Kingdom of Mitanni (roughly corresponding to Kurdistan)

Ancient Mesopotamia
Euphrates • Tigris
Cities / Empires
Sumer: Eridu • Kish • Uruk • Ur • Lagash • Nippur • Ngirsu
Elam: Susa
Akkadian Empire: Akkad • Mari
Amorites: Isin • Larsa
Babylonia: Babylon • Chaldea
Hittites • Kassites • Hurrians/Mitanni
Assyria: Assur • Nimrud • Dur-Sharrukin • Nineveh
Chronology
History of Mesopotamia
History of Sumer • Kings of Sumer
Kings of Assyria
Kings of Babylon
Mythology
Enûma Elish • Gilgamesh
Assyro-Babylonian religion
Language
Sumerian • Elamite
Akkadian • Aramaic
Hurrian • Hittite

Mitanni (Hittite cuneiform KUR ^URUMi-ta-an-ni, also Mittani Mi-it-ta-ni) or Hanigalbat (Assyrian Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat cuneiform Ḫa-ni-gal-bat ) was a Hurrian kingdom in northern Mesopotamia from ca. History See also History of the Kurdish people Ancient period See also Hurrians, Guti, Mannaeans, Medes Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Eridu (URUNUNKI; Sumerian:eridug Akkadian: ?) from the Sumerian for 'mighty place' is modern Tell Abu Shahrain, Iraq Uruk ( URU UNUG, Sumerian: unug Akkadian: uruk) from the Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian Toponym 'unug' is modern Ur ( Sumerian:urim; Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, and was a city in ancient Sumer. Lagash ( is modern Tell al-Hiba, Iraq. Located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk Nippur (URUENLIL; Sumerian: Nibru Akkadian: Nibbur) from the Sumerian for 'lord wind' (Enlil is modern ? in Afak Al Qadisyah Ngirsu (cuneiform? Sumerian:Ĝirsu Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell Telloh, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq, and it was a city of Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of Amorite ( Sumerian MARTU, Akkadian Tidnum or Amurrūm, Egyptian Amar, Hebrew ’emōrî Isin (modern Ishan al-Bahriyat was a city of lower Mesopotamia, which flourished during the 20th century BC. Larsa (also Larag or Larak, modern Tell as-Senkereh, Iraq, possibly the Biblical Ellasar) was an important city of Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Chaldea (from Greek grc Χαλδαία Chaldaia; Akkadian akk māt Kaldu Hebrew כשדים Kaśdim, "the Chaldees" of the The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca The Hurrians (also Khurrites; cuneiform Ḫu-ur-ri 𒄷𒌨𒊑 were a people of the Ancient Near East, who lived in northern Mesopotamia Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Assur also spelled Ashur, from Assyrian Aššur, was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria. Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located south of Nineveh on the river Tigris. Dur-Sharrukin ("Fortress of Sargon" present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of Sargon II of Assyria. Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa) See Short chronology for a timeline in absolute dates The Chronology of the Ancient Near East is a framework of dates for Ancient Mesopotamia was settled and conquered by numerous ancient Civilizations. The history of Sumer, taken to include the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods spans the 5th to 3rd millennia BC ending with the downfall of the Third The Sumerian king list is an ancient text in the Sumerian language that lists kings of Sumer from Sumerian and foreign dynasties The following is a list of the kings of Babylonia, a major city and empire in ancient lower Mesopotamia, compiled from the traditional Babylonian king lists and modern Mesopotamian mythology is the collective name given to Sumerian Akkadian Assyrian and Babylonian mythologies from the land between the Tigris The akk Enûma Eliš is the Babylonian Creation myth (named for its Incipit) Gilgamesh was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk (Early Dynastic II first dynasty of Uruk ruling circa 2600 BC according to the Sumerian king The pre- Christian religions of Babylonia and Assyria are the earliest attestation of Ancient Semitic religion, in particular Mesopotamian mythology Assyriology (from Greek grc Ἀσσυρίᾱ Assyriā; and grc -λογία -logia) is the archaeological historical and linguistic study Sumerian ( " native tongue " was the language of ancient Sumer, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia since at least the 4th millennium BC Elamite is an Extinct language, which was spoken by the ancient Elamites. Aramaic is a Semitic language with Hurrian is a conventional name for the language of the Hurrians (Khurrites a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly Hittite or Nesili is the Extinct language once spoken by the Hittites, a people who created an empire centered on ancient Hattusas (modern Hittite cuneiform refers to the implementation of Cuneiform script used in writing the Hittite language. For the river see Kur River; for the village in Azerbaijan see Kür. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture The Hurrians (also Khurrites; cuneiform Ḫu-ur-ri 𒄷𒌨𒊑 were a people of the Ancient Near East, who lived in northern Mesopotamia Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding 1500 BC, at the height of its power, during the 14th century BC, encompassing what is today southeastern Turkey, northern Syria and northern Iraq (roughly corresponding to Kurdistan), centered around the capital Washukanni whose precise location has not yet been determined by archaeologists. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. History See also History of the Kurdish people Ancient period See also Hurrians, Guti, Mannaeans, Medes Tell el Fakhariya, or Tell el Fecheriyeh with variants is an ancient site in the Khabur River basin in the Al Hasakah Governorate of northern Syria

The Mitanni kingdom is thought to have been a feudal state led by a warrior nobility of Indo-Iranian descent^[1], who invaded the Levant region at some point during the 17th century BC, their influence apparent in a linguistic superstrate in Mitanni records. Some theonyms proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan Superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan The spread to Syria of a distinct pottery type associated with the Kura-Araxes culture has been connected with this movement, although its date is somewhat too early. The Kura-Araxes culture or the Early trans-Caucasian culture, was a civilization that existed from 3400 B ^[2]

