the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Nova Scotia (ˌnəʊvəˈskəʊʃə ( Latin for New Scotland; Alba Nuadh Nouvelle-Écosse is a Canadian province located on Canada 's England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Laurentia (also known as the North American craton) like all Craton land was created as continents moved about the surface of the Earth ^[3]

Euramerica's formation

Appalachian orogeny

Baltica collided with Laurentia by the end of the Ordovician, and northern Avalonia collided with Baltica and Laurentia. Baltica redirects here For the Russian beer, see Baltika Breweries Baltica is a name applied by geologists to a late- Proterozoic, Laurentia, Baltica and Avalonia formed to create a minor supercontinent of Euramerica or Laurussia, closing the Iapetus Ocean, while the Rheic Ocean expanded in the southern coast of Avalonia. Euramerica (also known as Laurussia or Old Red Continent) was a minor Supercontinent created in the Devonian as the result of a collision between The Rheic Ocean was an Ocean in the Paleozoic Era that existed between to the north the Continent of Baltica (northern The collision also resulted in the formation of the northern Appalachians. The Appalachian Mountains ( often called the Appalachians, are a vast system of mountains in eastern North America. Siberia sat near Euramerica, with the Khanty Ocean between the two continents. Siberia is the Craton located in the heart of the region of Siberia. Khanty Ocean was an ancient small ocean that existed near the end of the Precambrian time to the Silurian. While all this was happening, Gondwana drifted slowly towards the South Pole. This was the first step of the formation of Pangaea. ^[4]

The second step in the formation of Pangaea was the collision of Gondwana with Euramerica. Euramerica (also known as Laurussia or Old Red Continent) was a minor Supercontinent created in the Devonian as the result of a collision between By Silurian time, Baltica had already collided with Laurentia to form Euramerica. The Silurian is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Ordovician period about 443 Avalonia hadn't collided with Laurentia yet, and a seaway between them, a remnant of the Iapetus Ocean, was still shrinking as Avalonia slowly inched towards Laurentia. Avalonia was an ancient Microcontinent or Terrane whose history formed much of the older rocks of Western Europe, Atlantic Canada and parts of the Laurentia (also known as the North American craton) like all Craton land was created as continents moved about the surface of the Earth The Iapetus Ocean was an Ocean that existed in the Southern Hemisphere between Laurentia ( Scotland and North America) and Baltica

Meanwhile, southern Europe fragmented from Gondwana and started to head towards Euramerica across the newly formed Rheic Ocean and collided with southern Baltica in the Devonian, though this microcontinent was an underwater plate. The term Southern Europe can have four definitions geographical political climatic phytogeographic The Rheic Ocean was an Ocean in the Paleozoic Era that existed between to the north the Continent of Baltica (northern Baltica redirects here For the Russian beer, see Baltika Breweries Baltica is a name applied by geologists to a late- Proterozoic, The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic era spanning from to  million years ago. The Iapetus Ocean's sister ocean, the Khanty Ocean, was also shrinking as an island arc from Siberia collided with eastern Baltica (now part of Euramerica). Behind this island arc was a new ocean, the Ural Ocean. A volcanic arc is a chain of volcanic islands or Mountains formed by Plate tectonics as an oceanic Tectonic plate subducts under Ural Ocean was a small ancient ocean that was situated between Siberia and Baltica.

By late Silurian time, North and South China rifted away from Gondwana and started to head northward across the shrinking Proto-Tethys Ocean, and on its southern end the new Paleo-Tethys Ocean was opening. The North China Craton is one of the smaller Continental Cratons of the Earth. South China continent, also known as South China craton (or the South Chinese craton or as Yangtze craton, was an ancient Continent ( Craton The Paleo-Tethys Ocean was an ancient Paleozoic Ocean. It was located between the Paleocontinent Gondwana and the so called Hunic terranes In the Devonian Period, Gondwana itself headed towards Euramerica, which caused the Rheic Ocean to shrink.

