Citizendia

This article is about the element. For other uses, see Mercury.
80gold ← mercury → thallium
Cd
↑
Hg
↓
Uub
General
Name, Symbol, Numbermercury, Hg, 80
Chemical seriestransition metals
Group, Period, Block12, 6, d
Appearancesilvery
Standard atomic weight200. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Thallium (ˈθæliəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Tl and Atomic number 81 Cadmium (ˈkædmiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Cd and Atomic number 48 This is a typical display of the periodic table of the elements and contains the symbol and Atomic number of each element Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This is a list of Chemical elements, sorted by name Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This is a list of chemical elements by symbol, including the A table of Chemical elements ordered by Atomic number and color coded according to type of element In Chemistry a group, also known as a family, is a vertical column in the Periodic table of the Chemical elements There are 18 groups in In Chemistry, the term transition metal (sometimes also called a transition element) has two possible meanings It commonly refers to any element in In Chemistry a group, also known as a family, is a vertical column in the Periodic table of the Chemical elements There are 18 groups in In the Periodic table of the elements, a period is a horizontal row of the table A block of the Periodic table of elements is a set of adjacent groups The respective highest-energy electrons in each element in a block belong to the same Atomic See also A period 6 element is one of the Chemical elements in the sixth row (or period) of the periodic table of the elements, including the Lanthanides The d-block of the periodic table of the elements consists of those Periodic table groups that contain elements in which in the atomic ground state the highest-energy Silver is the metallic shade resembling Gray, closest to that of polished Silver. The atomic mass (ma is the Mass of an atom most often expressed in unified atomic mass units The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass 59(2)  g·mol−1
Electron configuration[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 2
Physical properties
Phaseliquid
Density (near r.t.)(liquid) 13. In Atomic physics and Quantum chemistry, electron configuration is the arrangement of Electrons in an Atom, Molecule, or other Xenon (ˈzɛnɒn or) is a Chemical element represented by the symbol Xe. The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J An electron shell may be crudely thought of as an Orbit followed by Electrons around an Atom nucleus. In the Physical sciences a phase is a Set of states of a macroscopic physical system that have relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties Liquid is one of the principal States of matter. A liquid is a Fluid that has the particles loose and can freely form a distinct surface at the boundaries of The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different Room temperature (also referred to as ambient temperature) is a common term to denote a certain Temperature within enclosed space at which humans are accustomed 534  g·cm−3
Melting point234. The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid. 32 K
(-38. The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic 83 °C, -37. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. 89 °F)
Boiling point629. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the Vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid 88 K
(356. The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic 73 °C, 674. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. 11 °F)
Critical point1750 K, 172. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 In Physical chemistry, Thermodynamics, Chemistry and Condensed matter physics, a critical point, also called a critical state The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic 00 MPa
Heat of fusion2. The standard Enthalpy of fusion (symbol \Delta{}H_{fus} also known as the heat of fusion or specific melting heat, is the amount of 29  kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization59. The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material The enthalpy of vaporization, (symbol \Delta{}_{v}H also known as the heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the Energy required 11  kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capacity(25 °C) 27. The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material Specific heat capacity, also known simply as specific heat, is the measure of the heat energy required to increase the Temperature of a unit quantity 983  J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure
P(Pa)1101001 k10 k100 k
at T(K)315350393449523629
Atomic properties
Crystal structurerhombohedral
Oxidation states2 (mercuric), 1 (mercurous)
(mildly basic oxide)
Electronegativity2. Vapor pressure (also known as equilibrium vapor pressure or saturation vapor pressure) is the Pressure of a Vapor in equilibrium In Mineralogy and Crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal. In Chemistry, the oxidation state is an indicator of the degree of Oxidation of an Atom in a Chemical compound. In Chemistry, a base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept Protons This refers to the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons 00 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies1st: 1007. The ionization potential, ionization energy or EI of an Atom or Molecule is the Energy required to remove an Electron 1 kJ/mol
2nd: 1810 kJ/mol
3rd: 3300 kJ/mol
Atomic radius150  pm
Atomic radius (calc. The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material Atomic radius, and more generally the size of an atom, is not a precisely defined Physical quantity, nor is it constant in all circumstances A picometre ( American spelling: picometer, symbol pm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one trillionth )171  pm
Covalent radius149  pm
Van der Waals radius155 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic orderingdiamagnetic
Electrical resistivity(25 °C) 961 nΩ·m
Thermal conductivity(300 K) 8. The covalent radius, r cov is a measure of the size of Atom which forms part of a Covalent bond. Van der Waals Volume The van der Waals volume, V, also called the atomic volume or molecular volume, is the atomic property most directly In Physics, magnetism is one of the Phenomena by which Materials exert attractive or repulsive Forces on other Materials. Diamagnetism is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition of an externally applied Magnetic field, thus causing a repulsive effect Electrical resistivity (also known as specific electrical resistance) is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of Electric current. In Physics, thermal conductivity, k is the property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct Heat. 30  W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion(25 °C) 60. When the Temperature of a substance changes the energy that is stored in the Intermolecular bonds between atoms changes 4  µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound(liquid, 20 °C) 1451. Sound is a vibration that travels through an elastic medium as a Wave. 4 m/s
CAS registry number7439-97-6
Selected isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of mercury
isoNAhalf-lifeDMDE (MeV)DP
194Hgsyn444 yε0. CAS registry numbers are unique numerical identifiers for Chemical compounds Polymers biological sequences mixtures and Alloys They are also referred to There are seven stable Isotopes of mercury ( Hg) with Hg-202 being the most abundant (29 Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides In Chemistry, natural abundance (NA refers to the abundance Isotopes of a Chemical element as naturally found on a planet Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. The decay energy is the Energy released by a Nuclear decay. The energy difference of the Reactants is often written as Q: where Q In Nuclear physics, a decay product, also known as a daughter product, daughter isotope or daughter nuclide, is a Nuclide A synthetic radioisotope is a Radionuclide that is not found in nature no natural process or mechanism exists which produces it or it is so unstable that it decays away in Electron capture (sometimes called inverse beta decay) is a Decay mode for Isotopes that will occur when there are too many Protons in the 040194Au
195Hgsyn9. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 A synthetic radioisotope is a Radionuclide that is not found in nature no natural process or mechanism exists which produces it or it is so unstable that it decays away in 9 hε1. Electron capture (sometimes called inverse beta decay) is a Decay mode for Isotopes that will occur when there are too many Protons in the 510195Au
196Hg0. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 15%196Hg is stable with 116 neutrons
197Hgsyn64. Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. A synthetic radioisotope is a Radionuclide that is not found in nature no natural process or mechanism exists which produces it or it is so unstable that it decays away in 14 hε0. Electron capture (sometimes called inverse beta decay) is a Decay mode for Isotopes that will occur when there are too many Protons in the 600197Au
198Hg9. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 97%198Hg is stable with 118 neutrons
199Hg16. Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. 87%199Hg is stable with 119 neutrons
200Hg23. Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. 1%200Hg is stable with 120 neutrons
201Hg13. Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. 18%201Hg is stable with 121 neutrons
202Hg29. Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. 86%202Hg is stable with 122 neutrons
203Hgsyn46. Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. A synthetic radioisotope is a Radionuclide that is not found in nature no natural process or mechanism exists which produces it or it is so unstable that it decays away in 612 dβ-0. In Nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of Radioactive decay in which a Beta particle (an Electron or a Positron) is emitted 492203Tl
204Hg6. Thallium (ˈθæliəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Tl and Atomic number 81 87%204Hg is stable with 124 neutrons
References

