Change in sea surface pH caused by anthropogenic CO₂ between the 1700s and the 1990s

Ocean acidification is the name given to the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by their uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five Between 1751 and 1994 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8. 179 to 8. 104 (a change of -0. 075). ^[1][2]

Carbon cycle

In the natural carbon cycle, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) represents a balance of fluxes between the oceans, terrestrial biosphere and the atmosphere. The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the Biosphere, Pedosphere, Geosphere, Hydrosphere, and EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. Human activities such as land-use changes, the combustion of fossil fuels, and the production of cement have led to a new flux of CO₂ into the atmosphere. Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of Exothermic chemical reactions between a Fuel and an Oxidant accompanied by the production of Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. In the most general sense of the word a cement is a binder a substance which sets and hardens independently and can bind other materials together Some of this has remained in the atmosphere (where it is responsible for the rise in atmospheric concentrations), some is believed to have been taken up by terrestrial plants, and some has been absorbed by the oceans. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae.

When CO₂ dissolves, it reacts with water to form a balance of ionic and non-ionic chemical species : dissolved free carbon dioxide (CO_{2 (aq)}), carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), bicarbonate (HCO₃^-) and carbonate (CO₃^2-). An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge Carbonic acid (ancient name acid of air or aerial acid) has the formula H2CO3 In Inorganic chemistry, bicarbonate ( IUPAC -recommended nomenclature hydrogencarbonate) is an intermediate form in the Deprotonation In Chemistry, a carbonate is a salt or Ester of Carbonic acid. The ratio of these species depends on factors such as seawater temperature and alkalinity (see the article on the ocean's solubility pump for more detail). Seawater is Water from a Sea or Ocean. On average seawater in the world's oceans has a Salinity of about 3 Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature Alkalinity or AT is a measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the Equivalence point of carbonate or bicarbonate In Oceanic Biogeochemistry, the solubility pump is a physico-chemical process that transports Carbon (as dissolved inorganic carbon from the ocean's surface

Acidification

Dissolving CO₂ in seawater also increases the hydrogen ion (H⁺) concentration in the ocean, and thus decreases ocean pH. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 The use of the term "ocean acidification" to describe this process was introduced in Caldeira and Wickett (2003)^[4]. Ken Caldeira is a Scientist who works at the Carnegie Institution for Science 's Department of Global Ecology

Since the industrial revolution began, it is estimated that surface ocean pH has dropped by slightly less than 0. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the 1 units (on the logarithmic scale of pH), and it is estimated that it will drop by a further 0. In Mathematics, the logarithm of a number to a given base is the power or Exponent to which the base must be raised in order to produce 3 - 0. 5 units by 2100 as the ocean absorbs more anthropogenic CO₂^[4][1][5].

Note that, although the ocean is acidifying, its pH is still greater than 7 (that of neutral water), so the ocean could also be described as becoming less alkaline. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal

A report from NOAA scientists published in the journal Science in May 2008 found that large amounts of water that is undersaturated in aragonite (i. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA) is a scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the e. a proxy measure indicating relatively acidified / low pH water) are upwelling to within four miles of the Pacific continental shelf area of N. The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of each Continent and associated Coastal plain, which is covered during interglacial periods such America. This area is a critical zone where most local marine life lives or is born. While the paper only dealt with the areas from Vancouver to northern California, other continental shelf areas may be experiencing similar effects. Vancouver (vænˈkuːvɚ is a coastal ^[6]

