Napoléon III
Emperor of the French
Portrait by Franz Winterhalter
Reign	2 December 1852 – 4 September 1870
Full name	Charles Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte
Born	20 April 1808(1808-04-20)
Birthplace	Paris, France
Died	9 January 1873 (aged 64)
Place of death	Chislehurst
Buried	St Michael's Abbey, Farnborough
Predecessor	De Facto, Louis Eugène Cavaignac (as Head of State) De Jure, Louis Bonaparte
Successor	Empire abolished De Facto Louis Jules Trochu as Chairman of the Government of National Defense De Jure, Napoleon IV
Consort	María Eugenia Ignacia Agustina Guzman y Montijo
Issue	Napoleon Eugene, Prince Imperial
Royal House	Bonaparte
Father	Louis Bonaparte
Mother	Hortense de Beauharnais

Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 – 9 January 1873) was the first President of the French Republic and the only emperor of the Second French Empire. Franz Xaver Winterhalter (20 April 1805 &ndash 8 July 1873 was a German painter and lithographer, known for his portraits of royalty in the mid-nineteenth century Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Year 1852 ( MDCCCLII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Events 476 - Romulus Augustus, last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, is deposed when Odoacer proclaims himself Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1303 - The University of Rome La Sapienza is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII. Year 1808 ( MDCCCVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Events 475 - Byzantine Emperor Zeno is forced to flee his capital at Constantinople. Year 1873 ( MDCCCLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Chislehurst is a suburban settlement in south east London, England and part of the London Borough of Bromley. Saint Michael's Abbey is a Benedictine abbey in Farnborough Hampshire, England. Louis-Eugène Cavaignac (15 October 1802 - 28 October 1857 French general second son of Jean-Baptiste Cavaignac and brother of Éléonore Louis Godefroi Cavaignac Early life Louis was born Luigi Buonaparte in Ajaccio, Corsica. Louis Jules Trochu (12 March 1815 - 7 October 1896 was a French military leader and politician Le Gouvernement de la Défense Nationale, or The Government of National Defence, was the first Government of the Third Republic of France from September This article refers to the son of Napoleon III For the stepson of Napoleon I see Eugène de Beauharnais Biography At the outbreak of the Eugenie redirects here For other people called Eugenie see Eugenie (disambiguation Empress The last Empress of the French was born This article refers to the son of Napoleon III For the stepson of Napoleon I see Eugène de Beauharnais Biography At the outbreak of the Bonaparte is a French family name of Italian origin Originally Buonaparte, this family claims numerous influential descendents including Corsican Early life Louis was born Luigi Buonaparte in Ajaccio, Corsica. Hortense Eugénie Cécile Bonaparte ( Née de Beauharnais) Queen Consort of Holland ( 10 April 1783 - 5 October 1837 Events 1303 - The University of Rome La Sapienza is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII. Year 1808 ( MDCCCVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Events 475 - Byzantine Emperor Zeno is forced to flee his capital at Constantinople. Year 1873 ( MDCCCLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The President of the French Republic (Président de la République française colloquially referred to in English as the President of France, is France 's elected The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second He holds the unusual distinction of being both the first titular president and the last monarch of France.

Early life

Napoléon III was the son of Louis Bonaparte, the brother of Napoléon I, and Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter of Napoléon I's wife Josephine de Beauharnais by her first marriage. Early life Louis was born Luigi Buonaparte in Ajaccio, Corsica. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Hortense Eugénie Cécile Bonaparte ( Née de Beauharnais) Queen Consort of Holland ( 10 April 1783 - 5 October 1837 Joséphine de Beauharnais (born Marie Josèphe Rose de Tascher de la Pagerie June 23 1763 &ndash May 29 1814) was the first During Napoléon I's reign, Louis-Napoléon's parents had been made king and queen of a French puppet state, the Kingdom of Holland. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. A puppet state is a State that is nominally independent but in reality under the control of another power Not to be confused with the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Kingdom of Holland 1806 - 1810 (Koningrijk Holland Royaume After Napoléon I's final defeat and deposition in 1815 and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France, all members of the Bonaparte dynasty were forced into exile. Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. The child Louis-Napoléon was brought up in Switzerland (living with his mother in Arenenberg Castle in the canton of Thurgau) and Germany (receiving his education at the gymnasium school at Augsburg in Bavaria). Arenenberg is an estate with a small Chateau, Schloss Arenenberg, at the shore of Lake Constance in Thurgau, Switzerland Thurgau (German, anglicized as Thurgovia) is a northeast canton of Switzerland. A gymnasium (pronounced with ɡ- in several languages is a type of school providing Secondary education in some parts of Europe, comparable to English grammar Augsburg is an independent City in the south-west of Bavaria. As a young man he settled in Italy, where he and his elder brother Napoléon Louis espoused liberal politics and became involved with the Carbonari, a resistance organization fighting Austria's domination of Northern Italy. Napoleon Louis Bonaparte ( October 11 1804 - March 17, 1831) or' Louis II of Holland', was the middle son of Louis Bonaparte The Carbonari ("charcoal burners" were groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest This would later have an effect on his foreign policy. Foreign Policy is a bimonthly American Magazine founded in 1970 by Samuel P

The Four Napoleons (Collage, about 1858)

There remained in France, under both the Bourbon and then the Orleanist monarchy, a Bonapartist movement that wanted to restore a Bonaparte to the throne. In French political history Bonapartism has two meanings In a strict sense this term refers to people who According to the law of succession Napoléon I had made when he was Emperor, the claim passed first to his son, the Duke of Reichstadt, known by Bonapartists as Napoleon II (or as "the King of Rome", the title his father had given him before the collapse of the Empire), a sickly youth living under virtual imprisonment at the court of Vienna, then to his eldest brother Joseph Bonaparte, then to Louis Bonaparte and his sons. Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte King of Naples and Sicily, King of Spain (during a time) and the Indies (never de facto and never de iure (Joseph's elder brother Lucien Bonaparte and his descendants were passed over by the law of succession because Lucien had attracted the displeasure of Napoléon and opposed his making himself Emperor. Lucien Bonaparte Prince Français 1st Principe di Canino and 1st Principe di Musignano (born Luciano Buonaparte; ( May 21, 1775 &ndash ) Since Joseph had no male children, and because Louis-Napoléon's own elder brother had died in 1831, the death of the Duke of Reichstadt in 1832 made Louis-Napoléon the Bonaparte heir in the next generation. His uncle and father, relatively old men by now, left to him the active leadership of the Bonapartist cause.

