Occupation of Istanbul
Part of Turkish War of Independence
USS Noma (SP-131) off the Dolmabahçe Palace (1920)
Date November 13, 1918 – September 23, 1923 Location Istanbul district occupied by Great Britain, followed by the Triple Entente Result Territorial changes Britain officially dismantled the Ottoman Empire parliament on March 16, 1920 and restored it on 9 September 1922 to the Republic of Turkey
Belligerents
United Kingdom France Italy	Turkish Revolutionaries
Commanders
Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe Louis Franchet d'Esperey	Selahattin Adil Pasha¹
1: Commander during restoration

The Occupation of Istanbul (November 13, 1918 – September 23, 1923) is the occupation of the capital of the Ottoman Empire, following the Armistice of Mudros by the Triple Entente of World War I. The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı May 19, 1919 October 29, 1923) refers to the political and military resistance developed The Dolmabahçe Palace (Dolmabahçe Sarayı in Istanbul, Turkey, located at the European side of the Bosphorus, served as the main administrative Events 1002 - English king Ethelred orders the killing of all Danes in England, known today as the St Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Belligerent military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands The Triple Entente (" entente " — French for "agreement" was the name given to the loose alignment of the United Kingdom, the The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Events 1000 - Battle of Svolder, Viking Age. 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Turkish revolutionaries ( Turkish: Kuvâyi Milliye or Kuvva-i Milliye) were Patriots of the Turkish national movement who rebelled against Admiral of the Fleet Sir Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe GCB, GCMG, CVO (1865&ndash1937 sometimes known as Sir Somerset Calthorpe, was a Louis Félix Marie François Franchet d'Espérey ( 25 May 1856 &ndash 8 July 1942) was a French general during the First Events 1002 - English king Ethelred orders the killing of all Danes in England, known today as the St Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Armistice of Moudros ( 30 October 1918) ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies The Triple Entente (" entente " — French for "agreement" was the name given to the loose alignment of the United Kingdom, the World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The first British troops entered the city on November 13, 1918 and this was followed by a French brigade. Events 1002 - English king Ethelred orders the killing of all Danes in England, known today as the St Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The occupation had two stages: the de facto stage from November 13, 1918 to March 20, 1920, and the de jure stage from March 20, 1920 to the days following the Treaty of Lausanne. Events 1002 - English king Ethelred orders the killing of all Danes in England, known today as the St Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden. Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden. Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar The Treaty of Lausanne ( July 24, 1923) was a Peace treaty signed in Lausanne that settled the Anatolian part of the Partitioning The last Allied troops departed from the city on September 23, 1923. Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The first Turkish troops entered the city on October 6, 1923. Turkish revolutionaries ( Turkish: Kuvâyi Milliye or Kuvva-i Milliye) were Patriots of the Turkish national movement who rebelled against Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Allied troops occupied based on the sections of Istanbul and set up an Allied military administration beginning early in December 1918. The occupation along with the occupation of İzmir, mobilized the establishment of the Turkish national movement and the Turkish War of Independence^[1]. The Occupation of İzmir was the rule in the İzmir district by Greek forces under the High Commissioner Aristidis Stergiadis, aligned with the Allied " The establishment of the Turkish national movement " explains the creation of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı May 19, 1919 October 29, 1923) refers to the political and military resistance developed

Background

In 1920, Istanbul boasted an estimate of 1 million to 1,200,000 inhabitants; 560,434 were Muslim Millet; 384,689 Phanariot Greeks; 118,000 Armenian Millet and 44, 795 Jewish millet. Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a Confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a Confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a Confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a Confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. ^[2]