In the Early Carboniferous, northwest Africa had touched the southeastern coast of Euramerica, creating the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains, and the Meseta Mountains. The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Devonian period about 359 Euramerica (also known as Laurussia or Old Red Continent) was a minor Supercontinent created in the Devonian as the result of a collision between The Appalachian Mountains ( often called the Appalachians, are a vast system of mountains in eastern North America. The Atlas Mountains ( Kabyle: Idurar n leṭles جبال الأطلس) is a Mountain range across a northern stretch of Africa extending about 2400 South America moved northward to southern Euramerica, while the eastern portion of Gondwana (India, Antarctica and Australia) headed towards the South Pole from the equator. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. The equator (sometimes referred to colloquially as "the Line") is the intersection of the Earth 's surface with the plane perpendicular to the

North China and South China were on independent continents. The Kazakhstania microcontinent had collided with Siberia (Siberia had been a separate continent for millions of years since the deformation of the supercontinent Pannotia) in the Middle Carboniferous. Kazakhstania, also known as the Kazakhstan Block, is a small continental region in the interior of Asia. Siberia is the Craton located in the heart of the region of Siberia. Pannotia, first described by Ian W D Dalziel in 1997 is a hypothetical Supercontinent that existed from the Pan-African orogeny about 600 million years ago to the

Western Kazakhstania collided with Baltica in the Late Carboniferous, closing the Ural Ocean between them, and the western Proto-Tethys in them (Uralian orogeny), causing the formation of the Ural Mountains, and the formation of the supercontinent of Laurasia. Kazakhstania, also known as the Kazakhstan Block, is a small continental region in the interior of Asia. Baltica redirects here For the Russian beer, see Baltika Breweries Baltica is a name applied by geologists to a late- Proterozoic, Ural Ocean was a small ancient ocean that was situated between Siberia and Baltica. The Uralian orogeny refers to the long series of geological events that raised the Ural Mountains, starting in the Late Carboniferous and Permian periods Riphean redirects here For the time period see Riphean stage The Ural Mountains (Ура́льские го́ры Uralskiye This was the last step of the formation of Pangaea.

Meanwhile, South America had collided with southern Laurentia, closing the Rheic Ocean, and forming the southernmost part of the Appalachians and Ouachita Mountains. Laurentia (also known as the North American craton) like all Craton land was created as continents moved about the surface of the Earth The Rheic Ocean was an Ocean in the Paleozoic Era that existed between to the north the Continent of Baltica (northern The Appalachian Mountains ( often called the Appalachians, are a vast system of mountains in eastern North America. The Ouachita Mountains are a mountain range located in west central Arkansas and southeastern Oklahoma. By this time, Gondwana was positioned near the South Pole, and glaciers were forming in Antarctica, India, Australia, southern Africa and South America. The North China block collided with Siberia by Late Carboniferous time, completely closing the Proto-Tethys Ocean. Northern China or North China ( literally "China's north" is a Geographical region of China. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving

By Early Permian time, the Cimmerian plate rifted away from Gondwana and headed towards Laurasia, with a new ocean forming in its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, and the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The Permian is a geologic period and system that extends from 299 The Cimmerian Plate is an ancient Tectonic plate that comprises parts of present-day Anatolia, Iran, Afghanistan, Tibet, Indochina The Tethys Ocean was a Mesozoic era Ocean that existed between the continents of Gondwana and Laurasia before the opening of the Indian The Paleo-Tethys Ocean was an ancient Paleozoic Ocean. It was located between the Paleocontinent Gondwana and the so called Hunic terranes Most of the landmasses were all in one. By the Triassic Period, Pangaea rotated a little, in a southwest direction. The Triassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about 251 to 199 Ma (million years ago The Cimmerian plate was still travelling across the shrinking Paleo-Tethys, until the Middle Jurassic time. The Middle Jurassic, called the Dogger in the European system of classification is the second epoch of the Jurassic Period. The Paleo-Tethys had closed from west to east, creating the Cimmerian Orogeny. The Cimmerian Orogeny, is an Orogeny that created mountain ranges that now lie in Central Asia Pangaea looked like a C, with an ocean inside the C, the new Tethys Ocean. Pangaea had rifted by the Middle Jurassic, and its deformation is explained below.