Thus he secretly returned to France in October 1836, for the first time since his childhood, to try to lead a Bonapartist coup at Strasbourg. Strasbourg (Strasbourg stʁazbuʁ Alsatian: Strossburi,; Straßburg) is the capital and principal City of the Alsace région Louis-Philippe had established the July Monarchy in 1830, and was confronted with opposition both from the Legitimists, the Independents and the Bonapartists. Louis Philippe ( 6 October 1773 &ndash 26 August 1850) was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe Legitimists are Royalists in France who believe that the King of France and Navarre must be chosen according to the simple application of the The coup failed; he was illegally deported to Lorient, quietly exiled to the United States of America, and spent four years in New York. Lorient, or L'Orient, (An Oriant is a commune and a Seaport in the Morbihan département, of Brittany. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Then he secretly returned and he tried again in August 1840, sailing with some hired soldiers into Boulogne. Boulogne-sur-Mer ( Bonen in Dutch is a City in Northern France. This time, he was caught and sentenced to imprisonment for life, though in relative comfort, in the fortress of the town of Ham in the Department of Somme. Ham is a commune in the Somme département in the Picardie region of France. While in the Ham fortress, his eyesight reportedly became poor. During his years of imprisonment, he wrote essays and pamphlets that combined his monarchical claim with progressive, even mildly socialist economic proposals, as he defined Bonapartism. In French political history Bonapartism has two meanings In a strict sense this term refers to people who In 1844, his uncle Joseph died, making him the direct heir apparent to the Bonaparte claim. An heir apparent is an Heir who (short of a fundamental change in the situation cannot be displaced from inheriting the term is used in contrast to Heir presumptive He finally managed to escape to Southport, England in May 1846 by changing clothes with a mason working at the fortress. Southport is a seaside town on the Irish Sea coast situated within the Metropolitan Borough of Sefton, in England, UK. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland (His enemies would later derisively nickname him "Badinguet", the name of the mason whose identity he assumed. ) A month later, his father Louis was dead, making Louis-Napoléon the clear Bonapartist candidate to rule France.

President of the French Republic

Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte
1st President of the French Republic
In office December 20, 1848 – December 2, 1852
Preceded by	Louis-Eugène Cavaignac Prime Minister and de facto Head of State
Succeeded by	Became an Emperor Next President: Louis Jules Trochu in 1872 (Third Republic)
Born	April 20, 1808(1808-04-20) Paris, France
Died	January 9, 1873 (aged 64) London, England
Nationality	French
Political party	Independent

Louis-Napoléon lived within the borders of the United Kingdom until the revolution of February 1848 in France deposed Louis-Philippe and established a Republic. The President of the French Republic (Président de la République française colloquially referred to in English as the President of France, is France 's elected Events 69 - Vespasian, formerly a general under Nero, enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor. Year 1848 ( MDCCCXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Year 1852 ( MDCCCLII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Louis-Eugène Cavaignac (15 October 1802 - 28 October 1857 French general second son of Jean-Baptiste Cavaignac and brother of Éléonore Louis Godefroi Cavaignac The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second Louis Jules Trochu (12 March 1815 - 7 October 1896 was a French military leader and politician Events 1303 - The University of Rome La Sapienza is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII. Year 1808 ( MDCCCVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Events 475 - Byzantine Emperor Zeno is forced to flee his capital at Constantinople. Year 1873 ( MDCCCLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The February 1848 Revolution in France ended the reign of King Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic (1848-1852 Louis Philippe ( 6 October 1773 &ndash 26 August 1850) was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the He was now free to return to France, which he immediately did. He ran for, and won, a seat in the assembly elected to draft a new constitution, but did not make a great contribution and, as a mediocre public orator, failed to impress his fellow members. Some even thought that, having lived outside of France almost all his life, he spoke French with a slight German accent (Encylopaedia Britannica, 1912).

However, when the constitution of the Second Republic was finally promulgated and direct elections for the presidency were held on 10 December 1848, Louis-Napoléon won a surprising landslide victory, with 5,587,759 votes (around 75% of the total); his closest rival, Louis-Eugène Cavaignac, received only 1,474,687 votes. History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V Year 1848 ( MDCCCXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Louis-Eugène Cavaignac (15 October 1802 - 28 October 1857 French general second son of Jean-Baptiste Cavaignac and brother of Éléonore Louis Godefroi Cavaignac Louis-Napoleon had no long political career behind him and was able to depict himself as "all things to some men". The monarchist right (supporters of either the Bourbon or Orleanist royal households) and much of the upper class supported him as the "least worst" candidate, as a man who would restore order, end the instability in France which had continued since the overthrow of the monarchy in February, and prevent a proto-communist revolution (in the vein of Friedrich Engels). Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895 was a German social scientist and philosopher, who A good proportion of the industrial working class, on the other hand, were won over by Louis-Napoleon's vague indications of progressive economic views. His overwhelming victory was above all due to the support of the non-politicized rural masses, to whom the name of Bonaparte meant something, as opposed to the other, little-known contenders. Louis-Napoléon's platform was the restoration of order after months of political turmoil, strong government, social consolidation, and national greatness, to which he appealed with all the credit of his name, that of France's national hero, Napoléon I, who in popular memory was credited with raising the nation to its pinnacle of military greatness and establishing social stability after the turmoil of the French Revolution. During his term as President, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was commonly called the Prince-President (Le Prince-Président).

Despite his landslide victory, Louis-Napoléon was faced with a Parliament dominated by monarchists, who saw his government only as a temporary bridge to a restoration of either the House of Bourbon or of Orléans. Louis-Napoleon governed cautiously during his first years in office, choosing his ministers from among the more "centre-right" Orleanist monarchists, and generally avoiding conflict with the conservative assembly. The Orléanists were a French Right-wing / Center-right Political faction or party which arose out of the French Revolution He courted Catholic support by assisting in the restoration of the Pope's temporal rule in Rome, although he tried to please secularist conservative opinion at the same time by combining this with peremptory demands that the Pope introduce liberal changes to the government of the Papal States, including appointing a liberal government and establishing the Code Napoleon there, which angered the Catholic majority in the assembly. The Papal States, State(s of the Church or Pontifical States (in Italian Stato Ecclesiastico, Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa The Napoleonic Code, or Code Napoléon (originally called the Code civil des Français) is the French Civil code, established under He soon made another attempt to gain Catholic support, however, by approving the Loi Falloux in 1851, which restored a greater role for the Church in the French educational system. Frédéric-Alfred-Pierre comte de Falloux ( May 7, 1811 - January 16, 1886) was a French Politician and Author

In the third year of his four-year mandate, President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte asked the National Assembly for a revision of the constitution to enable the president to run for re-election, arguing that four years were not enough to implement his political and economic program fully. The Constitution of the Second Republic stated that the Presidency of the Republic was to be held for a single term of four years, with no possibility of re-election, a restriction written in the Constitution for fear that a President would abuse his power to transform the Republic into a dictatorship with a president for life. President for Life is a Title assumed by some Dictators to remove their Term limit, in the hope that their Authority, legitimacy, and The National Assembly, dominated by monarchists who wished to restore the Bourbon dynasty, refused to amend the Constitution. The National Assembly had also changed the electoral law to place restrictions on universal male suffrage, imposing a three-year residency requirement which would have prevented the large proportion of the lower class, which was itinerant, from voting. Although he had originally acquiesced to this law, Louis-Napoleon used it as a pretext to break with the Assembly and his conservative ministers. He surrounded himself with lieutenants completely loyal to him, such as Morny and Persigny, secured the support of the army, and toured the country making populist speeches condemning the assembly and presenting himself as the protector of universal male suffrage. Charles Auguste Louis Joseph Demorny/de Morny 1st Duc de Morny (September 15-16 1811 in Switzerland &ndash March 10 1865 in Paris) was Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin duc de Persigny ( February 11, 1808 - January 11, 1872) was a French Statesman of the