Legality of the occupation

The Armistice of Mudros, which defined the end of World War One for the Ottoman Empire, mentions the occupation of Bosphorous fort and Dardanelles fort. The Armistice of Moudros ( 30 October 1918) ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies On October 30, 1918, Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe, the British signatory (British enforcer during the Turkish War of Independence) stated the Triple Entente's position that they had no intention to dismantle the government or place it under military occupation by "occupying Istanbul"^[3]. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Admiral of the Fleet Sir Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe GCB, GCMG, CVO (1865&ndash1937 sometimes known as Sir Somerset Calthorpe, was a The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı May 19, 1919 October 29, 1923) refers to the political and military resistance developed Belligerent military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army. This verbal promise and lack of mention of the occupation of Istanbul in the armistice did not change the realities for the Ottoman Empire. Admiral Arthur G. Calthorpe puts the British position as "No kind of favour whatsoever to any Turk and to hold out no hope for them"^[4] The Ottoman side returned to the capital with a personal letter from Calthorpe, intended only for the eyes of Rauf Bey, the Grand Vizier, and the Sultan, in which he promised on behalf of the British government that only British and French troops would be used in the occupation of the Straits fortifications. Huseyin Rauf Orbay (1881&ndash 16 July 1964) was a Turkish Sailor and Statesman, born in Istanbul. Grand Vizier, in Turkish Sadr-ı Azam ( Sadrazam) or Serdar-ı Ekrem (in Ottoman Turkish: صدر اعظم or وزیر اعظم Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings A small number of Ottoman troops could be allowed to stay on in the occupied areas as a symbol of sovereignty. ^[5]

The Sultan's position

According to Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet, the British ambassador to Constantinople (1920–1924), the Sultan never perceived the significance of the military and political events following the Armistice of Mudros, failing to realise that the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a reflection of his captivity. Sir Horace George Montagu Rumbold 9th Baronet, GCB, GCMG, KCVO, PC (1920 ( 5 February 1869 - 24 May 1941 Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Mehmed VI ( Turkish: Mehmed Vahideddin or Mehmet Vahdettin) ( January 14 1861 May 16 1926) was the 36th and The Armistice of Moudros ( 30 October 1918) ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish For the Sultan, there was a group of real Turks who were loyal and working to save the Empire at any cost. Most probably based on their individual activities some of the Turkish revolutionaries fell in/out of the Sultan's definition of a Turk. Turkish revolutionaries ( Turkish: Kuvâyi Milliye or Kuvva-i Milliye) were Patriots of the Turkish national movement who rebelled against

Also according to Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet, the Sultan had never grasped or accepted the form of Kemalist national perspective which was represented by the Turkish national movement. Sir Horace George Montagu Rumbold 9th Baronet, GCB, GCMG, KCVO, PC (1920 ( 5 February 1869 - 24 May 1941 Kemalist Ideology " Kemalism " (Kemalist İdeoloji Kemalizm Atatürkçülük Atatürkçü Düşünce or also known as the " Six Arrows " (Altı The Turkish National Movement encompasses the political and military activities of the Turkish revolutionaries which resulted with the creation and shaping of the Republic For him, it was the Sultan and his close circle who formed and represented the Turks. According to Rumbold; the Sultan claimed that Mustafa Kemal was a Macedonian revolutionary of an unverified origins, Bekir Sami was a Circassian and that other individual revolutionaries were Turkish-speaking Albanians, Circassians etc. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (19 May 1881 &ndash 10 November 1938 was an army officer revolutionary Statesman } Albanians (Shqiptarët are an Ethnic group and a Nation, in the sense of sharing a common Albanian culture speaking the Albanian language

Another important point was on how the Sultan perceived the Turkish national movement. The Turkish National Movement encompasses the political and military activities of the Turkish revolutionaries which resulted with the creation and shaping of the Republic According to the British ambassador, the Sultan thought that resistance against the Allies with support found in the Bolsheviks would bring Turkey the same fate as Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, which had become the Azerbaijan SSR. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic ( ADR; Azərbaycan Xalq Cümhuriyyəti was the first Democratic and Secular Republic in the Muslim world This article is about the former Soviet republic for other similar uses see Azerbaijan (disambiguation. The ideology behind the Sultan's perception of the events had taken a very different path. In the following years, Enver Pasha went to Moscow and later to Central Asia, where his ultimate intention was to regain power (against the Allies) by using the Bolsheviks through the organization of the Union of Islamic Revolutionary Societies and an affiliated Party of People's Councils. İsmail Enver ( Ottoman Turkish: اسماعيل انور ( November 22, 1881 in Constantinople - August 4 Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Turkish national movement did not give way to the Bolsheviks but instead made peace with the Allies. Enver Pasha was killed fighting the Red Army. The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya Atatürk's Reforms abolished the Caliphate; the Khilafat Movement did not save the Ottoman Caliph but became a nationalistic movement that improved Hindu-Muslim relations. Atatürk's Reforms ( Turkish: Atatürk Devrimleri or Atatürk İnkılapları) were a series of significant political legal cultural social and economic A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history The Khilafat movement (1919-1924 was a political campaign launched mainly by Muslims in South Asia to influence the British government and to protect the The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah

Military administration

British occupation forces at the port of Karaköy, in front of the coastal tram line. Karaköy, the modern name for the ancient Galata, is a commercial neighborhood in the Beyoğlu district of Istanbul, Turkey, located at the northern The art nouveau building in the background is the present-day Turkish State Maritime Lines (Türkiye Denizcilik İşletmeleri) headquarters.