Geography

Mitanni in northern Mesopotamia extended from Nuzi (modern Kirkuk) and the river Tigris in the east, to Aleppo and middle Syria (Nuhashshe) in the west. Nuzi (or Nuzu; Akkadian Gasur; modern Yorghan Tepe, Iraq) was an ancient Mesopotamian city southwest of Kirkuk Kirkuk (also spelled Karkuk or Kerkuk; Kurdish: كه‌ركووك Kerkûk; Arabic: كركوك Turkish:Kerkük; The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. Its centre was in the Khabur river valley, with two capitals: Taite and Washshukanni, called Taidu and Ushshukana respectively in Assyrian sources. The Khabur River (also Habur Habor Kebar Chebar Chaboras; Aramaic: ܚܒܘܪ, Kurdish: Çemê Xabûr, Turkish: Habur Taite (called Taidu in Assyrian sources was one of the capitals of the Mitanni Empire Tell el Fakhariya, or Tell el Fecheriyeh with variants is an ancient site in the Khabur River basin in the Al Hasakah Governorate of northern Syria (Vasu-khani would mean "mine of wealth" in Sanskrit, but cf. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Luwian vasu- "good", Bashkani in modern Kurdish: good water source) The whole area allows agriculture without artificial irrigation; cattle, sheep and goats were raised. Luwian (sometimes spelled Luvian) is an extinct language of the Anatolian branch of the The Kurdish language (Kurdish Kurdî or کوردی is a term used for the language spoken by Kurds. It is very similar to Assyria in climate, and was settled by both indigenous Hurrian and Amoritic-speaking (Amurru) populations. Hurrian is a conventional name for the language of the Hurrians (Khurrites a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly Amorite ( Sumerian MARTU, Akkadian Tidnum or Amurrūm, Egyptian Amar, Hebrew ’emōrî

Name

"This kingdom was simultaneously known under three names: Mitanni, Hurri and Hanigalbat (and to the Egyptians and Canaanites also under a fourth name, the West Semitic designation Naharina or Naharima). All three names were equivalent and interchangeable," asserted Michael C. Astour. ^[3]

Hittite annals mention a people called Hurri (Ḫu-ur-ri), located in north-eastern Syria. A Hittite fragment, probably from the time of Mursili I, mentions a "King of the Hurri," or "Hurrians. Mursili I was a king of the Hittites ca 1556 – 1526 BC ( Short chronology) and was the grandson of his predecessor Hattusili I. " The Assyro-Akkadian version of the text renders "Hurri" as Hanigalbat. Tuşrata, who styles himself "king of Mitanni" in his Akkadian Amarna letters, refers to his kingdom as Hanigalbat. The Amarna letters (sometimes "Amarna correspondence" or "Amarna tablets" are an archive of correspondence on Clay tablets mostly diplomatic ^[4]

Egyptian sources call Mitanni "nhrn," which is usually pronounced as Naharin/Naharina^[5] from the Akkadian word for "river", cf. Naharin, MdC transliteration nhrn, was the Ancient Egyptian term for the kingdom of Mitanni during the New Kingdom period of the 18th Dynasty Aram-Naharaim. Aram-Naharaim or "Aram of Two Rivers" is a region that is mentioned five times in the Hebrew Bible. The name Mitanni is first found in the "memoirs" of the Syrian wars (ca. 1480 BC) of the official astronomer and clockmaker Amememhet, who returned from the "foreign country called Me-ta-ni" at the time of Tutmose I. ^[6] The expedition to the Naharina announced by Tutmose I at the beginning of his reign^[7] may have actually taken place during the long previous reign of Amenhotep I^[8] Helck believes that this was the expedition mentioned by Amememhet. Amenhotep I (sometimes read as Amenophis I and meaning " Amun is satisfied" was the second Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt

People

The ethnicity of the people of Mitanni is difficult to ascertain. A treatise on the training of chariot horses contains a number of Indo-Iranian glosses^[9]. Annelies Kammenhuber believes that the Indo-Iranian words did not come from pro-Sanskrit, but rather from the still undivided Indo-Iranian language^[10][11].

The names of the Mitanni aristocracy reveals an Indo-Iranian origin, but it is specifically their deities which show Indic roots, though they are probably more immediately related to the Kassites. The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca ^[12] The common peoples' language, the Hurrian language is neither Indo-European nor Semitic. Hurrian is a conventional name for the language of the Hurrians (Khurrites a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly ^[13] Hurrian, and thus the Hurrians, are relatives of Urartu, but nothing more can be deduced from current evidence. Urartu ( Assyrian: Urarṭu Urartian: Biainili Ուրարտու was an Iron Age kingdom in Eastern Anatolia ( Transcaucasia) rising ^[14] A Hurrian passage in the Amarna letters - usually composed in Akkadian, the lingua franca of the day - indicates that the royal family of Mitanni was by then speaking Hurrian as well. The Amarna letters (sometimes "Amarna correspondence" or "Amarna tablets" are an archive of correspondence on Clay tablets mostly diplomatic

Bearers of names in the Hurrian language are attested in wide areas of Syria and the northern Levant that are clearly outside the area of the political entity known to Assyria as Hanilgalbat. Hurrian is a conventional name for the language of the Hurrians (Khurrites a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly There is no indication that these persons owed allegiance to the political entity of Mitanni; although the German term Auslandshurriter ("Hurrian expatriates") has been used by some authors. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. In the 14th century BC numerous city-states in northern Syria and Canaan were ruled by persons with Hurrian names. If this can be taken to mean that the population of these states was Hurrian as well, then it is possible that these entities were a part of a larger polity with a shared Hurrian identity. This is often assumed, but without a critical examination of the sources. Differences in dialect and regionally different pantheons (Hepat/Shawushka, Sharruma/Tilla etc. ) point to the existence of several groups of Hurrian speakers.

History

No native sources for the history of Mitanni (i. e. Hanilgalbat) have been found so far. The account is mainly based on Assyrian, Hittite and Egyptian sources, as well as inscriptions from nearby places in Syria. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Often it is not even possible to establish synchronicity between the rulers of different countries and cities, let alone give uncontested absolute dates. The definition and history of Mitanni is further beset by a lack of differentiation between linguistic, ethnic and political groups.

Summary

It is believed that the warring Hurrian tribes and city states became united under one dynasty after the collapse of Babylon due to the Hittite sack by Mursili I and the Kassite invasion. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Mursili I was a king of the Hittites ca 1556 – 1526 BC ( Short chronology) and was the grandson of his predecessor Hattusili I. The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca The Hittite conquest of Aleppo (Yamhad), the weak middle Assyrian kings, and the internal strifes of the Hittites had created a power vacuum in upper Mesopotamia. Yamhad (also written Yamkhad or Jamhad) was an ancient Amorite kingdom centered at Halab (modern Aleppo, Syria) This led to the formation of the kingdom of Mitanni.