After months of stalemate, and using the money of his mistress, Harriet Howard, he staged a coup d'état and seized dictatorial powers on 2 December 1851, the 47^th anniversary of Napoléon I's crowning as Emperor, and also the 46^th anniversary of the famous Battle of Austerlitz (hence another of Louis-Napoleon's nicknames: "The Man of December", "l'homme de décembre"). Harriet Howard, born Elizabeth Ann Haryett (1823 — 1865 was a mistress and financial backer of Louis Napoleon later Napoleon III of France. The French Coup d'état of December 2nd 1851 staged by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (at the time President of the Second French Republic) ended in the successful dissolution Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire 1851 ( MDCCCLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year The Battle of Austerlitz (Bitva u Slavkova also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of Napoleon's greatest victories effectively destroying the The coup was later declared to have been approved by the French people in a national referendum, the fairness and legality of which has been questioned ever since. The coup of 1851 definitely alienated the republicans. Victor Hugo, who had hitherto shown support toward Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, decided to go into exile after the coup, and became one of the harshest critics of Napoléon III. Victor-Marie Hugo ( ( February 26, 1802 – May 22, 1885) was a French Poet, Playwright, Novelist

Emperor of the French

French Monarchy -
Bonaparte Dynasty

Napoleon I Children    Napoleon II Siblings    Napoleone    Maria Anna    Joseph, King of Spain    Lucien, Prince of Canino    Elisa, Grand Duchess of Tuscany    Louis, King of Holland    Pauline, Princess of Guastalla    Caroline, Queen of Naples    Jérôme, King of Westphalia Nephews and nieces    Princess Julie    Princess Zénaïde    Princess Charlotte    Prince Charles    Prince Louis    Prince Pierre    Prince Napoleon Charles    Prince Napoleon Louis    Napoleon III    Prince Jérôme    Prince Napoleon Joseph    Princess Mathilde Grandnephews and -nieces    Prince Joseph    Prince Lucien-Louis    Prince Roland    Princess Jeanne    Prince Charles    Prince Jerome    Napoleon (V) Victor Great Grandnephews and -nieces    Princess Marie    Princess Marie Clotilde    Napoleon (VI) Louis Great Great Grandnephews and -nieces    Napoleon (VII) Charles    Princess Catherine    Princess Laure    Prince Jerome Great Great Great Grandnephews and -nieces    Princess Caroline    Prince Jean-Christophe Napoleon II Napoleon III Children    Napoleon (IV), Prince Imperial

Authoritarian empire

New constitutional statutes were passed which officially maintained an elected Parliament and reestablished universal male suffrage. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Napoleone Bonaparte was the brother of the Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte and died in infancy Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte King of Naples and Sicily, King of Spain (during a time) and the Indies (never de facto and never de iure Lucien Bonaparte Prince Français 1st Principe di Canino and 1st Principe di Musignano (born Luciano Buonaparte; ( May 21, 1775 &ndash Maria Anna (Marie Anne Elisa Bonaparte Baciocchi Princesse Française Duchess of Lucca and Princess of Piombino, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, Comtesse de Early life Louis was born Luigi Buonaparte in Ajaccio, Corsica. Marie Paulette (Pauline Bonaparte Princesse Française Princess and Duchess of Guastalla ( October 20, 1780 - June 9, 1825) was the Maria Annunziata Carolina (Marie Annonciade Caroline Murat ( Née Bonaparte; 25 March 1782 &ndash 18 May 1839) better Jérôme-Napoléon Bonaparte French Prince King of Westphalia, 1st Prince of Montfort ( November 15, 1784 &ndash June 24, 1860 Charlotte Bonaparte ( October 31 1802 - March 2 1839) was the daughter of Joseph Bonaparte, the older brother of Emperor Charles Lucien (Carlo Jules Laurent Bonaparte 2nd Prince of Canino and Musignano ( May 24, 1803 &ndash July 29, 1857) was a French Louis Lucien Bonaparte ( January 4, 1813 &ndash November 3, 1891) was a French Anglophile linguist, and Pierre-Napoléon Bonaparte ( 11 October 1815 - 7 April 1881) was born in Rome, Italy, the son of Lucien Bonaparte Napoleon Charles Bonaparte ( October 10, 1802 - May 5, 1807) was the eldest son of Louis Bonaparte and Hortense de Beauharnais Napoleon Louis Bonaparte ( October 11 1804 - March 17, 1831) or' Louis II of Holland', was the middle son of Louis Bonaparte Jérôme Napoleon Bonaparte ( July 7, 1805 - June 17, 1870) was a son of Jérôme Bonaparte (brother to Napoleon I) and Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte Prince Français Count of Meudon Count of Moncalieri ad personam (commonly known as Prince Napoléon) ( September 9 Mathilde Laetitia Wilhelmine Bonaparte Princesse Française ( May 27 1820 – January 2 1904) was a daughter of Napoleon 's brother Joseph Lucien Charles Napoléon Bonaparte 3rd Prince of Canino and Musignano ( 12 February 1824 - 2 September 1865) was born in Philadelphia Lucien Louis Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte 4th Prince of Canino and Musignano ( November 15, 1828 - November 19, 1895) was a French cardinal Roland Bonaparte 6th Prince of Canino and Musignano ( May 19, 1858 - April 14, 1924) was a French prince and president of the Société Charles Joseph Bonaparte ( June 9, 1851 &ndash June 28, 1921) was a member of the United States Cabinet and a grandson Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II ( November 5, 1830 - September 3, 1893) was a son of Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte and Susan May Williams Prince Victor Napoléon ( Napoléon Victor Jérôme Frédéric Bonaparte) ( 18 July 1862 - 3 May 1926) was the Bonapartist Princess Marie Bonaparte ( 2 July 1882 - 21 September 1962) was a French psychoanalyst, closely linked with Sigmund Napoléon VI Prince Imperial, born as Louis Jérôme Victor Emmanuel Léopold Marie Bonaparte and known as Louis Napoléon, (born 23 January 1914 Napoléon VII Prince Imperial (Charles Marie Jérôme Victor Napoléon (born 19 October 1950) is a French politician and claims to be the current head of the Prince Jérôme Xavier Marie Joseph Victor Napoléon (born January 14, 1957) is currently second in the line of Succession for the Prince Jean-Christophe Louis Ferdinand Albéric Napoléon (born July 11 1986) is a claimant to headship of the House of Bonaparte. This article refers to the son of Napoleon III For the stepson of Napoleon I see Eugène de Beauharnais Biography At the outbreak of the However, the Parliament now became irrelevant as real power was completely concentrated in the hands of Louis-Napoléon and his bureaucracy. Exactly one year later, on 2 December 1852, after approval by another referendum, the Second Republic was officially ended and the Empire restored, ushering in the Second French Empire. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Year 1852 ( MDCCCLII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoléon III. In a situation that resembles the case of Louis XVII of France, the numbering of Napoléon's reign treats Napoléon II, who never actually ruled, as a true Emperor (he had been briefly recognized as emperor from June 22 to July 7, 1814). Louis XVII of France, also Louis VI of Navarre ( Versailles March 27 1785 – Paris June 8 1795) from birth Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Events 1456 - A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common That same year, he began shipping political prisoners and criminals to penal colonies such as Devil's Island or (in milder cases) New Caledonia. For other uses see Devils Island. Devil's Island (Île du Diable is the smallest and northernmost island of the three Îles du Salut For the former North American fur-trading district see New Caledonia (Canada, and for the Scottish colony in Panama see Darien scheme.