Mercury(IPA: /ˈmɜrkjʊri/), also called quicksilver, is a chemical element with the symbol Hg (Latinized Greek: hydrargyrum, meaning watery or liquid silver) and atomic number 80. Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Recommended values for many properties of the elements together with various references are collected on these data pages A chemical element is a type of Atom that is distinguished by its Atomic number; that is by the number of Protons in its nucleus. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly See also List of elements by atomic number In Chemistry and Physics, the atomic number (also known as the proton A heavy, silvery d-block metal, mercury is one of six elements that are liquid at or near room temperature and pressure. The d-block of the periodic table of the elements consists of those Periodic table groups that contain elements in which in the atomic ground state the highest-energy The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across Liquid is one of the principal States of matter. A liquid is a Fluid that has the particles loose and can freely form a distinct surface at the boundaries of Room temperature (also referred to as ambient temperature) is a common term to denote a certain Temperature within enclosed space at which humans are accustomed [1] The others are the metals caesium, francium, gallium, and rubidium, and the non-metal bromine. Caesium or cesium (ˈsiːziəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Cs and Atomic number 55 Francium (ˈfrænsiəm formerly known as eka-caesium and actinium K, is a Chemical element that has the symbol Fr and Gallium (ˈgæliəm is a Chemical element that has the symbol Ga and Atomic number 31 Rubidium (ruːˈbɪdiəm /rəˈbɪdiəm/ is a Chemical element with the symbol Rb and Atomic number 37 Nonmetal is a term used in Chemistry when classifying the Chemical elements On the basis of their general physical and chemical properties every element in the Of these, only mercury and bromine are liquids at standard conditions for temperature and pressure. In Physical sciences standard conditions for temperature and pressure are Standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements to allow comparisons to be made

Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers, manometers, sphygmomanometers, float valves, and other scientific apparatus, though concerns about the element's toxicity have led to mercury thermometers and sphygmomanometers being largely phased out in clinical environments in favour of alcohol-filled, digital, or thermistor-based instruments. The thermometer is a device that measures Temperature or Temperature gradient using a variety of different principles it comes from the Greek roots History The first barometer is thought to have been built unintentionally by Gasparo Berti, sometime between 1640 and 1643 Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of Pressure and Vacuum. A sphygmomanometer ( or blood pressure meter is a device used to measure Blood pressure, comprising an inflatable Cuff to restrict blood flow and a A float valve is a mechanical Feedback mechanism that regulates fluid level by using a float to drive an inlet valve so that a higher fluid level will force the valve closed In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon A thermistor is a type of Resistor with resistance varying according to its Temperature. It remains in use in a number of other ways in scientific and scientific research applications, and in amalgam material for dental restoration. A dental restoration or dental filling is a Dental restorative material used artificially to restore the function integrity and morphology of missing tooth Mercury is mostly obtained by reduction from the mineral cinnabar. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Cinnabar, sometimes written cinnabarite, is a name applied to red Mercury(II sulfide ( Hg[[sulfide S]] or native Vermilion, the common

Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world and it is harmless in an insoluble form, such as mercuric sulfide, but it is poisonous in soluble forms such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury. Mercury(II chloride or mercuric chloride (formerly corrosive sublimate) is the Chemical compound with the formula HgCl sub>2 Methylmercury (sometimes methyl mercury) is an Organometallic Cation with the formula +

Contents

History

Mercury was known to the ancient Chinese and Indians,[2] and was found in Egyptian tombs that date from 1500 BC. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now [3] In China and Tibet, mercury use was thought to prolong life, heal fractures, and maintain generally good health. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European China's first emperor, Qin Shi Huang Di — said to have been buried in a tomb that contained rivers of flowing mercury, representative of the rivers of China — was driven insane and killed by mercury pills (failing liver, poison, brain death) intended to give him eternal life. Qin Shi Huang ( (259 BC – September 10 210 BC personal name Yíng Zhèng, was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 247 BCE to 221 BCE (during the [4] The ancient Greeks used mercury in ointments; the ancient Egyptians and the Romans used it in cosmetics. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial By 500 BC mercury was used to make amalgams with other metals. The Indian word for alchemy is Rasavātam which means "the way of mercury". Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of Rasavātam ( lit, the way of Mercury) was a form of Alchemy in early India.

Alchemists often thought of mercury as the First Matter from which all metals were formed. Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of Prima Materia is according to alchemists, the alleged primitive formless base of all matter given particular manifestation through the influence of forms. They believed that different metals could be produced by varying the quality and quantity of sulfur contained within the mercury. The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 The purest of these was gold, and mercury was required for the transmutation of base (or impure) metals into gold as was the goal of many alchemists. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79

Hg is the modern chemical symbol for mercury. See also Chemical formula. A chemical symbol is an Abbreviation or shortened version of the name of a Chemical element It comes from hydrargyrum, a Latinized form of the Greek word `Υδραργυρος (hydrargyros), which is a compound word meaning "water" and "silver" — since it is liquid, like water, and yet has a silvery metallic sheen. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly The element was named after the Roman god Mercury, known for speed and mobility. "Alipes" redirects here For the Centipede Genus, see Alipes (centipede. It is associated with the planet Mercury. The astrological symbol for the planet is also one of the alchemical symbols for the metal. Mercury is the only metal for which the alchemical planetary name became the common name.