The Allies did not wait for a peace treaty for claiming the Ottoman territory. Just 13 days after the Armistice of Mudros, a French brigade entered İstanbul on November 12, 1918. The Armistice of Moudros ( 30 October 1918) ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies Events 764 - Tibetan troops occupy Chang'an, the capital of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, for fifteen days Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The first British Troops entered the city on November 13, 1918. Events 1002 - English king Ethelred orders the killing of all Danes in England, known today as the St Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Early in December 1918, Allied troops occupied sections of Istanbul and set up an Allied military administration.

On February 8, 1919, the French general Franchet d' Espèrey entered the city on a white horse, emulating Mehmed the Conqueror's entrance in 1453 after the Fall of Constantinople, signifying that Ottoman sovereignty over the imperial city was over. Events 421 - Constantius III becomes co- Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Louis Félix Marie François Franchet d'Espérey ( 25 May 1856 &ndash 8 July 1942) was a French general during the First The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar On November 13, 1919, the Allied fleet sailed into the Bosphorus. Events 1002 - English king Ethelred orders the killing of all Danes in England, known today as the St Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common

Somerset Calthorpe, December 1918 – August 1919

See also: Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe

After the armistice, High Commissioner Admiral Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe was assigned as the military adviser to Istanbul. Admiral of the Fleet Sir Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe GCB, GCMG, CVO (1865&ndash1937 sometimes known as Sir Somerset Calthorpe, was a Admiral of the Fleet Sir Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe GCB, GCMG, CVO (1865&ndash1937 sometimes known as Sir Somerset Calthorpe, was a His first task was to arrest between 160 and 200 persons from the Government of Tevfik Pasha on January 1919 ^[6] Among this group, he send thirty to Malta (Malta exiles). Ahmed Tevfik Pasha (11 February 1845 - 8 October 1936 was the last Ottoman Grand vizier, who had also held office during two different periods before his last Malta exiles (Malta sürgünleri (between March 1919 October 1920 is the term for politicians high ranking soldiers (mainly administrators and intellectuals of the Ottoman Empire

Establishing authority

Further information: Malta exiles

Calthorpe included only Turkish members of the Government of Tevfik Pasha and the military/political personalities. Malta exiles (Malta sürgünleri (between March 1919 October 1920 is the term for politicians high ranking soldiers (mainly administrators and intellectuals of the Ottoman Empire He wanted to send a message that a military occupation was in effect and failure to comply would end with harsh punishment. Belligerent military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army. His position was not shared with other partners. French Government's response on these presumed guilty people was "distinction to disadvantage of Muslim-Turks while Bulgarian, Austrian and German offenders were as yet neither arrested nor molested"^[7]. However, the government and the Sultan understood the message. In February 1919, allies were informed that the Ottoman Empire was in compliance with its full apparatus to the occupation forces. Any source of conflict (including Armenian questions) would be investigated by a commission which neutral Governments can attach two legal superintendents^[8]. The term " Armenian Question " as used in European history, became common place among diplomatic circles and in the popular press after the Congress of Berlin Calthorpe's correspondence to Foreign Office was "The action undertaken for the arrests was very satisfactory, and has, I think, intimidated the Committee of Union and Progress of Constantinople"^[9]. The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP (İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti initially a secret society established as the "Committee of Ottoman Union" (İttihad-ı Osmanî Cemiyeti