King Barattarna of Mitanni expanded the kingdom west to Halab (Aleppo) and made Idrimi of Alalakh his vassal. The state of Kizzuwatna in the west also shifted its allegiance to Mitanni and Arrapha and Assyria in the east had become Mitannian vassal states by the mid 15th century BC. Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna) is the name of an ancient Anatolian kingdom in the Second millennium BC. Arrapha ( Syriac: ܐܪܦܗܐ أررابخا,عرفة was an ancient Assyrian city that existed in what is today the city of Kirkuk Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture The nation grew stronger during the reign of Shaushtatar but the Hurrians were keen to keep the Hittites inside the Anatolian highland. Shaushtatar (or Šauštatar) was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni in the fifteenth century BC Kizzuwatna in the west and Ishuwa in the north were important allies against the hostile Hittites. Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna) is the name of an ancient Anatolian kingdom in the Second millennium BC. Isuwa (transcribed Išuwa and sometimes rendered Ishuwa) was the ancient Hittite name for one of its neighboring Anatolian kingdoms to the east in an area The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established

After a few clashes with the Pharaohs over the control of Syria Mitanni sought peace with Egypt and an alliance was formed. During the reign of Shuttarna in the early 14th century BC the relationship was very amicable, and he sent his daughter Gilu-Hepa to Egypt for a marriage with Pharaoh Amenhotep III. Amenhotep III (sometimes read as Amenophis III meaning Amun is Satisfied was the ninth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty. Mitanni was now at its peak of power.

At the death of Shuttarna, Mitanni was ravaged by a war of succession. Eventually Tushratta, a son of Shuttarna, ascended the throne, but the kingdom had been Mitanni weakened considerably and both the Hittite and Assyrian threats increased. Tushratta was a king of Mitanni at the end of the reign of Amenhotep III and throughout the reign of Akhenaten -- approximately the late 14th century At the same time, the diplomatic relationship with Egypt went cold. The Hittite king Suppiluliuma I invaded the Mitanni vassal states in northern Syria and replaced them with loyal subjects. Suppiluliuma I was king of the Hittites (ca 1344 – 1322 BC ( Short chronology)

In the capital Washukanni a new power struggle broke out. Tell el Fakhariya, or Tell el Fecheriyeh with variants is an ancient site in the Khabur River basin in the Al Hasakah Governorate of northern Syria The Hittites and the Assyrians supported different pretenders to the throne. Finally a Hittite army conquered the capital Washukkanni and installed Shattiwaza, the son of Tushratta, as their vassal king of Mitanni in the late 14th century BC. Shattiwaza ( Šattiwaza, also Mattiwaza) was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni in the fourteenth century BC The kingdom had by now been reduced to the Khabur river valley. The Khabur River (also Habur Habor Kebar Chebar Chaboras; Aramaic: ܚܒܘܪ, Kurdish: Çemê Xabûr, Turkish: Habur The Assyrians had not given up their claim on Mitanni, and Shalmaneser I in the 13th century BC annexed the kingdom. Shalmaneser I ( Shulmanu-asharidu) king of Assyria. (1274 BC – 1245 BC or 1265 BC - 1235 BC Son of Adad-nirari I, he succeeded his father as King

Early kingdom

As early as Akkadian times, Hurrians (Nairi) are known to have lived east of the river Tigris on the northern rim of Mesopotamia, and in the Khabur valley. Nairi ( Armenian: Նայիրի in TAO or Նաիրի in RAO) is the Assyrian word rivers, given from the 13th to 10th centuries BC ( The group which became Mitanni gradually moved south into Mesopotami sometime before the 17th century BC.

Hurrians are mentioned in the private Nuzi texts, in Ugarit, and the Hittite archives in Hattushsha (Boğazköy). Nuzi (or Nuzu; Akkadian Gasur; modern Yorghan Tepe, Iraq) was an ancient Mesopotamian city southwest of Kirkuk Ugarit ( Ugaritic: ʼugrt; Hebrew:; Arabic:) (modern Ras Shamra رأس شمرة ("top/head/cape of the wild Fennel Hattusa (URU Ḫa-at-tu-ša 𒌷𒄩𒀜𒌅𒊭 Unicode cuneiform article to display these cuneiform characters--> Boğazkale is a district of Çorum Province in the Black Sea region of Turkey. Cuneiform texts from Mari mention rulers of city-states in upper Mesopotamia with both Amurru (Amorite) and Hurrian names. Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of Rulers with Hurrian names are also attested for Urshum and Hashshum, and tablets from Alalakh (layer VII, from the later part of the old-Babylonian period) mention people with Hurrian names at the mouth of the Orontes. Alalakh (or Alalah, modern Tell Atchana near Antakya (ancient Antioch) Turkey) is the name of an ancient Amorite Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital See Orontid dynasty for the Armenian kings and satraps called Orontes There is no evidence for any invasion from the North-east. Generally, these onomastic sources have been taken as evidence for a Hurrian expansion to the South and the West. Onomastics or onomatology is the study of proper Names of all kinds and the origins of names

A Hittite fragment, probably from the time of Mursili I, mentions a "King of the Hurrians" (LUGAL ERÍN. Mursili I was a king of the Hittites ca 1556 – 1526 BC ( Short chronology) and was the grandson of his predecessor Hattusili I. MEŠ Hurri). This terminology was last used for King Tushratta of Mitanni, in a letter in the Amarna archives. The site of Amarna (commonly known as el-Amarna or incorrectly as Tel el-Amarna; see below ( Arabic: العمارنة al-‘amārnah) is located The normal title of the king was 'King of the Hurri-men' (without the determinative KUR indicating a country).

It is believed that the warring Hurrian tribes and city states became united under one dynasty after the collapse of Babylon due to the Hittite sack by Mursili I and the Kassite invasion. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Mursili I was a king of the Hittites ca 1556 – 1526 BC ( Short chronology) and was the grandson of his predecessor Hattusili I. The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca The Hittite conquest of Aleppo (Yamkhad), the weak middle Assyrian kings, and the internal strifes of the Hittites had created a power vacuum in upper Mesopotamia. Yamhad (also written Yamkhad or Jamhad) was an ancient Amorite kingdom centered at Halab (modern Aleppo, Syria) This led to the formation of the kingdom of Mitanni. The legendary founder of the Mitannian dynasty was a king called Kirta, who was followed by a king Shuttarna. Kirta is a legendary Hurrian king He is thought to have founded the dynasty of Mitanni, but no contemporary inscriptions from his time are known to exist Nothing is known about these early kings.