The emperor, hitherto a bachelor, began quickly to look for a wife to produce a legitimate heir. Most of the royal families of Europe were unwilling to marry into the parvenu Bonaparte family, and after rebuffs from Princess Carola of Sweden and from Queen Victoria's German niece Princess Adelheid of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, Napoléon decided to lower his sights somewhat and "marry for love", choosing the young, beautiful Countess of Teba, Eugénie de Montijo, a Spanish noblewoman of partial Scottish ancestry who had been brought up in Paris. Princess Carola of Sweden or of Vasa ( Caroline Friederike Franziska Stephanie Amelie Cecilie) ( 5 August, 1833 at Schonbrunn &ndash Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 was from 20 June 1837 the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Princess Adelheid of Hohenlohe-Langenburg ( July 20, 1835 - January 25, 1900) was a niece of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. Eugenie redirects here For other people called Eugenie see Eugenie (disambiguation Empress The last Empress of the French was born Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. On April 28, 1855 Napoléon survived an attempted assassination. Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title Year 1855 ( MDCCCLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year In 1856, Eugenie gave birth to a legitimate son and heir, Napoléon Eugène Louis, the Prince Impérial. This article refers to the son of Napoleon III For the stepson of Napoleon I see Eugène de Beauharnais Biography At the outbreak of the On January 14, 1858 Napoléon and his wife escaped another assassination attempt, plotted by Felice Orsini. Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes. Year 1858 ( MDCCCLVIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Not to be confused with Felice della Rovere, who married into the Orsini family

Liberal empire

Until about 1861, Napoléon's regime exhibited decidedly authoritarian characteristics, using press censorship to prevent the spread of opposition, manipulating elections, and depriving the Parliament of the right to free debate or any real power. In the decade of the 1860s, however, Napoléon III made more concessions to placate his liberal opponents. This change began by allowing free debates in Parliament and public reports of parliamentary debates, continued with the relaxation of press censorship, and culminated in the appointment of the Liberal Émile Ollivier, previously a leader of the opposition to Napoléon's regime, as acting Prime Minister in 1870. Olivier Émile Ollivier (2 July 1825 20 August 1913 was a French Statesman. This later period is described by historians as the Liberal Empire.

Economic and social policy

The French economy was rapidly modernized under Napoléon III, who desired a legacy as a reform-minded social engineer. The industrialization of France during this period, in general, appealed to members of both the business interests and the working classes. Downtown Paris was renovated with the clearing of slums, the widening of streets, and the construction of parks according to Baron Haussmann's plan. The Haussmann Renovations, or Haussmannisation of Paris, was a work commissioned by Napoléon III and led by the Seine prefect, Baron Working class neighborhoods were moved to the outskirts of Paris, where factories utilized their labor. Some of his main backers were Saint-Simonians, and these supporters described Napoleon III as the "socialist emperor. Saint-Simonianism was a French socialist movement of the first half of the Nineteenth century. " Saint-Simonians at this time founded a new type of banking institution, the Crédit Mobilier, which sold stock to the public and then used the money raised to invest in industrial enterprises in France. This sparked a period of rapid economic development.

As it turned out, this time period was favorable for industrial expansion. The gold rush in California, and later Australia, increased the European money supply. The steady rise of prices caused by the increase of the money supply encouraged company promotion and investment of capital. The mileage of railways in France increased from 3,000 to 16,000 kilometers during the 1850s, and this growth of railways allowed mines and factories to operate at higher rates of productivity. The 55 smaller rail lines of France were merged into 6 major lines, while new iron steamships replaced wooden ships. Between 1859 and 1869, a French company built the Suez Canal, opening a new chapter in global transportation and trade. The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation

Algeria

Algeria had been under French rule since 1830. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Compared to previous administrations, Napoleon was far more sympathetic to the native Algerians who appealed to his romantic sentiments. Because of this he halted European migration inland, restricting them to the coastal zone. Moreover, he freed the Algerian rebel leader Abd al Qadir (who had been promised freedom on surrender but was imprisoned by the previous administration) and gave him a stipend of 150,000 Francs. `Abd al-Qādir al-Jazā'irī ( 6 September, 1808 - 26 May, 1883, in Arabic عبد القادر الجزائري was an He also allowed Muslims to serve in the military and civil service on theoretically equal terms and allowed them to migrate to France. In addition, he gave the option of citizenship, however for Muslims to take this option they had to accept all of the French civil code, including parts governing inheritance and marriage which might conflict with Muslim tradition, and they had to reject the competence of religious courts. This was interpreted by some Muslims as requiring them to give up parts of their religion to obtain citizenship and was resented.

One of the most influential decisions Louis Napoleon made in Algeria was to change the system of land tenure in Algeria. While well intentioned, in effect this move destroyed the traditional system of land management and deprived many Algerians of land. While Napoleon did renounce state claims to tribal lands, he also set in to effect a process of dismantling tribal land ownership in favor of individual land ownership over the course of three generations, though this process was accelerated by later administrations. This process was corrupted by French officials sympathetic to French in Algeria who took much of the land they surveyed into public domain; in addition many tribal leaders, chosen for loyalty to the French rather than influence in their tribe, immediately sold communal land for cash.

Foreign policy

In a speech in 1852, Napoleon III famously proclaimed that "The Empire means peace" ("L'Empire, c'est la paix", literally 'The Empire, it is peace'), reassuring foreign governments that the new Emperor Napoleon would not be an aggressor as the previous one had been. However, the promise proved illusory; Napoleon III involved France in a series of conflicts throughout his reign. He was thoroughly determined to follow a strong foreign policy to extend France's power and glory. He was also driven by vague dreams of re-casting the map of Europe, sweeping away small principalities to create unified nation-states, even when this seemed to have little relevance to France's interests. In this he remained influenced by his youthful liberal-nationalist politics as a member of the Carbonari in Italy. These two factors led Napoleon to a certain adventurism in foreign policy, although this was sometimes tempered by pragmatism.

The Crimean War

Napoleon's challenge to Russia's claims to influence in the Ottoman Empire led to France's successful participation in the Crimean War (March 1854–March 1856). Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought During this war Napoleon established a French alliance with Britain, which continued after the war's close. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 The defeat of Russia and the alliance with Britain gave France increased authority in Europe. This was the first war between European powers since the close of the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna, marking a breakdown of the alliance system that had maintained peace for nearly half a century. The war also effectively ended the Concert of Europe and the Quadruple alliance. The Concert of Europe also known as the " Congress System " was the result of a custom following the era of Napoleon and the French Revolution adopted by

East Asia

Napoleon III receiving the Siamese embassy at the palace of Fontainebleau in 1864

Napoleon took the first steps to establishing a French colonial influence in Indochina. He approved the launching of a naval expedition in 1858 to punish the Vietnamese for their mistreatment of French Catholic missionaries and force the court to accept a French presence in the country. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially An important factor in his decision was the belief that France risked becoming a second-rate power by not expanding its influence in East Asia. Also, the idea that France had a civilizing mission was spreading. This eventually led to a full-out invasion in 1861. By 1862 the war was over and Vietnam conceded three provinces in the south, called by the French Cochin-China, opened three ports to French trade, allowed free passage of French warships to Cambodia (which led to a French protectorate over Cambodia in 1867), allowed freedom of action for French missionaries and gave France a large indemnity for the cost of the war. Cochin China is also a type of domestic fowl. Cochinchina, from Cochin-China (see note below (known locally as Nam France did not however intervene in the Christian-supported Vietnamese rebellion in Bac Bo, despite the urging of missionaries, or in the subsequent slaughter of thousands of Christians after the rebellion, suggesting that although persecution of Christians was the prompt for the intervention, military and political reasons ultimately drove colonialism in Vietnam. The Gulf of Tonkin, in Vietnamese: Vịnh Bắc Bộ or in Chinese: Beibu Wan is an arm of the South China Sea.