Conflict resolution

Main article: Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919-20

Istanbul, May 23, 1919: Protests against the occupation

The message of Calthorpe fully noted by the Sultan. Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919-1920 were Courts-martial of the Ottoman Empire after the Armistice of Mudros during the aftermath the World Events 1430 - Siege of Compiègne: Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians while leading an army to relieve Compiègne Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common There was an eastern tradition of presenting gifts to the authority during the serious conflicts; sometimes "falling of heads". There was no higher goal than preserving the integrity of the Ottoman Institution. If the anger of Calthorpe could be calmed down by the foisting the blame on a few members of the Committee of Union and Progress, which Ottoman Empire could thereby receive more lenient treatment at the Paris peace conference^[10]; that could be achieved. The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP (İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti initially a secret society established as the "Committee of Ottoman Union" (İttihad-ı Osmanî Cemiyeti The trials began in Istanbul on April 28, 1919. Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The prosecution come-up with "forty-two authenticated documents substantiating the charges therein, many bearing dates, identification of senders of the cipher telegrams and letters, and names of recipients. " ^[11] On July 22, the court-martial found several defendants guilty of subverting constitutionalism by force and found them responsible for massacres^[12]. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Godfrey of Bouillon is elected the first Defender of the Holy Sepulchre of The Kingdom of During its whole existence from April 28, 1919 to March 29, 1920, Ottoman trials did performed very poorly with increasing inefficiency; as presumed guilty people were already intended as sacrifice to save the Empire. Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar However, as an occupation authority, the historical rightfulness of the allies were on the table. Calthorpe wrote to London; "proving to be a farce and injurious to our own prestige and to that of the Turkish government. " ^[13]. The Allies considered Ottoman trials as a travesty of justice, which Ottoman justice had to be replaced with the Western justice by moving the trials to Malta as "International" trials. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings The "International" trials declined to use any evidence developed by the Ottoman tribunals. When the International trials were staged, Calthorpe was replaced by John de Robeck. John de Robeck regarding the trials; "that its findings cannot be held of any account at all. Admiral of the Fleet Sir John Michael de Robeck 1st Baronet GCB, GCMG, GCVO ( 10 June 1862 &ndash 20 January ^[14]" All of the Malta exiles were released. Malta exiles (Malta sürgünleri (between March 1919 October 1920 is the term for politicians high ranking soldiers (mainly administrators and intellectuals of the Ottoman Empire

A new movement

Further information: Turkish national movement

Calthorpe was alarmed when he learned that the winner of Gallipoli had become the inspector general for Anatolia and Mustafa Kemal's behaviors during this period did nothing to improve matters. The Turkish National Movement encompasses the political and military activities of the Turkish revolutionaries which resulted with the creation and shaping of the Republic Calthorpe urged that Kemal be recalled. Thanks to friends and sympathizers of Mustafa Kemal's in government circles, a 'compromise' was developed whereby the power of the inspector general was curbed, at least on paper. "Inspector General" became a title that had no power to command. On June 23, 1919, Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe began to put the pieces on Kemal and his role in the establishment of the Turkish national movement. Events 1180 - First Battle of Uji, starting the Genpei War in Japan 1305 - The Flemish Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common " The establishment of the Turkish national movement " explains the creation of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. He sent a report about Mustafa Kemal to the Foreign Office. His remarks were downplayed by George Kidson of the Eastern Department. Captain Hurst (British army) in Samsun warned Cathrope one more time about the Turkish national movement, but his units were replaced with a Brigade of Gurkhas. Samsun ( Greek: Σαμψούντα, Samsounta, Amisos) is a city in northern Turkey, on the coast of the Black The Brigade of Gurkhas is the collective term for British Army units that are composed of Nepalese soldiers

Arthur Gough-Calthorpe was assigned to another position on August 5, 1919 and left Istanbul. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common

John de Robeck, August 1919 – 1922

See also: John de Robeck

From August 1919 to 1922 John de Robeck replaced Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe with the title of "Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean, and High Commissioner, at Constantinople". Admiral of the Fleet Sir John Michael de Robeck 1st Baronet GCB, GCMG, GCVO ( 10 June 1862 &ndash 20 January Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Admiral of the Fleet Sir John Michael de Robeck 1st Baronet GCB, GCMG, GCVO ( 10 June 1862 &ndash 20 January He was responsible for activities regarding Russia and Turkey (Ottoman Empire-Turkish national movement).

John de Robeck was very worried by the defiant mood of the Ottoman parliament. When 1920 arrived, he was concerned by reports that substantial stocks of arms were reaching Turkish revolutionaries, some from French and Italian sources. Turkish revolutionaries ( Turkish: Kuvâyi Milliye or Kuvva-i Milliye) were Patriots of the Turkish national movement who rebelled against In one of his letters to London, he asked: "Against whom would these sources be employed?"