Possible impacts

Although the natural absorption of CO₂ by the world's oceans helps mitigate the climatic effects of anthropogenic emissions of CO₂, it is believed that the resulting decrease in pH will have negative consequences, primarily for oceanic calcifying organisms. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Acid rain is Rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually Acidic It has harmful effects on plants aquatic animals and infastructure The Air Quality Index ( AQI) is a standardized indicator of the Air Quality in a given location Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere. The haloalkanes (also known as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides) are a group of Chemical compounds consisting of Alkanes such as Methane Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct Irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky Indoor Air Quality (IAQ deals with the content of interior air that could affect health and comfort of building occupants Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related observations a slow steady decline of about 4 percent per decade in the total amount of Ozone in Earth's Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas Smog is a kind of Air pollution; the word "smog" is a Portmanteau of Smoke and Fog. Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities Eutrophication is an increase in chemical Nutrients -- typically compounds containing Nitrogen or Phosphorus -- in an Ecosystem, and may occur For other uses of the term "hypoxia" see Hypoxia. Hypoxia or oxygen depletion is a phenomenon that occurs in aquatic environments Marine pollution is the harmful effect caused by the entry into the ocean of chemicals particles, or Plastic debris. For the fictional character see Oil Slick (Transformers. An oil spill is the release of a Liquid Petroleum Hydrocarbon into Ship pollution is the pollution of air and Water by Shipping. Surface runoff is a term used to describe when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess Water, from Rain, Snowmelt, or other sources flows Thermal pollution is a Temperature change in natural bodies of water caused by human influence Distinguish from Wastwater (a lake in the Lake District in northwest England Waterborne diseases are caused by Pathogenic Microorganisms which are directly transmitted when contaminated Drinking water is consumed Water quality is the physical chemical and biological characteristics of Water in relationship to a set of standards Water stagnation occurs when Water stops flowing Stagnant water can be a major Environmental hazard. Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses Microorganisms Fungi, green plants or their Enzymes to return the natural environment altered A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Radioactive contamination is the uncontrolled distribution of radioactive material in a given environment Actinides in the environment refer to the sources environmental behaviour and effects of Actinides in the environment. Environmental Radioactivity is the study of radioactive materials in the Human environment. Fission products are the atomic fragments left after a large nucleus fissions. Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a Nuclear explosion, so named because it "falls out" of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion Plutonium in the environment is an article which is part of the Actinides in the environment series Radiation poisoning, also called " radiation sickness " or a " creeping dose " is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to This is a subpage of Environmental radioactivity. Radium Radium in quack medicine See the story of Eben Byers for details of one very nasty case Uranium in the environment, this page is about the Science of Uranium in the environment and in animals (including humans Introduced species|Weed Invasive species is a phrase with several definitions Light pollution, also known as photopollution or luminous pollution, is excess or obtrusive Light created mainly by Humans Among other effects Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human- or machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life Radio spectrum pollution is the straying of waves in the radio and Electromagnetic spectrums outside their allocations that cause problems for some activities Visual pollution is the term given to unattractive or unnatural (human-made visual elements of a vista a Landscape, or any other thing that a person might not want to For other similarly-named agreements see Montreal Convention (disambiguation. Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes, opened for signature on The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing Greenhouse gases in an effort The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, often abbreviated as Air Pollution or CLRTAP, is intended to protect the human environment against Air This is a list of environmental organizations. See also Environmental organization Intergovernmental organizations International organizations The Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra) is the United Kingdom government department responsible for environmental protection The Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW is a worldwide system established by the World Meteorological Organization a United Nations agency to monitor trends in the Greenpeace, originally known as the Greenpeace Foundation, was founded in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada in 1972 The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS are standards established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency that apply for outdoor Air Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences Calcium carbonate is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula Ca[[Carbon C]] O 3 These use the calcite or aragonite polymorphs of calcium carbonate to construct cell coverings or skeletons. Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of Calcium carbonate ( Ca[[carbon C]] O 3 Aragonite is a Carbonate mineral, one of the two common naturally occurring polymorphs of Calcium carbonate, Ca[[carbon C]] O 3 Polymorphism in Materials science is the ability of a solid material to exist in more than one form or Crystal structure The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called In Biology, the skeleton is a strong and often a rigid framework that supports the body of an animal holding it upright and giving it shape and strength (Also skeletal Calcifiers span the food chain from autotrophs to heterotrophs and include organisms such as coccolithophores, corals, foraminifera, echinoderms, crustaceans and molluscs. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. An autotroph (from the Greek autos = self and trophe = nutrition is an Organism that produces complex Organic compounds from simple A heterotrophs, or chemoorganotrophy ( Greek heterone = (another and trophe = nutrition is an Organism that requires Coccolithophores (also called coccolithophorids) are single-celled Algae, Protists and Phytoplankton belonging to the Division Corals are Marine organisms from the class Anthozoa and exist as small Sea anemone –like Polyps typically in colonies of many The Foraminifera, ("Hole Bearers" or forams for short are a large group of Amoeboid Protists with reticulating Pseudopods fine Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata) are a phylum of marine Animals (including Sea stars) Structure of crustaceans As Arthropods crustaceans have a stiff Exoskeleton, which must be shed to allow the animal to grow ( Ecdysis or molting Molluscs are animals belonging to the phylum Mollusca. There are around 250000 extant Species within the phylum with an estimated 70000

Under normal conditions, calcite and aragonite are stable in surface waters since the carbonate ion is at supersaturating concentrations. The term supersaturation refers to a Solution that contains more of the dissolved material than could be dissolved by the Solvent under normal circumstances However, as ocean pH falls, so does the concentration of this ion, and when carbonate becomes under-saturated, structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution. Research has already found that corals^[7], coccolithophore algae^{[8][9][10][11]}, coralline algae^[12], foraminifera^[13], shellfish^[14] and pteropods^[1] experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated CO₂. Shellfish is a Culinary and Fisheries term for those aquatic Invertebrate animals that are used as Food: various species of molluscs Sea butterflies, also known as Thecosomata or flapping Snails, are a Taxonomic suborder of Pelagic swimming sea snails The Royal Society of London published a comprehensive overview of ocean acidification, and its potential consequences, in June 2005^[5]. The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660

However, some studies have found different response to ocean acidification, with coccolithophore calcification and photosynthesis both increasing under elevated atmospheric pCO₂^[15][16][17], an equal decline in primary production and calcification in response to elevated CO₂^[18] or the direction of the response varying between species^[19]. Recent work examining a sediment core from the North Atlantic found that while the species composition of coccolithophorids has remained unchanged for the industrial period 1780 to 2004, the calcification of coccoliths has increased by up to 40% during the same time^[17]. Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern Sediments such as sand, mud (silt and clay and understanding the processes that deposit them The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the