In China, France took part in the Second Opium War along with the United Kingdom, and in 1860 French troops entered Beijing. The Second Opium War, the Second Anglo-Chinese War, the Arrow War, or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a war of the United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located China was forced to concede more trading rights, allow freedom of navigation of the Yangtze river, give full civil rights and freedom of religion to Christians, and give France and Britain a huge indemnity. This combined with the intervention in Vietnam set the stage for further French influence in China leading up to a sphere of influence over parts of Southern China.

In 1866, French Navy troops made an attempt to colonize Korea, during the French Campaign against Korea. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. The French campaign against Korea of 1866 is also known as Byeong-in yangyo ( Western disturbance of the byeong-in year) In 1867, a French Military Mission to Japan was sent, which played a key role in modernizing the troops of the Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, and even participated on his side against Imperial troops during the Boshin war. is a military rank and historical title in Japan. The Japanese word for "general" it is made up of two Kanji words sho, meaning "commander" Tokugawa Yoshinobu 1st Prince of the Yoshinobu-ke (徳川 慶喜 Tokugawa Yoshinobu (also known as Keiki) October 28, 1837 &ndash The was a Civil war in Japan, fought from 1868 to 1869 between forces of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate and those seeking to return political power to the

Italy

As President of the Republic, Louis-Napoleon sent French troops to help restore Pope Pius IX as ruler of the Papal States in 1849 after there had been a revolt there in 1848 (although as a Carbonaro he had been involved in plotting a similar revolt in the Papal States during his youth in Italy). Blessed Pope Pius IX (May 13 1792 &ndash February 7 1878 born Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti, was Pope from June 16 1846 until 1878 The Carbonari ("charcoal burners" were groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy. This won him support in France from Catholics (although many remained supporters of the Bourbon monarchy at heart). Yet at the same time he had sent an emissary to negotiate with the revolutionary Italian nationalist Mazzini. Giuseppe Mazzini ( June 22, 1805, Genoa, Italy - March 10, 1872, Pisa, Italy was an Italian Patriot The Catholic Encyclopedia observes: "In this way the difficulties of the future emperor reveal themselves from the beginning; he wished to spare the religious susceptibilities of French Catholics" and yet to support "the national susceptibilities of the Italian revolutionists -- a double aim which explains many an inconsistency" in his policy. The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language Encyclopedia published by The Encyclopedia

Napoleon remained attached to the ideal of Italian nationalism which he had embraced in his youth, and wished particularly to end Austrian rule in Lombardy and Venice (he always nursed a dislike for Austria as the incarnation of conservative, legitimate monarchy and the great barrier to the reconstruction of Europe on nationalist lines, again traceable back to his Carbonari days). As Emperor, Napoleon dreamed of doing this, and thus satisfying his own inclinations and winning over liberal and left-wing opinion in France (which was passionately in favour of Italian unification) while at the same time supporting the Pope in Rome and thus maintaining conservative and Catholic support in France. These contradictory desires were evident in his policy in Italy.

In April-July 1859 Napoléon made a secret deal at Plombières-les-Bains with Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont, for France to assist in expelling Austria from the Italian peninsula and bringing about a united Italy, or at least a united northern Italy, in exchange for Piedmont ceding to France Savoy and the Nice region (which was destined to become the so-called French Riviera). Plombières-les-Bains is a commune and " Spa town " of France situated in the the French Département of Vosges in the region of Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso Conte di Cavour, Conte di Isolabella e Leri ( August 10 1810 &ndash June Piedmont ( Piemonte; Piedmontese and Occitan: Piemont; French: Piémont) is one of the 20 Regions of Italy. Th Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula (Penisola italiana or Penisola appenninica) is one of the three Peninsulas of Southern Europe Italian Unification ( Italian: il Risorgimento, or "The Resurgence" was the political and social movement that unified different states of the Italian For the two French départements of the region of Savoy see Savoie and Haute-Savoie Savoy ( French Nice (nis Niçard Occitan: Niça norm or Nissa, Italian: Nizza or Nizza Marittima, Greek The French Riviera (Côte d'Azur Occitan: Còsta Azzura) is one of the most famous resort areas in the world extending along the Mediterranean Sea west He went to war with Austria in 1859 and won a victory at Solferino, which resulted in the ceding of Lombardy to Piedmont by Austria (and in return received Savoy and Nice from Piedmont as promised in 1860). The Second War of Italian Independence, Franco-Austrian War, or Austro-Sardinian War was fought by Napoleon III of France and the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia The Battle of Solferino was fought on June 24, 1859 and resulted in the victory of the allied French Army under Napoleon III and Sardinian Lombardy (Lombardia Latin: Langobardia, Western Lombard: Lumbardìa, Eastern Lombard: Lombardia) is one of the After this had been done, however, Napoleon decided to end French involvement in the war. This early withdrawal, however, failed to prevent central Italy, including most of the Papal states, being incorporated into the new Italian state. This led Catholics in France to turn against Napoleon. Napoleon tried to redress the damage by maintaining French troops in the city of Rome itself, which prevented the Italian government seizing it from the Pope, a policy which Napoleon's devoutly Catholic wife Eugenie fervently supported. However, Napoleon on the whole failed to win back Catholic support at home (and made moves to appeal instead to the anti-Catholic left in his domestic policy in the 1860s, most notably by appointing the anti-clerical Victor Duruy Minister for Education, who further secularised the schooling system). Anti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes Religious (generally Catholic institutional power and influence real or alleged in all aspects of public and political Jean Victor Duruy ( September 11, 1811 &ndash November 25, 1894) was a French Historian and statesman Nonetheless, French troops remained in Rome to protect the Pope until the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.

United States of America

In the beginning of the 1860s, the objectives of the Emperor in foreign policy had been met: France scored several military victories in Europe and abroad, the defeat at Waterloo had been exorcised, and France was once again a significant continental military power. In the Battle of Waterloo (Sunday 18 June 1815 near Waterloo Belgium

During the American Civil War, Napoleon III positioned France to lead the pro-Confederate European powers. Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South The Confederate States of America (also called the Confederacy, the Confederate States, and CSA) formed as the government set up from 1861 For a time, Napoleon III inched steadily toward officially recognizing the Confederacy, especially after the crash of the cotton industry and his exercise in regime-changing in Mexico. Some historians have also suggested that he was driven by a desire to keep the American states divided. Through 1862, Napoleon III entertained Confederate diplomats, raising hopes that he would unilaterally recognize the Confederacy. The Emperor, however, could do little without the support of the United Kingdom, and never officially recognized the Confederacy.