Evidence of Pangaea's existence

Fossil evidence for Pangaea includes the presence of similar and identical species on continents that are now great distances apart. For example, fossils of the therapsid Lystrosaurus have been found in Argentina, South Africa, India and Australia, alongside members of the Glossopteris flora, whose distribution would have ranged from the polar circle to the equator if the continents would have been in their present position; similarly, the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus has only been found in localized regions of the coasts of Brazil and West-Africa. Therapsids are an order of Synapsids (Class Synapsida Traditionally synapsids were referred to as Reptiles and were known as Lystrosaurus (meaning 'shovel lizard' pronunciation in ˌlɪstrɒˈsɔrəs was a Genus of Late Permian and Early Triassic Period Glossopteris ( Greek glossa (γλώσσα meaning "tongue" because the leaves were tongue-shaped is the largest and best-known Genus Mesosaurus is an extinct genus of Anapsid Reptile from the early Permian period ^[5]

Additional evidence for Pangaea is found in the geology of adjacent continents, including matching geological trends between the eastern coast of South America and the western coast of Africa.

The polar ice cap of the Carboniferous Period covered the southern end of Pangaea. The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Devonian period about 359 Glacial deposits, specifically till, of the same age and structure are found on many separate continents which would have been together in the continent of Pangaea. Till is unsorted glacial sediment Glacial drift is a general term for the coarsely graded and extremely heterogeneous Sediments of glacial origin ^[6]

Rifting and break-up of Pangaea

Pangaea separation animation

There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first phase began in the Early-Middle Jurassic, when Pangaea created a rift from the Tethys Ocean in the east and the Pacific in the west. For general context see Jurassic. The Early Jurassic (in geology referred to as the Lower Jurassic, originally (and still in Europe the The Middle Jurassic, called the Dogger in the European system of classification is the second epoch of the Jurassic Period. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions The rifting took place between North America and Africa, and produced multiple failed rifts. The rift resulted in a new ocean, the Atlantic Ocean.

The Atlantic Ocean did not open uniformly; rifting began in the north-central Atlantic. The South Atlantic did not open until the Cretaceous. The Cretaceous (kriːˈteɪʃəs, usually abbreviated 'K' for its German translation "Kreide" is a geologic period and system, reaching from the end of Laurasia started to rotate clockwise and moved northward with North America to the north, and Eurasia to the south. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. The clockwise motion of Laurasia also led to the closing of the Tethys Ocean. Meanwhile, on the other side of Africa, new rifts were also forming along the adjacent margins of east Africa, Antarctica and Madagascar that would lead to the formation of the southwestern Indian Ocean that would also open up in the Cretaceous. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface

The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Early Cretaceous (150–140 Ma), when the minor supercontinent of Gondwana separated into four multiple continents (Africa, South America, India and Antarctica/Australia). The Early Cretaceous ( timestratigraphic name or the Lower Cretaceous ( logstratigraphic name is the earlier of the two major divisions of the Cretaceous About 200 Ma, the continent of Cimmeria, as mentioned above (see "Formation of Pangaea"), collided with Eurasia. The Cimmerian Plate is an ancient Tectonic plate that comprises parts of present-day Anatolia, Iran, Afghanistan, Tibet, Indochina Pangaea, Pangæa or Pangea (pænˈdʒiːə from παν pan, meaning entire, and Γαῖα Gaea, meaning Earth in However, a subduction zone was forming, as soon as Cimmeria collided.

This subduction zone was called the Tethyan Trench. The Tethyan Trench was an ancient Oceanic trench that existed in the northern part of the Tethys Ocean during the middle Mesozoic to early Cenozoic This trench might have subducted what is called the Tethyan mid-ocean ridge, a ridge responsible for the Tethys Ocean's expansion. A mid-ocean ridge or mid-oceanic ridge is an underwater Mountain range typically having a valley known as a Rift running along its axis formed by It probably caused Africa, India and Australia to move northward. In the Early Cretaceous, Atlantica, today's South America and Africa, finally separated from eastern Gondwana (Antarctica, India and Australia), causing the opening of a "South Indian Ocean". Atlantica was an ancient Continent theorised to have formed about two billion years ago In the Middle Cretaceous, Gondwana fragmented to open up the South Atlantic Ocean as South America started to move westward away from Africa. The South Atlantic did not develop uniformly; rather, it rifted from south to north.