Barattarna / Parsha(ta)tar

King Barattarna is known from a cuneiform tablet in Nuzi and an inscription by Idrimi of Alalakh. Idrimi was the king of Alalakh in the 15th century BC Idrimi was a Hurrianised Semitic son of the king of Aleppo who had been deposed by the new regional Alalakh (or Alalah, modern Tell Atchana near Antakya (ancient Antioch) Turkey) is the name of an ancient Amorite [3] Egyptian sources do not mention his name; that he was the king of Naharin whom Thutmose III fought against in the fifteenth century BC can only be deduced from assumptions. Thutmose III (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis III and meaning Thoth is Born) was the sixth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth Whether Parsha(ta)tar, known from another Nuzi inscription, is the same as Barattarna, or a different king, is debated.

Under the rule of Thutmose III, Egyptian troops crossed the Euphrates and entered the core lands of Mitanni. Thutmose III (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis III and meaning Thoth is Born) was the sixth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth At Megiddo, he fought an alliance of 330 Mitanni princes and tribal leaders under the ruler of Kadesh. Megiddo (מגידו is a hill in modern Israel near the Kibbutz of Megiddo, known for historical geographical and theological reasons This article is about Kadesh in Syria see also Kadesh (South of Israel or Kedesh Kadesh (also Qadesh) was an ancient city of See Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC). The Battle of Megiddo ( 15th century BC) was fought between Egyptian forces under the command of Pharaoh Thutmose III and a large Mitanni had sent troops as well. Whether this was done because of existing treaties, or only in reaction to a common threat, remains open to debate. The Egyptian victory opened the way north.

Thutmose III again waged war in Mitanni in the 33rd year of his rule. The Egyptian army crossed the Euphrates at Carchemish and reached a town called Iryn (maybe present day Erin, 20 km northwest of Aleppo. Carchemish (called Europus by the Greco-Romans) was an important ancient city of the Mitanni and Hittite empires now on the frontier between ) They sailed down the Euphrates to Emar (Meskene) and then returned home via Mitanni. Emar (modern Tell Meskene, Syria) was an ancient Amorite city on the great bend in the mid- Euphrates in northeastern Syria, now A hunt for elephants at Lake Nija was important enough to be included in the annals. This was impressive PR, but did not lead to any permanent rule. Only the area at the middle Orontes and Phoenicia became part of Egyptian territory. See Orontid dynasty for the Armenian kings and satraps called Orontes Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun

Victories over Mitanni are recorded from the Egyptian campaigns in Nuhashshe (middle part of Syria). Again, this did not lead to permanent territorial gains. Barattarna or his son Shaushtatar controlled the North Mitanni interior up to Nuhashshe, and the coastal territories from Kizzuwatna to Alalakh in the kingdom of Muksih at the mouth of the Orontes. Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna) is the name of an ancient Anatolian kingdom in the Second millennium BC. Alalakh (or Alalah, modern Tell Atchana near Antakya (ancient Antioch) Turkey) is the name of an ancient Amorite Idrimi of Alalakh, returning from Egyptian exile, could only ascend his throne with Barattarna's consent. While he got to rule Mukish and Ama'u, Aleppo remained with Mitanni. For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation.

Shaushtatar

Royal seal of Shaushtatar (late 15th century)

Shaushtatar, king of Mitanni, sacked Assur some time in the 15th century, and took the silver and golden doors of the royal palace to Washshukanni. Shaushtatar (or Šauštatar) was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni in the fifteenth century BC Assur also spelled Ashur, from Assyrian Aššur, was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria. Tell el Fakhariya, or Tell el Fecheriyeh with variants is an ancient site in the Khabur River basin in the Al Hasakah Governorate of northern Syria This is known from a later Hittite document, the Suppililiuma-Shattiwaza treaty. After the sack of Assur, Assyria may have paid tribute to Mitanni up to the time of Ashur-uballit I (1365-1330 BC). Ashur-uballit I (Aššur-uballiṭ I, was king of the Assyrian empire (1365 BC-1330 BC or 1353 BC – 1318 BC There is no trace of that in the Assyrian king lists; therefore it is probable that Assur was ruled by a native Assyrian dynasty owing allegiance to the house of Shaushtatar. While a vassal of Mitanni, the temple of Sin and Shamash was built in Assur. Sin (Akkadian Sîn, Suen; Sumerian Nanna) is a Sumerian God in Mesopotamian mythology. For the Canaanite sun godess see Shemesh Shamash was the common Akkadian name of the Sun-god and god of justice in Babylonia

Aleppo, Nuzi, and Arrapha seem to have been incorporated into Mitanni under Shaushtatar as well. For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. Nuzi (or Nuzu; Akkadian Gasur; modern Yorghan Tepe, Iraq) was an ancient Mesopotamian city southwest of Kirkuk Arrapha ( Syriac: ܐܪܦܗܐ أررابخا,عرفة was an ancient Assyrian city that existed in what is today the city of Kirkuk The palace of the crown prince, the governor of Arrapha has been excavated. Crown Princess redirects here for the ship see Crown Princess (ship. Arrapha ( Syriac: ܐܪܦܗܐ أررابخا,عرفة was an ancient Assyrian city that existed in what is today the city of Kirkuk A letter from Shaushtatar was discovered in the house of Shilwe-Teshup. His seal shows heroes and winged geniuses fighting lions and other animals, as well as a winged sun. A seal can mean a wax seal bearing an impressed figure or an embossed figure in paper with the purpose of authenticating a document but the term can also mean any device for The winged sun is a symbol (sometimes known as Behedeti, a name of Horus) associated with Divinity, Royalty and power in the Ancient Near This style, with a multitude of figures distributed over the whole of the available space, is taken as typically Hurrian. A second seal, belonging to Shuttarna I, but used by Shaushtatar, found in Alalakh, shows a more traditional Akkadian style. Alalakh (or Alalah, modern Tell Atchana near Antakya (ancient Antioch) Turkey) is the name of an ancient Amorite

The military superiority of Mitanni was probably based on the use of two-wheeled war-chariots, driven by the 'Marjannu' people. A text on the training of war-horses, written by a certain "Kikkuli the Mitannian" has been found in the archives recovered at Hattusa. Kikkuli, "master horse trainer ( assussanni, virtually Sanskrit aśva-sana-) of the land Mitanni " (LÚ A-AŠ-ŠU-UŠ-ŠA-AN-NI Hattusa (URU Ḫa-at-tu-ša 𒌷𒄩𒀜𒌅𒊭 Unicode cuneiform article to display these cuneiform characters--> More speculative is the attribution of the introduction of the chariot in Mesopotamia to early Mitanni.