While the full ecological consequences of these changes in calcification are still uncertain, it appears likely that many calcifying species will be adversely affected. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of There is also a suggestion that a decline in the coccolithophores may have secondary effects on climate change, by decreasing the earth's albedo via their effects on oceanic cloud cover^[20]. The albedo of an object is the extent to which it diffusely reflects light from the sun The CLAW hypothesis proposes a feedback loop that operates between Ocean Ecosystems and the Earth 's Climate. Aside from calcification, organisms may suffer other adverse effects, either directly as reproductive or physiological effects (e. g. CO₂-induced acidification of body fluids, known as hypercapnia), or indirectly through negative impacts on food resources^[5]. Hypercapnia or hypercapnea (from the Greek hyper = "above" and kapnos = " Smoke " also known as hypercarbia is However, as with calcification, as yet there is not a full understanding of these processes in marine organisms or ecosystems. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (

Leaving aside direct biological effects, it is expected that ocean acidification in the future will lead to a significant decrease in the burial of carbonate sediments for several centuries, and even the dissolution of existing carbonate sediments^[21]. This will cause an elevation of ocean alkalinity, leading to the enhancement of the ocean as a reservoir for CO₂ with moderate (and potentially beneficial) implications for climate change as more CO₂ leaves the atmosphere for the ocean^[22]. Alkalinity or AT is a measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the Equivalence point of carbonate or bicarbonate

Gallery

Sea surface "present day" (1990s) anthropogenic CO2

Vertical inventory of "present day" (1990s) anthropogenic CO2

Change in surface CO32- ion from the 1700s to the 1990s

See also

• Biological pump
• Carbon dioxide sinks
• Continental shelf pump
• Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
• Seawater pH
• Solubility pump

References

Further reading

• Cicerone, R. ; J. Orr, P. Brewer et al. (2004). "The Ocean in a High CO₂ World". EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union 85 (37): 351–353. doi:10.1029/2004EO370007. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0096-3941. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  

• Doney, S. C. (2006). "The Dangers of Ocean Acidification". Scientific American 294: 58–65. ISSN 0036-8733. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  , (Article preview only).

• Feely, R. A. ; Sabine, Christopher L. ; Lee, Kitack; Berelson, Will; Kleypas, Joanie; Fabry, Victoria J. ; Millero, Frank J. (2004). "Impact of Anthropogenic CO₂ on the CaCO₃ System in the Oceans" (abstract). Science 305 (5682): 362–366. doi:10.1126/science.1097329. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0036-8075. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  

• Henderson, Caspar. "Ocean acidification: the other CO2 problem", NewScientist. com news service, 2006-08-05. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.  

• Jacobson, M. Z. (2005). "Studying ocean acidification with conservative, stable numerical schemes for nonequilibrium air-ocean exchange and ocean equilibrium chemistry". Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres 110: D07302. doi:10.1029/2004JD005220. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0148-0227. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  

• Kleypas, J. A. , R. A. Feely, V. J. Fabry, C. Langdon, C. L. Sabine, and L. L. Robbins. (2006). Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs and Other Marine Calcifiers: A Guide for Further Research, report of a workshop held 18-20 April 2005, St. Petersburg, FL, sponsored by NSF, NOAA and the U. S. Geological Survey, 88pp.

• Kolbert, E. (2006). The Darkening Sea: Carbon emissions and the ocean. The New Yorker magazine. 20 November 2006.

• Sabine, C. L. ; Feely, Richard A. ; Gruber, Nicolas; Key, Robert M. ; Lee, Kitack; Bullister, John L. et al. (2004). "The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic CO₂" (abstract). Science 305 (5682): 367–371. doi:10.1126/science.1097403. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0036-8075. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  

• Stone, R. (2007). "A World Without Corals?". Science 316 (5825): 678–681. doi:10.1126/science.316.5825.678. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0036-8075. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  

External links

• Announcement for Royal Society of London report
• Orr et al. (2005) supplementary material
• The Acid Ocean – the Other Problem with CO₂ Emission, David Archer, a RealClimate discussion
• Task Force on Ocean Acidification in the Pacific, including recent presentations on ocean acidification, Pacific Science Association
• "Coral Bones" - an investigation into the future of coral reefs
• "Growing Acidity of Oceans May Kill Corals", Washington Post
• Ocean Acidification - a multimedia, interactive site from The World Ocean Observatory
• Dropping pH in the Oceans Causing a Rising Tide of Alarm by Tundi Agardy, The World Ocean Observatory
• Regularly-updated "blog" of ocean acidification publications and news
• The Ocean Acidification Network: An Information Network for the International Scientific Community
• CO2-04: Effect of Elevated CO2 on Phytoplankton project of Australia's Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre
• "Scientists Grapple with Ocean Acidification", ABC News
• A Sea Change, an upcoming documentary that explores the science and the socio-economic impacts of ocean acidification

Carbonate system calculators

The following packages calculate the state of the carbonate system in seawater (including pH):

• CO2SYS, a stand-alone executable (also available in a version for Microsoft Excel/VBA)
• seacarb, a R package for Windows, Mac OS X and Linux (also available here)
• CSYS, a Matlab script