Mexico

Napoleon's adventurism in foreign policy is aptly demonstrated by the French intervention in Mexico (January 1862–March 1867). The French intervention in Mexico, also known as the Maximilian Affair and The Franco-Mexican War, was an invasion of Mexico by the army of the Napoleon, using as a pretext the Mexican Republic's refusal to pay its foreign debts, planned to establish a French sphere of influence in North America by creating a French-backed monarchy in Mexico, a project that was supported by Mexican conservatives who grew weary of the anti-clerical tendencies of the Mexican republic. The United States was unable to prevent this contravention of the Monroe Doctrine because of the American Civil War, and if, as Napoleon hoped, the Confederates were victorious in that conflict, he believed they would accept the new regime in Mexico. The Monroe Doctrine is a US doctrine which on December 2 1823 stated that European powers were no longer to colonize or interfere with Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South

With the support of Mexican conservatives and French troops, in 1863 Napoleon installed Habsburg prince Maximilian to reign in Mexico. Maximilian I Emperor of Mexico (Emperador Maximiliano I de México (6 July 1832 – 19 June 1867 (born Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph was a member of Austria However, ruling President Benito Juarez and his Republican forces retreated to the countryside and fought against the French troops and the Mexican monarchists. Benito Pablo Juárez García (benit̪o paβ̞lo xwaɾes gaɾsia ( March 21, 1806 – July 18, 1872) was a Zapotec Amerindian

The combined Mexican monarchist and French forces won victories up until 1865, but then the tide began to turn against them, in part because the American Civil War had ended. The U. S. government was now able to give practical support to the Republicans, supplying them with arms and establishing a naval blockade to prevent French reinforcements arriving from Europe. Napoleon withdrew French troops from Mexico in 1866, which left Maximilian and the Mexican monarchists doomed to defeat in 1867. Despite Napoleon's pleas that he abdicate and leave Mexico, Maximilian refused to abandon the Mexican conservatives who had supported him, and remained alongside them until the bitter end, when he was captured by the Republicans and then shot on June 19, 1867. The complete failure of the Mexican intervention was a humiliation for Napoleon, and he was widely blamed across Europe for Maximilian's death. However, letters have since shown that Napoleon III and Leopold of Belgium both warned Maximilian to not depend on European support.

Prussia

A far more dangerous threat to Napoléon, however, was looming. France saw its dominance on the continent of Europe eroded by Prussia's crushing victory over Austria in the Austro-Prussian War in June–August 1866. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich The Austro-Prussian Due in part to his Carbonari past, Napoléon was unable to ally himself with Austria, despite the obvious threat that a victorious Prussia would pose to France. The Carbonari ("charcoal burners" were groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy. Yet, having decided not to prevent the Prussian rise to power by allying against her, Napoléon also failed to take the opportunity to demand Prussian consent to French territorial expansion in return for France's neutrality. Napoléon only requested that Prussia agree to French annexation of Belgium and Luxembourg after Prussia had already defeated Austria, by which time France's neutrality was no longer needed by Prussia. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Luxembourg (Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Grand-Duché de Luxembourg Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small Landlocked country in Western Europe, bordered by This extraordinary foreign policy failure saw France gain nothing while allowing Prussia's strength to increase greatly. In part the reason for the Emperor's blunder must be laid on his deteriorating health during this period - he had begun to suffer from a bladder stone that caused him great pain, even preventing him from riding a horse. Kidney stones, also called renal calculi, are solid concretions (crystal aggregations of dissolved minerals in Urine; calculi typically form ^[1]

Napoléon's later attempt in 1867 to re-balance the scales by purchasing Luxembourg from its ruler, William III of the Netherlands, was thwarted by a Prussian threat of war. William III ( Willem Alexander Paul Frederik Lodewijk, anglicised William Alexander Paul Frederick Louis of Orange-Nassau) ( February 19, The Luxembourg Crisis ended with France renouncing any claim to Luxembourg in the Treaty of London (1867). The Luxembourg Crisis (Luxemburgkrise Luxemburgse kwestie was a Diplomatic dispute and confrontation in 1867 between France and Prussia over the political The Treaty of London (Traité de Londres often called the Second Treaty of London after the 1839 Treaty, was an international Treaty signed

Demise

Napoleon III having a conversation with Bismarck after his defeat and capture at Sedan. Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898)

Napoléon III paid the price for his failure to help defend Austria from Prussia in 1870 when, goaded by the diplomacy of the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck, he began the Franco-Prussian War. Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 This war proved disastrous for France, and was instrumental in giving birth to the German Empire, which would take France's place as the major land power on the continent of Europe until the end of World War I. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All In battle against Prussia in July 1870 the Emperor was captured at the Battle of Sedan (2 September) and was deposed by the forces of the Third Republic in Paris two days later. The Battle of Sedan was fought during the Franco-Prussian War on 1 September 1870 Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe

Napoleon spent the last few years of his life in exile in England, with Eugenie and his only son. The family lived at Camden Place Chislehurst (Kent), where he died on January 9, 1873. Chislehurst is a suburban settlement in south east London, England and part of the London Borough of Bromley. KENT (1400 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Adult Standards/MOR format He was haunted to the end by bitter regrets and by painful memories of the battle at which he lost everything; Napoléon's last words, addressed to Dr. Henri Conneau standing by his deathbed, reportedly were, "Were you at Sedan?" ("Etiez-vous à Sedan?")^[2]

The Emperor died during a multistage process to break up a bladder stone. Kidney stones, also called renal calculi, are solid concretions (crystal aggregations of dissolved minerals in Urine; calculi typically form The surgeon Sir Henry Thompson, sounded the emperor and detected a bladder stone. Henry Thompson redirects here For the American songwriter see H Lithotrity (a technique to fragment the stone so that it could be passed) was performed on January 2 and January 6, under chloroform anaesthesia delivered by Joseph Thomas Clover. Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a Chemical compound with formula C[[Hydrogen H]] Cl Joseph Thomas Clover ( 28 February 1825 – 27 September 1882) was an English doctor and one of the very first doctors to devote his career to ^[3] The cause of death was reportedly kidney failure and septicemia. Renal failure or kidney Sepsis is a serious medical condition characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (called a Systemic inflammatory response syndrome or SIRS caused ^[4] Clover and Thompson signed the post-mortem report with four other physicians.

Napoléon was originally buried at St. Mary's, the Catholic church in Chislehurst. However, after his son died in 1879, fighting in the British Army against the Zulus in South Africa, the bereaved Eugenie decided to build a monastery. The building would house monks driven out of France by the anti-clerical laws of the Third Republic, which would provide a suitable resting place for her husband and son. Thus in 1888 Napoléon III's body (and that of his son) was moved to the Imperial Crypt at Saint Michael's Abbey, Farnborough, Hampshire, England. Saint Michael's Abbey is a Benedictine abbey in Farnborough Hampshire, England. Farnborough is a Town in the Rushmoor district of Hampshire, England. Wildlife Hampshire has wildlife typical of the island of Great Britain Eugenie, who died many years later, in 1920, is now buried there with them. It was reported in 2007 that the French Government is seeking the return of his remains to be buried in France, but that this is opposed by the monks of the abbey. ^[5]

Napoleon III after his death; engraving in the Illustrated London News of January 25, 1873, after a photo by Mssrs. The Illustrated London News was a Magazine founded by Herbert Ingram and his friend Mark Lemon, the editor of Punch Downey.