Under the Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep II, Mitanni seems to have regained influence in the middle Orontes valley that had been conquered by Thutmose III. Amenhotep II (sometimes read as Amenophis II and meaning Amun is Satisfied) was the seventh Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Amenhotep fought in Syria in 1425, presumably against Mitanni as well, but did not reach the Euphrates.

Artatama I and Shuttarna II

Later on, Egypt and Mitanni became allies, and King Shuttarna II himself was received at the Egyptian court. Shuttarna II (or Šuttarna) was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni in the early 14th century BC. Amicable letters, sumptuous gifts, and letters asking for sumptuous gifts were exchanged. Mitanni was especially interested in Egyptian gold. This culminated in a number of royal marriages: the daughter of King Artatama I was married to Thutmose IV. Artatama I was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni in the late fifteenth century BC Thutmose IV (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis IV and meaning Thoth is Born) was the 8th Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty Kilu-Hepa, or Gilukhipa, the daughter of Shuttarna II, was married to Pharaoh Amenhotep III, who ruled in the early fourteenth century BC. Gilukhipa, or more probable Kilu-Hepa in Hurrian language, in the Egyptian language Kirgipa, was the daughter of Shuttarna II, king Amenhotep III (sometimes read as Amenophis III meaning Amun is Satisfied was the ninth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty. In a later royal marriage Tadu-Hepa, or Tadukhipa, the daughter of Tushratta, was sent to Egypt. Tadukhipa, in Hurrian language Tadu-Hepa, was the daughter of Tushratta, king of Mitanni (reigned c

When Amenhotep III fell ill, the king of Mitanni sent him a statue of the goddess Shaushka (Ishtar) of Niniveh that was reputed to cure diseases. Amenhotep III (sometimes read as Amenophis III meaning Amun is Satisfied was the ninth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty. Ishtar ( D IŠTAR 𒀭𒌋𒁯 is the Assyrian and Babylonian counterpart to the Sumerian Inanna and to Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa) A more or less permanent border between Egypt and Mitanni seems to have existed near Qatna on the Orontes River; Ugarit was part of Egyptian territory. Qatna, (Arabic "قطنا" modern Tell el-Mishrife, Arabic "المشرفة" Syria, in the Wadi Il-Aswad, a tributary of Ugarit ( Ugaritic: ʼugrt; Hebrew:; Arabic:) (modern Ras Shamra رأس شمرة ("top/head/cape of the wild Fennel

The reason Mitanni sought peace with Egypt may have been trouble with the Hittites. A Hittite ruler called Tudhaliya conducted campaigns against Kizzuwatna, Arzawa, Ishuwa, Aleppo, and maybe against Mitanni itself. Tudhaliya is the name of several Hittite kings Tudhaliya (also Tudhaliya I is a hypothetic pre-Empire king of the Hittites. Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna) is the name of an ancient Anatolian kingdom in the Second millennium BC. Arzawa was the name of a region or kingdom in Western Anatolia, which later to be known as Lydia (Assyrian Luddu, Greek Λυδία in the post- Hittite Isuwa (transcribed Išuwa and sometimes rendered Ishuwa) was the ancient Hittite name for one of its neighboring Anatolian kingdoms to the east in an area For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. Kizzuwatna may have fallen to the Hittites at that time.

Artashumara and Tushratta

Artashumara followed his father Shuttarna II on the throne, but was murdered by a certain UD-hi, or Uthi. It is uncertain what intrigues that followed, but UD-hi then placed Tushratta, another son of Shuttarna, on the throne. Tushratta was a king of Mitanni at the end of the reign of Amenhotep III and throughout the reign of Akhenaten -- approximately the late 14th century Probably, he was quite young at the time and was intended to serve as a figurehead only. However, he managed to dispose of the murderer, possibly with the help of his Egyptian father-in-law, but this is sheer speculation.

The Egyptians may have suspected the mighty days of Mitanni were about to end. In order to protect their Syrian border zone the new Pharaoh Akhenaten instead received envoys from the Hittites and Assyria; the former Mitannian vassal state. Akhenaten (often alt: Akhnaten, or rarely Ikhnaton) (In English ˌɑkəˡnɑtən or approximately "AHK-en-AHT-en" his royal name Amenhotep From the Amarna letters we know how Tushratta's desperate claim for a gold statue from Akhenaten developed into a major diplomatic crisis. The Amarna letters (sometimes "Amarna correspondence" or "Amarna tablets" are an archive of correspondence on Clay tablets mostly diplomatic

The unrest weakened the Mitannian control of their vassal states, and Aziru of Amurru seized the opportunity and made a secret deal with the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I. Aziru was the Canaanite ruler of Amurru modern Lebanon, in the fourteenth century BC. Amurru (or Martu) are names given in Akkadian and Sumerian texts to the god of the Amorite /Amurru people often forming part of personal Suppiluliuma I was king of the Hittites (ca 1344 – 1322 BC ( Short chronology) Kizzuwatna, which had seceded from the Hittites, was reconquered by Suppiluliuma. Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna) is the name of an ancient Anatolian kingdom in the Second millennium BC. In what has been called his first Syrian campaign, Suppiluliuma then invaded the western Euphrates valley, and conquered the Amurru and Nuhashshe in Mitanni.

According to the later Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaty, Suppiluliuma had made a treaty with Artatama II, a rival of Tushratta. Artatama II was an usurper to the throne of king Tushratta of Mitanni in the fourteenth century BC Nothing is known of this Artatama's previous life or connection, if any, to the royal family. He is called "king of the Hurri", while Tushratta went by the title "King of Mitanni". This must have disagreed with Tushratta. Suppiluliuma began to plunder the lands on the west bank of the Euphrates, and annexed Mount Lebanon. Mount Lebanon ( Arabic: جبل لبنان as a geographic designation is the Lebanese mountain range known as the Western Mountain Range of Lebanon Tushratta threatened to raid beyond the Euphrates if even a single lamb or kid was stolen.