Also, at the same time, Madagascar and India began to separate from Antarctica and moved northward, opening up the Indian Ocean. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern Madagascar and India separated from each other 100–90 Ma in the Late Cretaceous. India continued to move northward toward Eurasia at 15 centimeters (6 in) per year (a plate tectonic record), closing the Tethys Ocean, while Madagascar stopped and became locked to the African Plate. The African Plate is a Tectonic plate which includes the Continent of Africa, as well as oceanic crust which lies between the continent and various surrounding New Zealand, New Caledonia and the rest of Zealandia began to separate from Australia, moving eastward towards the Pacific and opening the Coral Sea and Tasman Sea. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island For the former North American fur-trading district see New Caledonia (Canada, and for the Scottish colony in Panama see Darien scheme. Zealandia (ziːˈlæːndiə also known as Tasmantis or the New Zealand continent, is a nearly submerged Continent or Microcontinent that The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions The Coral Sea is a Marginal sea off the north-east coast of Australia. The Tasman Sea is the large body of water between Australia and New Zealand, some 2000 Kilometres (1250 Miles across

The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). The Cenozoic (also Caenozoic or Cainozoic) Era (ˌsiːnəˈzoʊɪk/ /ˌsɛn- (meaning "new life" ( Greek ( kainos) "new" The Paleocene or Palaeocene, "early dawn of the recent" is a geologic epoch that lasted from 65 The Oligocene is a geologic epoch of the Paleogene period and extends from about 33 North America/Greenland broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 60–55 Ma. Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat meaning "Land of the Greenlanders" Grønland is a self-governing Danish Province located between the Currents In the Norwegian Sea and Greenland Sea surface water descends two to three kilometres down to the bottom of the ocean forming cold oxygen-rich groundwater The Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.

Meanwhile, Australia split from Antarctica and moved rapidly northward, just as India did more than 40 million years earlier, and is currently on a collision course with eastern Asia. Both Australia and India are currently moving in a northeastern direction at 5–6 centimeters (2–3 in) per year. Antarctica has been near or at the South Pole since the formation of Pangaea about 280 Ma. India started to collide with Asia beginning about 35 Ma, forming the Himalayan orogeny, and also finally closing the Tethys Seaway; this collision continues today. The geology of the Himalaya is a record of the most dramatic and visible creations of modern Plate tectonic forces The African Plate started to change directions, from west to northwest toward Europe, and South America began to move in a northward direction, separating it from Antarctica and allowing complete oceanic circulation around Antarctica for the first time, causing a rapid cooling of the continent and allowing glaciers to form. "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. Other major events took place during the Cenozoic, including the opening of the Gulf of California, the uplift of the Alps, and the opening of the Sea of Japan. The Cenozoic (also Caenozoic or Cainozoic) Era (ˌsiːnəˈzoʊɪk/ /ˌsɛn- (meaning "new life" ( Greek ( kainos) "new" " Sea of Cortez " redirects here For the book by John Steinbeck, see The Log from the Sea of Cortez. The Sea of Japan is a Marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean, bordered by Japan, Korea, North Korea and Russia The break-up of Pangaea continues today in the East Africa Rift; ongoing collisions may indicate the incipient creation of a new supercontinent. The Great Rift Valley is a name given in the late 19th century by English explorer John Walter Gregory to the continuous geographic trough approximately in length that runs In Geology, a supercontinent is a Landmass comprising more than one Continental core or Craton.

See also

• List of supercontinents
• History of Earth
• Amasia
• Pangaea Ultima
• Supercontinent cycle
• Dymaxion map

References

External links

• USGS Overview
• In honor of Alfred Wegener, at the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI) an information system for georeferenced data from earth system research is named "PANGAEA"
• An explanation of tectonic forces
• Europe's First Stegosaurus Boosts Pangaea Theory
• Map of Triassic Pangaea at Paleomaps