In London, the Conference of London (February 1920) took place; it featured discussions about settling the treaty terms to be offered in San Remo. In the Conference of London, ( 12 February - 24 February 1920) following World War I, leaders of Britain France and Italy met to discuss the John de Robeck reminded participants that Anatolia was moving into a resistance stage. There were arguments of "National out" (Misak-ı Milli) were circulating and if these would be solidified that would take a longer time and more resources to handle the case (partitioning of the Ottoman Empire). Misak-ı Millî ( English: National Oath or National Pact) is the set of six important decisions made by the last term of the Ottoman Parliament The Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that occurred after World War I. He tried to persuade the leaders to take quick action and control the Sultan and pressure the rebels (from both directions). This request posted awkward problems at the highest level: promises for national sovereignty were on the table and United states was fast withdrawing into isolation.

Shift from de facto to de jure

Parliament acting by itself, January 1920

See also: Khilafat Movement and Conference of London (February 1920)

The newly established Ottoman parliament did not recognized that there was a de facto occupation. The Khilafat movement (1919-1924 was a political campaign launched mainly by Muslims in South Asia to influence the British government and to protect the In the Conference of London, ( 12 February - 24 February 1920) following World War I, leaders of Britain France and Italy met to discuss the Ottoman parliament developed a National Pact (Misak-ı Milli). They adapted six principles; which called for self-determination, the security of Constantinople, and the opening of the Straits, also the abolishment of the capitulations. While in Istanbul, self-determination and protection of the Ottoman Empire was voiced, the Khilafat Movement in India try to influence the British government to protect the caliphate of the Ottoman empire and although it was mainly a Muslim religious movement, the Khilafat struggle was becaming a part of the wider Indian independence movement. The Khilafat movement (1919-1924 was a political campaign launched mainly by Muslims in South Asia to influence the British government and to protect the India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Her Majesty's Government, or when the monarch is male His Majesty's Government, is the title used by the Government of the United Kingdom, based at A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant Both these two movements (Misak-ı Milli and Khilafat Movement) on the ideological level share a lot of notions, which during the Conference of London (February 1920) allies concentrated on these issues. In the Conference of London, ( 12 February - 24 February 1920) following World War I, leaders of Britain France and Italy met to discuss the

The Ottoman Empire did lose in World War I, but Misak-ı Milli in the local Khilafat Movement in a global sense was in conflict with the Allies' plans.

Solidification of the partitioning, February 1920

See also: Conference of London (February 1920) and San Remo conference

The plans for partitioning of the Ottoman Empire needed to be solidified. In the Conference of London, ( 12 February - 24 February 1920) following World War I, leaders of Britain France and Italy met to discuss the The San Remo Conference was an international meeting of the post- The Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that occurred after World War I. At Conference of London on March 4, 1920, the Triple Entente decided to implement its previous (secret) agreements and form what will be the Treaty of Sèvres. Events 51 - Nero, later to become Roman Emperor, is given the title Princeps iuventutis (head of the youth Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar The Treaty of Sèvres ( 10 August 1920) was the Peace treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Allies at the end of World War In doing so, all forms of resistance originating from Ottoman Empire (rebellions, Sultan, etc) had to be dismantled. The Allies' military forces in Istanbul ordered to take the necessary actions; also political side increased the efforts to put the Treaty of Sèvres] in writing.

On the political side, negotiations for Treaty of Sèvres presumed a Greek (Christian Administration), a French-Armenian (Christian Administration), Italian occupation region (Christian Administration) and Wilsonain Armenia (Christian Administration) over what was Ottoman Empire (Muslim Administration). Muslim citizens of the Ottoman Empire perceived this plan as losing their sovereignty. British intelligence registered the Turkish national movement as a movement of the Muslim citizens of Anatolia. The Muslim unrest all around Anatolia brought two arguments to the British government regarding the new establishments: the Muslim administration (Ottoman Empire) was not safe for Christians; the Treaty of Sèvres was the only way that Christians could be safe. Enforcing the Treaty of Sèvres could not happen without repressing Mustafa Kemal's (Turkish Revolutionaries) national movement. Turkish revolutionaries ( Turkish: Kuvâyi Milliye or Kuvva-i Milliye) were Patriots of the Turkish national movement who rebelled against