Suppiluliuma then recounts how the land of Ishuwa on the upper Euphrates had seceded in the time of his grandfather. Isuwa (transcribed Išuwa and sometimes rendered Ishuwa) was the ancient Hittite name for one of its neighboring Anatolian kingdoms to the east in an area Attempts to conquer it had failed. In the time of his father, other cities had rebelled. Suppiluliuma claims to have defeated them, but the survivors had fled to the territory of Ishuwa, that must have been part of Mitanni. A clause to return fugitives is part of many treaties between sovereign states and between rulers and vassal states, so perhaps the harbouring of fugitives by Ishuwa formed the pretext for the Hittite invasion.

A Hittite army crossed the border, entered Ishuwa and returned the fugitives (or deserters or exile governments) to Hittite rule. "I freed the lands that I captured; they dwelt in their places. All the people whom I released rejoined their peoples, and Hatti incorporated their territories. "

The Hittite army then marched through various districts towards Washukanni. Tell el Fakhariya, or Tell el Fecheriyeh with variants is an ancient site in the Khabur River basin in the Al Hasakah Governorate of northern Syria Suppiluliuma claims to have plundered the area, and to have brought loot, captives, cattle, sheep and horses back to Hatti. He also claims that Tushratta fled, though obviously he failed to capture the capital. While the campaign weakened Mitanni, it did not endanger its existence.

In a second campaign, the Hittites again crossed the Euphrates and subdued Halab, Mukish, Niya, Arahati, Apina, and Qatna, as well as some cities whose names have not been preserved. For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. Niya, Niye, and also Niy of Thutmose I 's Ancient Egypt, also Nii of the Amarna letters, and Nihe, etc The booty from Arahati included charioteers, who were brought to Hatti together with all their possessions. While it was common practice to incorporate enemy soldiers in the army, this might point to a Hittite attempt to counter the most potent weapon of Mitanni, the war-chariots, by building up or strengthening their own chariot forces.

All in all, Suppiluliuma claims to have conquered the lands "from Mount Lebanon and from the far bank of the Euphrates". But Hittite governors or vassal rulers are mentioned only for some cities and kingdoms. While the Hittites made some territorial gains in western Syria, it seems unlikely that they established a permanent rule east of the Euphrates.

Shattiwaza

A son of Tushratta conspired with his subjects, and killed his father in order to become king. His brother Shattiwaza was forced to flee. Shattiwaza ( Šattiwaza, also Mattiwaza) was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni in the fourteenth century BC In the unrest that followed, the Assyrians asserted their independence under Ashur-uballit, and with the Alsheans invaded the country; and the pretender Artatama/Atratama II gained ascendancy, followed by his son Shuttarna. Suppiluliuma claims that "the entire land of Mittanni went to ruin, and the land of Assyria and the land of Alshi divided it between them", but this sounds more like wishful thinking. This Shuttarna maintained good relations with Assyria, and returned to it the palace doors of Asshur, that had been taken by Shaushtatar. Such booty formed a powerful political symbol in ancient Mesopotamia.

The fugitive Shattiwaza may have gone to Babylon first, but eventually ended up at the court of the Hittite king, who married him to one of his daughters. The treaty between Suppiluliuma of Hatti and Shattiwaza of Mitanni has been preserved and is one of the main sources on this period. After the conclusion of the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaty, Piyashshili, a son of Suppiluliuma, led a Hittite army into Mitanni. According to Hittite sources, Piyashshili and Shattiwaza crossed the Euphrates at Carchemish, then marched against Irridu in Hurrite territory. They sent messengers from the west bank of the Euphrates and seemed to have expected a friendly welcome, but the people were loyal to their new ruler, influenced, as Suppiluliuma claims, by the riches of Tushratta. “Why are you coming? If you are coming for battle, come, but you shall not return to the land of the Great King!” they taunted. Shuttarna had sent men to strengthen the troops and chariots of the district of Irridu, but the Hittite army won the battle, and the people of Irridu sued for peace.

Meanwhile, an Assyrian army "led by a single charioteer" marched on Washshukanni. It seems that Shuttarna had sought Assyrian aid in the face of the Hittite threat. Possibly the force sent did not meet his expectations, or he changed his mind. In any case, the Assyrian army was refused entrance, and set instead to besiege the capital. This seems to have turned the mood against Shuttarna; perhaps the majority of the inhabitants of Washshukanni decided they were better off with the Hittite Empire than with their former subjects. Anyway, a messenger was sent to Piyashshili and Shattiwaza at Irridu, who delivered his message in public, at the city gate. Piyashshili and Shattiwaza marched on Washukanni, and the cities of Harran and Pakarripa seem to have surrendered to them.

While at Pakarripa, a desolate country where the troops suffered hunger, they received word of an Assyrian advance, but the enemy never materialised. The allies pursued the retreating Assyrian troops to Nilap_ini but could not force a confrontation. The Assyrians seem to have retreated home in the face of the superior force of the Hittites.

Shattiwaza became king of Mitanni, but after Suppililiuma had taken Carchemish and the land west of the Euphrates, that were governed by his son Piyashshili, Mitanni was restricted to the Khabur river and Balikh River valleys, and became more and more dependent on their allies in Hatti. The Khabur River (also Habur Habor Kebar Chebar Chaboras; Aramaic: ܚܒܘܪ, Kurdish: Çemê Xabûr, Turkish: Habur The Balikh River (kurd Belih originates in Turkey between the Euphrates and Karaca dağ (mountain flows almost due south and empties in Syria into Some scholars speak of a Hittite puppet kingdom, a buffer-state against Assyria.

Assyria under Ashur-uballit I began to infringe on Mitanni as well. Its vassal state of Nuzi east of the Tigris was conquered and destroyed. According to the Hittitologist Trevor R. Bryce, Mitanni (or Hanigalbat as it was known) was permanently lost to Assyria sometime during the reign of Mursili III of Hatti. Trevor Robert Bryce (born 1940 is a Hittitologist specializing in ancient and classical Near-eastern history Mursili III, also known as Urhi-Teshub, was the eldest surviving son of Muwatalli II. Its loss was a major blow to Hittite prestige in the ancient world and undermined the young king's authority over his kingdom.