Napoléon stayed at No. 6 Clarendon Square, Royal Leamington Spa between 1838-1839. Leamington Spa, properly Royal Leamington Spa, commonly Leamington (ˈlɛmɪŋtən and "Leam" to locals is a Spa town in central The building is now called Napoleon House and has a 'Blue plaque' put up by the local council. In the United Kingdom, a blue plaque is a permanent sign installed in a public place to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person or event

Romances

Louis Napoleon was a lover of women, yet he saw it this way: "It is usually the man who attacks. As for me, I defend myself, and I often capitulate. "^[6] He had many mistresses. During his reign, it was the task of Count Felix Bacciochi, his social secretary, to arrange for trysts and to procure women for the emperor's favors. His affairs were not trivial sideshows as they distracted him from governing, affected his relationship with the empress, and diminished him in the views of the other European courts. ^[7] Among his numerous love affairs and mistresses were:^[8]

• Mathilde Bonaparte, his cousin and fiancee;
• Alexandrine Éléonore Vergeot, laundress at the prison at Ham, mother of his sons Alexandre Louis Eugène and Louis Ernest Alexandre. Mathilde Laetitia Wilhelmine Bonaparte Princesse Française ( May 27 1820 – January 2 1904) was a daughter of Napoleon 's brother Ham is a commune in the Somme département in the Picardie region of France. ^[9]

• Elisa Rachel Felix, the "most famous actress in Europe";
• Harriet Howard, (1823-1865) wealthy and a major financial backer;
• Virginia Oldoini, Countess de Castiglioni, (1837-1899) sent by Camillo Cavour to influence his politics;
• Marie-Anne Waleska, a possible mistress, wife of Count Alexandre Joseph Count Colonna-Walewski, his relative and foreign minister;
• Justine Marie Le Boeuf, also known as Marguerite Bellanger, actress and acrobatic dancer;
• Countess Louise de Mercy-Argenteau, (1837-1890), likely a platonic relationship, author of The Last Love of an Emperor, her reminiscences of her association with the emperor. Elisabeth Rachel Félix, better known only as Rachel (21 February 1821 - January 3 1858) was a French Actress. Harriet Howard, born Elizabeth Ann Haryett (1823 — 1865 was a mistress and financial backer of Louis Napoleon later Napoleon III of France. Virginia Oldoini Countess di Castiglione ( 22 March[[ 837]]– 28 November[[ 899]] better known as La Castiglione, was an Italian Courtesan Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso Conte di Cavour, Conte di Isolabella e Leri ( August 10 1810 &ndash June Alexandre Florian Joseph Duke Colonna-Walewski ( May 4, 1810 - October 27, 1868) was a Polish and French Politician Marie-Clotilde-Elisabeth Louise de Riquet (3 June 1837 — 8 November 1890 was the elder daughter of Michel Gabriel Alphonse Ferdinand de Riquet (1810-1865 created Prince de Chimay

His wife, Eugenie, was able to resist his advances prior to marriage. She was coached by her mother and her friend, Prosper Mérimée. Prosper Mérimée ( September 28, 1803 &ndash September 23, 1870) was a French dramatist historian, archaeologist "What is the road to your heart?" Napoleon demanded to know. "Through the chapel, Sire. " was supposedly her answer^[6] Yet, after marriage, it took not long for him to stray as Eugenie found sex "disgusting". ^[6] It is doubted that she allowed further approaches by her husband once she had given him an heir. ^[7]

By his late forties, Napoleon started to suffer from numerous medical ailments, including kidney disease, bladder stones, chronic bladder and prostate infections, arthritis, gout, obesity, and the effects of chronic smoking. In 1856 Dr. Robert Ferguson, a consultant called from London, diagnosed a "nervous exhaustion" that had a "debilitating impact upon sexual . . . performance". ^[8] and reported this also to the British government. ^[7]

Legacy

An important legacy of Napoléon III's reign was the rebuilding of Paris. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Part of the design decisions were taken in order to reduce the ability of future revolutionaries to challenge the government by capitalizing on the small, medieval streets of Paris to form barricades. However, this should not overlook the fact that the main reason for the complete transformation of Paris was Napoléon III's desire to modernize Paris based on what he had seen of the modernizations of London during his exile there in the 1840s. With his characteristic social approach to politics, Napoléon III desired to improve health standards and living conditions in Paris with the following goals: build a modern sewage system to improve health, develop new housing with larger apartments for the masses, create green parks all across the city to try to keep working classes away from the pubs on Sunday, etc. Large sections of the city were thus flattened down and the old winding streets were replaced with large thoroughfares and broad avenues. The rebuilding of Paris was directed by Baron Haussmann (1809–1891; Prefect of the Seine département 1853–1870). Georges-Eugène Haussmann ( March 27, 1809 &ndash January 11, 1891) who called himself Baron Haussmann, was a French Seine was a département of France encompassing Paris and its immediate suburbs In the Terminology of Political geography and Historiography a National department (département departamento is an administrative It was this rebuilding that turned Paris into the city of broad tree-lined boulevards and parks so beloved of tourists today.

With Prosper Mérimée, Napoleon III continued to seek the preservation for numerous medieval buildings in France, which had been left disregarded since the French revolution (a project Mérimée had begun during the July Monarchy). Prosper Mérimée ( September 28, 1803 &ndash September 23, 1870) was a French dramatist historian, archaeologist With Viollet-le-Duc acting as chief architect, many buildings were saved, including some of the most famous in France : - Notre Dame Cathedral, Mont Saint Michel, Carcassonne, Pierrefonds, Roquetaillade castle and others. Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc ( January 27 1814 &ndash September 17, 1879) was a French Architect and theorist famous for his "restorations" Mont Saint-Michel ( English: St Michael's Mount) is a rocky Tidal island in Normandy, France. Carcassonne (Carcassona is a fortified French town in the Aude département, of which it is the Prefecture, Roquetaillade is a commune in the Aude département in southwestern France.

Napoléon III also directed the building of the French railway network, which greatly contributed to the development of the coal mining and steel industry in France, radically changing the nature of the French economy, which entered the modern age of large-scale capitalism. The French economy, the second largest in the world at the time (behind the United Kingdom), experienced a very strong growth during the reign of Napoléon III. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Names such as steel tycoon Eugène Schneider or banking mogul James de Rothschild are symbols of the period. Joseph Eugène Schneider ( 29 March 1805 - 27 November 1875) was a French Industrialist. James de Rothschild ( May 15, 1792 in Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany - November 15, 1868 in Paris France) Two of France's largest banks, Société Générale and Crédit Lyonnais, still in existence today, were founded during that period. Société Générale ( is one of the main European financial services companies and also maintains extensive activities in others parts of the world See also LCL (Le Crédit Lyonnais Crédit Lyonnais is a historic French Bank. The French stock market also expanded prodigiously, with many coal mining and steel companies issuing stocks. Although largely forgotten by later Republican generations, which only remembered the non-democratic nature of the regime, the economic successes of the Second Empire are today recognized as impressive by historians. The emperor himself, who had spent several years in exile in Victorian Lancashire, was largely influenced by the ideas of the Industrial Revolution in England, and he took particular care of the economic development of the country. Lancashire is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in the North West of England, bounded to the west by the Irish Sea The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the He is recognized as the first ruler of France to have taken great care of the economy; previous rulers considering it secondary.