On the military side the British claimed that if the Allies could not control Anatolia at that time, they could at least control Istanbul. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Plan was step by step beginning from Istanbul dismantle every organization and slowly move deep into the Anatolia. That meant facing with what will be called as the Turkish War of Independence. The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı May 19, 1919 October 29, 1923) refers to the political and military resistance developed British foreign department was asked to devise a plan to ease this path. British foreign department developed the same plan that they used during the Arab revolt. The Arab Revolt (1916&ndash1918 ( الثورة العربية Al-Thawra al-`Arabīya) was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn Ali with the aim of securing This policy of breaking down authority by separating the Sultan from his government, and working different millets against each other, such as the Christian millet against the Muslim millet, was the best solution if minimal British force was to be used. Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a Confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. The details of these covert operations in Anatolia are covered under Turkish war of independence. The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı May 19, 1919 October 29, 1923) refers to the political and military resistance developed

Dissolution of the parliament, March 1920

See also: Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)

The Telegram House was occupied on March 14. The Second Constitutional Era (ايکنجى مشروطيت دورى İkinci Meşrûtiyyet Devri) of the Ottoman Empire began shortly after Sultan Abdülhamid Events 1489 - The Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to Venice. On the night of March 15 British troops began to occupy the key buildings and arrest Turkish nationalists. Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, It was a very messy operation. The 10th division and military music school resisted the arrest. At least 10 students died under the gunfire of the British Indian army. The total death toll is unknown. On March 18 the Ottoman parliament met. Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor The parliament sent a protest to allies; "it was unacceptable to arrest five of its members" declared the parliament. This was end of the Ottoman Political system. British move on the parliament left Sultan as sole controller of the Empire. Without parliament Sultan was alone with the British. Beginning with March 18, the Sultan become the puppet of the British foreign department. Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor "There would be no one left to blame for what will be coming soon", said the Sultan. Sultan declared his own version of the declaration of dissolution on April 11, after approximately 150 politicians were exiled to Malta. Events 491 - Flavius Anastasius becomes Byzantine Emperor, with the name of Anastasius I.

The dissolution of the parliament followed by the raid and closing of the journal Yeni Gün (New Day). Yeni Gün was owned by Yunus Nadi Abalıoğlu, an influential journalist, and was the main media organ publishing the news about the resistance (Turkish War of Independence) to the outside world. Yunus Nadi Abalıoğlu (1879-1945 was a renowned Turkish Journalist and founder of the newspaper Cumhuriyet.

Official declaration, March 16, 1920

On March 16, 1920, third day of hostilities the allied forces declared the occupation:

In an effort to prevent the spread of Turkish nationalism, General Sir George Milne and an Allied force occupied Constantinople. Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar

• The Allies gave assurances that they had no intention of taking over the government.
• The Allies sought to keep the Straits open and to protect the Armenians.
• The Allies persuaded the Ottoman government to denounce the Turkish nationalists and sent many into exile.
• The Sultan had established a Damad Ferid government. ^[15]

Forcing the peace treaty

The June was determined as a target to put the peace treaty (Treaty of Sèvres) on the signature. The Treaty of Sèvres ( 10 August 1920) was the Peace treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Allies at the end of World War From March to June, the existence of all resistance was planned to be curbed down.

Early pressure on insurgency, April – June 1920

British claimed the insurgency of the Turkish revolutionaries should be handled by the forces within the Anatolia through British training and material support. Turkish revolutionaries ( Turkish: Kuvâyi Milliye or Kuvva-i Milliye) were Patriots of the Turkish national movement who rebelled against In response to this request, the Istanbul government, government without parliament, appointed its own extraordinary Anatolian general inspector Süleyman Şefik Pasha and a new Security Army, Kuva-i Inzibatiye, to enforce its rule and fight the nationalists with British support. Süleyman Şefik Pasha was the commander of Kuvâ-i İnzibâtiyye ( Ottoman Turkish: قوا انضباطيّه literally "Forces The Kuvâ-i İnzibâtiyye ( Ottoman Turkish: قوا انضباطيّه literally "Forces of Order" Turkish: Hilafet Ordusu, or "Caliphate British also supported detachment gorilla groups around the Anatolia (the term used for them was independent army), led by Circassians refugees driven into Anatolia by the Russians. Most famous, Circassian, Ahmet Anzavur, a conservative movement and force with money and arms provided by the Istanbul government and the British. Anzavur Ahmet (d1921 Circassian guerilla leader in Anatolia who coordinated what is known as Revolt of Ahmet Anzavur during Turkish War of Independence Ahmet Anzavur even led the Kuva-i Inzibatiye, or more properly some battalions, and his bands began to ravage the countryside. The Kuvâ-i İnzibâtiyye ( Ottoman Turkish: قوا انضباطيّه literally "Forces of Order" Turkish: Hilafet Ordusu, or "Caliphate