Shattuara I

The royal inscriptions of Adad-nirari I (c. Adad-nirari I (1307 BC – 1275 BC or 1295 BC - 1263 BC was a king of Assyria. 1307-1275) relate how King Shattuara of Mitanni rebelled and committed hostile acts against Assyria. Shattuara, also spelled Šattuara was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Hanigalbat in the thirteenth century BC How this Shattuara was related to the dynasty of Partatama is unclear. Some scholars think that he was the second son of Artatama II, and the brother of Shattiwazza's one-time rival Shuttarna. Adad-nirari claims to have captured King Shattuara and brought him to Asshur, where he took an oath as a vassal. Afterwards, he was allowed to return to Mitanni, where he paid Adad-nirari regular tribute. This must have happened during the reign of the Hittite King Mursili II, but there is no exact date. Mursili II (also spelled Mursilis II) was a king of the Hittite Empire (New kingdom ca

Wasashatta

Despite Assyrian strength, Shattuara's son Wasashatta rebelled. Wasashatta, also spelled Wasašatta was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Hanigalbat ca He sought Hittite help, but that kingdom was preoccupied with internal struggles, possibly connected with the usurpation of Hattusili III, who had driven his nephew Urhi-Teshup into exile. Hattusili III ( Hittite: "from Hattusa" was a king of the Hittite empire (New Kingdom or Late Empire ca Mursili III, also known as Urhi-Teshub, was the eldest surviving son of Muwatalli II. The Hittites took Wasashatta's money but did not help, as Adad-nirari's inscriptions gleefully note.

The Assyrians conquered the royal city of Taidu, and took Washshukannu, Amasakku, Kahat, Shuru, Nabula, Hurra and Shuduhu as well. They conquered Irridu, destroyed it utterly and sowed salt over it. The wife, sons and daughters of Wasashatta were taken to Asshur, together with lots of loot and other prisoners. As Wasashatta himself is not mentioned, he must have escaped capture. There are letters of Wasashatta in the Hittite archives. Some scholars think he became ruler of a reduced Mitanni state called Shubria. Urartu ( Assyrian: Urarṭu Urartian: Biainili Ուրարտու was an Iron Age kingdom in Eastern Anatolia ( Transcaucasia) rising

While Adad-nirari I conquered the Mitanni heartland between the Balikh and the Khabur, he does not seem to have crossed the Euphrates, and Carchemish remained part of the Hittite kingdom. With his victory over Mitanni, Adad-nirari claimed the title of Great King (sharru rabû) in letters to the Hittite rulers, who still did not consider him as an equal.

Shattuara II

In the reign of Shalmaneser I (1270s-1240s) King Shattuara of Mitanni, a son or nephew of Wasahatta, rebelled against the Assyrian yoke with the help of the Hittites and the nomadic Ahlamu around 1250 BC. Shalmaneser I ( Shulmanu-asharidu) king of Assyria. (1274 BC – 1245 BC or 1265 BC - 1235 BC Son of Adad-nirari I, he succeeded his father as King Shattuara, also spelled Šattuara was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Hanigalbat in the thirteenth century BC The Aramaeans (also Arameans) ( Aramaic / Syriac: ܐܪܡܝܐ, Ārāmāye' were a Semitic (West Semitic language group His army was well prepared; they had occupied all the mountain passes and waterholes, so that the Assyrian army suffered from thirst during their advance.

Nevertheless, Shalmaneser won a crushing victory. He claims to have slain 14,400 men; the rest were blinded and carried away. His inscriptions mention the conquest of nine fortified temples; 180 Hurrian cities were "turned into rubble mounds", and Shalmaneser "…slaughtered like sheep the armies of the Hittites and the Ahlamu his allies…". The cities from Taidu to Irridu were captured, as well as all of mount Kashiar to Eluhat and the fortresses of Sudu and Harranu to Carchemish on the Euphrates. Another inscription mentions the construction of a temple to Adad in Kahat, a city of Mitanni that must have been occupied as well. This article is about the Sumerian god Adad also known as Ishkur.

Hanigalbat as an Assyrian Province

A part of the population was deported and served as cheap labour. Administrative documents mention barley allotted to "uprooted men", deportees from Mitanni. For example, the governor of the city Nahur, Meli-Sah received barley to be distributed to deported persons from Shuduhu "as seed, food for their oxen and for themselves". The Assyrians built a line of frontier fortifications against the Hittites on the Balikh River. The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established The Balikh River (kurd Belih originates in Turkey between the Euphrates and Karaca dağ (mountain flows almost due south and empties in Syria into

Mitanni was now ruled by the Assyrian grand-vizier Ili-ippada, a member of the Royal family, who took the title of king (sharru) of Hanilgalbat. He resided in the newly built Assyrian administrative centre at Tell Sabi Abyad, governed by the Assyrian steward Tammitte. Assyrians maintained not only military and political control, but seem to have dominated trade as well, as no Hurrian names appear in private records of Shalmaneser's time.

Under Tukulti-Ninurta I (c. Tukulti-Ninurta I was a king of Assyria. (reigned 1243 BC – 1207 BC He succeeded Shalmaneser I, his father as king and won a major victory against the Hittites 1243-1207) there were again numerous deportations from Hanilgalbat (east Mitanni) to Assur, probably in connection with the construction of a new palace. As the royal inscriptions mention an invasion of Hanilgalbat by a Hittite king, there may have been a new rebellion, or at least native support of a Hittite invasion. The Assyrian towns may have been sacked at this time, as destruction levels have been found in some excavations that cannot be dated with precision, however. Tell Sabi Abyad, seat of the Assyrian government in the times of Shalmaneser, was deserted sometime between 1200 and 1150 B. C.