His military adventurism is sometimes considered a fatal blow to the Concert of Europe, which based itself on stability and balance of powers, whereas Napoleon III attempted to rearrange the world map to France's favor even when it involved radical and potentially revolutionary changes in politics. The Concert of Europe also known as the " Congress System " was the result of a custom following the era of Napoleon and the French Revolution adopted by

Ancestry

The question of his paternity remains ambiguous, as his parents were estranged and Hortense had her lovers. However, the parents met briefly between June 23 and July 6, 1807, eight months prior to his birth. Speculation on this topic was a favorite of his detractors. ^[7]

Opinions

Napoléon III, to this day, has not enjoyed the prestige that Napoléon I enjoyed. Early life Louis was born Luigi Buonaparte in Ajaccio, Corsica. Carlo Maria Buonaparte (March 29/27 1746 &ndash February 24, 1785) was a Corsican lawyer and politician who briefly served as a personal assistant of the Nobile Giuseppe Maria Buonaparte ( 31 May, 1713, Ajaccio - 13 December, 1763, Ajaccio was a Corsican Politician Nobile Maria Letizia Bonaparte née Ramolino ( Marie-Lætitia Ramolino Madame Mère de l'Empereur) ( 24 August, 1750 Hortense Eugénie Cécile Bonaparte ( Née de Beauharnais) Queen Consort of Holland ( 10 April 1783 - 5 October 1837 Alexandre François Marie de Beauharnais Vicomte de Beauharnais ( May 28, 1760 – July 23, 1794) was a French Political figure Joséphine de Beauharnais (born Marie Josèphe Rose de Tascher de la Pagerie June 23 1763 &ndash May 29 1814) was the first Victor Hugo portrayed him as "Napoléon the small" (Napoléon le Petit), a mere mediocrity in contrast with Napoléon I "The Great", presented as a military and administrative genius. Victor-Marie Hugo ( ( February 26, 1802 – May 22, 1885) was a French Poet, Playwright, Novelist Napoleon le Petit was an influential political pamphlet by Victor Hugo which condemned the reign of Napoleon III, Emperor of the French In France, such arch-opposition from the age's central literary figure, whose attacks on Napoléon III were obsessive and powerful, made it impossible for a very long time to assess his reign objectively. Karl Marx mocked Napoléon III by saying that history repeats itself: "The first time as tragedy, the second time as farce. " Napoléon III has often been seen as an authoritarian but ineffectual leader who brought France into dubious, and ultimately disastrous, foreign military adventures.

Historians have also emphasized his attention to the fate of working classes and poor people. His book Extinction du paupérisme ("Extinction of pauperism"), which he wrote while imprisoned at the Fort of Ham in 1844, contributed greatly to his popularity among the working classes and thus his election win in 1848. Throughout his reign the emperor worked to alleviate the sufferings of the poor, on occasion breaching the nineteenth-century economic orthodoxy of complete laissez-faire and using state resources or interfering in the market. Laissez-faire ( pronunciation: French,; English,) is a French phrase literally meaning Let do (“allow to do” Among other things, the Emperor granted the right to strike to French workers in 1864, despite intense opposition from corporate lobbies.

The Emperor also ordered the creation of three large parks in Paris (Parc Monceau, Parc Montsouris, and Parc des Buttes Chaumont) with the clear intention of offering them for poor working families as an alternative to the pub (bistrot) on Sundays, much as Victoria Park in London was also built with the same social motives in mind. Parc Monceau (/paʁk mɔ̃sɔ/ is a public park situated in the 8th Arrondissement of Paris, France, at the junction of Boulevard de Courcelles Rue de Parc Montsouris is a public city park of Paris, in the 14th arrondissement, in Rive Gauche (the southern portion of the city proper The Parc des Buttes Chaumont is a Public park in Paris, France Victoria Park (or 'Vicky' Park as locally known is a large open space that stretches out across part of the East End of London, England bordering parts of Bethnal London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.

Bibliography

• Les Idees Napoleoniennes - an outline of Napoleon III's opinion of the optimal course for France, written before he became Emperor.
• History of Julius Caesar, a historical work he wrote during his reign. He drew an analogy between the politics of Julius Caesar and his own, as well as those of his uncle.
• Napoleon III wrote a number of articles concerning military matters (artillery), scientific issues. (electromagnetism, pro and con of beet versus cane sugar), historical topics (The Stuart kings of England), and on the feasibility of the Nicaragua canal. The Inter-Oceanic Nicaragua Canal is a proposed waterway that would connect the Caribbean Sea, and therefore the Atlantic Ocean, with the Pacific Ocean His pamphlet On the Extinction of Pauperism helped his political advancement.

References

Sources

• Thompson, J. M. Louis Napoleon and the Second Empire. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965.

Further reading

Among the leading comprehensive histories of the Second Empire include:

• De la Gorce, Histoire du second empire, (four volumes, Paris, 1885-98), and
• Taxile Delord, Histoire du second empire, (six volumes, Paris, 1869-76). The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second
• Bernhard Simson, Ueber die Beziehungen Napoleond III. zu Preussen und Deutschland, (Freiburg, 1882)
• Adolf Ebeling, Napoleon III. und sein Hof, (Cologne, 1891-94)
• Thirra, Napoléon III avant l'empire, (Paris, 1895)
• E. Ollivier, L'Empire libéral, (Paris, 1895-1909)
• A. Olivier Émile Ollivier (2 July 1825 20 August 1913 was a French Statesman. L. Imbert de Saint-Amand, Napoleon III at the Height of his Power, (New York, 1900)
• T. W. Evans, Memoirs of the Second French Empire, (New York, 1905)
• David Harvey, Paris: Capital of Modernity, (New York: Routledge, 2003)
• Marie-Clotilde-Elisabeth Louise de Riquet, comtesse de Mercy-Argenteau, The Last Love of an Emperor: reminiscences of the Comtesse Louise de Mercy-Argenteau, née Princesse de Caraman-Chimay, describing her association with the Emperor Napoléon III and the social and political part she played at the close of the Second Empire (Garden City, N. David Harvey is the name of David Harvey (footballer (born 1948 David Harvey (geographer and social theorist (born 1935 Marie-Clotilde-Elisabeth Louise de Riquet (3 June 1837 — 8 November 1890 was the elder daughter of Michel Gabriel Alphonse Ferdinand de Riquet (1810-1865 created Prince de Chimay The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second Y. , Doubleday, Page & Co. , 1926)

Movie portrayals

• Leon Ames played him in Suez (1938), although Loretta Young as Eugenie is much more highlighted. Leon Ames (b January 20 1902, Portland Indiana - d October 12 1993, Los Angeles California) an American Loretta Young ( January 6, 1913 &ndash August 12, 2000) was an American actress
• Claude Rains shows him in Juarez (1939) as a weak man ready to betray Maximilian in Mexico. William Claude Rains (10 November &ndash30 May) was an English award-winning Actor and Film star whose career spanned 47 years
• Jerome Cowan plays Napoleon III in The Song of Bernadette (1943). Jerome Cowan ( October 6, 1897 — January 24, 1972) appeared in over 100 films but is probably best remembered for two roles in classic films
• Guy Bates Post plays Louis Napoleon in Maytime (1936).

See also

• History of France
• Bonaparte
• Second French Empire

External links

• Napoleonic ideas. Des idées napoléniennes (1859) at archive.org
• History of Julius Caesar vol. 1 at MOA
• History of Julius Caesar vol. 2 at MOA
• Histoire de Jules César (Volume 1) in French at archive.org
• Editorial cartoons of the Second Empire
• Historic Farnborough