The details of these military units against the Turkish National movement is explained under Turkish War of Independence. The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı May 19, 1919 October 29, 1923) refers to the political and military resistance developed These forces were unsuccessful against the national movement, such that the clash outside İzmit brought serious consequences. The British forces opened fire on the nationalists and bombed them from the air. This bombing forced a retreat but there was a panic in Istanbul. The British commander, General George Milne, asked for reinforcements. Field Marshal George Francis Milne 1st Baron Milne GCB, GCMG, DSO ( 5 November, 1866 &ndash 23 March, This initiated a chain reaction to determine how much power was required to handle the national movement. Marshal Ferdinand Foch signed the final report with summation to twenty seven divisions. Ferdinand Foch OM GCB (2 October 1851 – 20 March 1929 was a French soldier military theorist and writer credited with possessing "the most original The British army did not have twenty-seven divisions and was not willing to channel these forces while they claimed that World War I had ended with their victory. A deployment of this size could have had political consequences that were beyond the British government's capacity to handle.

The British were quick to accept the fact that the nationalistic movement, which had hardened during World War I, could not be faced without the deployment of consistent and well-trained forces. On June 25 the forces originating from Kuva-i Inzibatiye were dismantled on the advice of the British, who said that there was no use for them. Events 524 - Battle of Vézeronce, the Franks defeat the Burgundians

Presentation of the treaty to the Sultan, June 1920

See also: Treaty of Sèvres

The treaty terms were presented to the Sultan in the middle of June. The Treaty of Sèvres ( 10 August 1920) was the Peace treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Allies at the end of World War The treaty was harsher than anyone expected. However, because of the military pressure placed on the insurgency from April to June 1920, the Allies did not expect that there would be any serious opposition.

End of the occupation

• October 11, 1922: Signing of the Armistice of Mudanya, end of the Turkish War of Independence. Events 1138 - A massive earthquake struck Aleppo, Syria. 1531 - Huldrych Zwingli is killed Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The Armistice of Mudanya was an agreement between Turkey, Italy, France and Britain, signed in the town of Mudanya, Turkey on The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı May 19, 1919 October 29, 1923) refers to the political and military resistance developed
• November 1, 1922: Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings
• November 17, 1922: Departure of the last Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI Vahideddin from Istanbul. Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Mehmed VI ( Turkish: Mehmed Vahideddin or Mehmet Vahdettin) ( January 14 1861 May 16 1926) was the 36th and
• July 24, 1923: Signing of the Treaty of Lausanne. Events 1132 - Battle of Nocera between Ranulf II of Alife and Roger II of Sicily. Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Treaty of Lausanne ( July 24, 1923) was a Peace treaty signed in Lausanne that settled the Anatolian part of the Partitioning
• August 23, 1923: Allied forces start evacuating Istanbul in the frame of the Treaty of Lausanne. Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Treaty of Lausanne ( July 24, 1923) was a Peace treaty signed in Lausanne that settled the Anatolian part of the Partitioning
• September 23, 1923: Last Allied troops depart from Istanbul. Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
• October 6, 1923: First Turkish troops enter Istanbul. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
• October 29, 1923: Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey, with Ankara as its capital city. Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Ankara is the capital of Turkey and the country's second largest city after İstanbul.

List of Allied High Commissioners

French:

• November 1918 – January 1919 — Louis Franchet d'Esperey
• January 30, 1919 – December 1920 — Albert Defrance
• 1921 — October 22, 1923 — Maurice César Joseph Pelle

Italy:

• November 1918 – January 1919 — Count Carlo Sforza
• September 1920 – October 22, 1923 — Marchese Eugenio Camillo Garroni

United States of America:

• November 1918, January 1919 — Gabriel Bie Ravndal

March 1919 – October 22, 1923 — Mark Lambert Bristol

References

Resources

• Nur Bilge CRISS, "Istanbul under Allied Occupation 1918–1923", 1999 Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 9004112596 (limited preview)