In the time of Ashur-nirari III (ca. Ashur-nirari III was king of Assyria. (1203 BC – 1198 BC or 1193 BC - 1187 BC 1200 BC, the beginning Bronze Age collapse), the Mushku and other tribes invaded Hanilgalbat and it was lost to Assyrian rule. The Bronze Age collapse is the name given by those historians who see the transition from the The Mushki ( Muški) were an Iron Age people of Anatolia, known from Assyrian sources The Hurrians still held Katmuhu and Paphu. In the transitional period to the Early Iron Age, Mitanni was settled by invading Aramaean tribes. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. The Aramaeans (also Arameans) ( Aramaic / Syriac: ܐܪܡܝܐ, Ārāmāye' were a Semitic (West Semitic language group

Indo-Aryan superstrate

Main article: Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni

Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrian population in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. Some theonyms proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan Superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan The Indo-Aryan languages (within the context of Indo-European studies also Indic) are a branch of the Indo-European language family The Hurrians (also Khurrites; cuneiform Ḫu-ur-ri 𒄷𒌨𒊑 were a people of the Ancient Near East, who lived in northern Mesopotamia Models of the Indo-Aryan migration discuss scenarios of Prehistoric migrations of the early Indo-Aryans to their historically attested areas of settlement ( North In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established *mitra ( Proto-Indo-Iranian, nominative *mitras) was an important Indo-Iranian divinity In Vedic religion, Varuna or Waruna ( Devanagari:वरुण IAST: varuṇa) is a god of the Sky, of Rain and Indra ( Sanskrit: इन्द्र or इंद्र Indra, Malay: Indera, Thai: พระอินทร์ Phra-Intra The Ashvins (अश्विन ( aśvin- "possessor of horses" "horse tamer" "cavalier" dual aśvinau) or Ashwini Kumaras The Ashvins (अश्विन ( aśvin- "possessor of horses" "horse tamer" "cavalier" dual aśvinau) or Ashwini Kumaras Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, round). Kikkuli, "master horse trainer ( assussanni, virtually Sanskrit aśva-sana-) of the land Mitanni " (LÚ A-AŠ-ŠU-UŠ-ŠA-AN-NI Another text has babru (babhru, brown), parita (palita, grey), and pinkara (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. Solstices occur twice a year when the tilt of the Earth's axis is most oriented toward or away from the Sun, causing the Sun to reach its northernmost and southernmost extremes The Mitanni warriors were called marya, the term for warrior in Sanskrit as well. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical

Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Shuttarna as Sutarna ("good sun"), Baratarna as Paratarna ("great sun"), Parsatatar as Paraśu-kṣatra ("ruler with axe"), Saustatar as Saukṣatra (the vrddhi of su-kṣatra "good ruler"), Artatama as "most righteous", Tushratta as Daśa-ratha ("having ten chariots"), and, Mattivaza as Mativaja ("whose wealth is prayer"). Vrddhi (वृद्धि) is a Sanskrit word meaning "growth" (from) Ratha ( Sanskrit rátha, Avestan raθa) is the Indo-Iranian term for the Spoked wheel Chariot ^[15]

Mitanni rulers

(short chronology)

All dates must be taken with caution since they are worked out only by comparison with the chronology of other ancient Near Eastern nations. The short chronology is one chronology of the Near Eastern Bronze and Early Iron Age, which fixes the reign of Hammurabi to 1728 BC – 1686 BC and the Sack of Suppiluliuma I was king of the Hittites (ca 1344 – 1322 BC ( Short chronology) The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established Pharaoh is the title given in modern parlance to the ancient Egyptian kings of all periods Amenhotep III (sometimes read as Amenophis III meaning Amun is Satisfied was the ninth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty. Akhenaten (often alt: Akhnaten, or rarely Ikhnaton) (In English ˌɑkəˡnɑtən or approximately "AHK-en-AHT-en" his royal name Amenhotep Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Amarna letters (sometimes "Amarna correspondence" or "Amarna tablets" are an archive of correspondence on Clay tablets mostly diplomatic Artatama II was an usurper to the throne of king Tushratta of Mitanni in the fourteenth century BC Suppiluliuma I was king of the Hittites (ca 1344 – 1322 BC ( Short chronology) The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established Shuttarna III was a Mitanni king who reigned for a short period in the 14th century BC. Suppiluliuma I was king of the Hittites (ca 1344 – 1322 BC ( Short chronology) The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established Shattiwaza ( Šattiwaza, also Mattiwaza) was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni in the fourteenth century BC Hittites is the conventional English-language term for an ancient people who spoke an Indo-European language and established a kingdom centered in Hattusa Shattuara, also spelled Šattuara was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Hanigalbat in the thirteenth century BC Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Adad-nirari I (1307 BC – 1275 BC or 1295 BC - 1263 BC was a king of Assyria. Wasashatta, also spelled Wasašatta was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Hanigalbat ca See Short chronology for a timeline in absolute dates The Chronology of the Ancient Near East is a framework of dates for

Legacy

Within a few centuries of the fall of Washshukanni to Assyria, Mitanni became fully Aramaized, and use of the Hurrian language began to be discouraged throughout the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Neo-Assyrian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 609 BC However, a dialect closely related to Hurrian seems to have survived in the new state of Urartu, in the mountainous areas to the north. Urartu ( Assyrian: Urarṭu Urartian: Biainili Ուրարտու was an Iron Age kingdom in Eastern Anatolia ( Transcaucasia) rising ^[16] In the 10th to 9th century BC inscriptions of Adad-nirari II and Shalmaneser III, Hanigalbat is still used as a geographical term. Adad-nirari II is generally considered to be the first King of Assyria in the Neo-Assyrian period. Shalmaneser III ( Šulmānu-ašarēdu, "the god Shulmanu is pre-eminent" was king of Assyria (859 BC-824 BC and son of the previous ruler

In later historiographies

Eusebius, writing in the early 4th century, quoted fragments of Eupolemus, a now-lost Jewish historian of the 2nd century BC, as saying that "around the time of Abraham, the Armenians invaded the Syrians". Eupolemus was a Jewish historian whose work survives only in five fragments (or possibly six fragments in the Eusebius of Caesarea 's Praeparatio Evangelia PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large This may correspond approximately to the arrival of the Mitanni, since Abraham is traditionally assumed at around the 17th century BC. The association of Mitanni with Urartu, and of Urartu with Armenia plays a certain role in Armenian nationalist historiography. Armenian nationalism in the modern period has its roots in the Romantic nationalism of Mikayel Chamchian (1738–1823 and generally defined as the the creation of ^[17]

Some Kurdish scholars believe that one of their clans, the Mattini which live in the same geographical region, preserves the name of Mitanni [4].

Sources

Further reading

See also

• Nagar, Syria
• Hurrians
• History of the Hittites

References

External links

• Mitanni (livius. org)
• Dutch excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad
• Excerpts from the text of the Shuppililiuma-Shattiwazza treaty