Chemistry

Isotopes

Main article: isotopes of mercury

There are seven stable isotopes of mercury with Hg-202 being the most abundant (29. There are seven stable Isotopes of mercury ( Hg) with Hg-202 being the most abundant (29 Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides 86%). The longest-lived radioisotopes are 194Hg with a half-life of 444 years, and 203Hg with a half-life of 46. A radionuclide is an Atom with an unstable nucleus, which is a nucleus characterized by excess energy which is available to be imparted either to a newly-created Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page 612 days. Most of the remaining radioisotopes have half-lives that are less than a day. 199Hg and 201Hg are the most often studied NMR-active nuclei, having spins of 1/2 and 3/2 respectively.

Reactivity and compounds

See also: Category:Mercury compounds

Mercury dissolves to form amalgams with gold, zinc and many metals. Because iron is an exception to this rule, iron flasks have been traditionally used to trade mercury. When heated, mercury also reacts with oxygen in air to form mercury oxide, which then can be decomposed by further heating to higher temperatures. Mercury(II oxide, also called mercuric oxide, has a formula of Hg[[oxygen O]] and a formula weight of 216

Since it is below hydrogen in the reactivity series of metals, mercury does not react with most acids, such as dilute sulfuric acid, though oxidizing acids such as concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid or aqua regia dissolve it to give sulfate and nitrate and chloride. In Chemistry, the reactivity series is a series of Metals in order of reactivity from highest to lowest Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and Aqua regia ( Latin for royal water) is a highly corrosive fuming yellow or red solution Similar to silver, mercury reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide (or hydrogen sulphide) is the Chemical compound with the formula H 2 S. Mercury even reacts with solid sulfur flakes, which is used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury vapors (spill kits also use activated charcoal and powdered zinc).

Some important mercury salts include:

Laboratory tests have found that an electrical discharge causes the noble gases to combine with mercury vapor. History Noble gas is translated from the German noun de ''Edelgas'' first used in 1898 by Hugo Erdmann to indicate their extremely low level of reactivity These compounds are held together with van der Waals forces and result in Hg·Ne, Hg·Ar, Hg·Kr, and Hg·Xe (see exciplex). The Van der Waals equation is an Equation of state that can be derived from a special form of the potential between a pair of molecules (hard-sphere repulsion An excimer (originally short for excited dimer) is a short-lived dimeric or heterodimeric Molecule formed from two species at least one of which is in Organic mercury compounds are also important. A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed proportion by Mass. Methylmercury is a dangerous compound that is widely found as a pollutant in water bodies and streams. Methylmercury (sometimes methyl mercury) is an Organometallic Cation with the formula + Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in

The discovery of Mercury(IV) fluoride (HgF4) was announced in September 2007. Mercury(IV fluoride, HgF4 is the first mercury compound to be discovered with the metal in the Oxidation state IV [5]

Occurrence

See also Category:Mercury minerals, Category:Mercury mines

Mercury is an extremely rare element in the Earth's crust, having an average crustal abundance by mass of only 0. 08 parts per million. However, because it does not blend geochemically with those elements that constitute the majority of the crustal mass, mercury ores can be extraordinarily concentrated considering the element's abundance in ordinary rock. The field of geochemistry involves study of the chemical composition of the Earth and other Planets chemical processes and reactions that govern the composition The richest mercury ores contain up to 2. 5% mercury by mass, and even the leanest concentrated deposits are at least 0. 1% mercury (12,000 times average crustal abundance).

It is found either as a native metal (rare) or in cinnabar, corderoite, livingstonite and other minerals, with cinnabar (HgS) being the most common ore. Cinnabar, sometimes written cinnabarite, is a name applied to red Mercury(II sulfide ( Hg[[sulfide S]] or native Vermilion, the common Corderoite is an extremely rare mercury Sulfide Chloride mineral with formula Hg3S2Cl2 Livingstonite is a mercury Antimony Sulfosalt Mineral. It occurs in low-temperature Hydrothermal veins associated A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Mercury ores usually occur in very young orogenic belts where rock of high density are forced to the crust of the Earth, often in hot springs or other volcanic regions. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the

Mercury output in 2005
Mercury output in 2005

Beginning in 1558, with the invention of the patio process to extract silver from ore using mercury, mercury became an essential resource in the economy of Spain and its American colonies. The patio process was a process used to extract Silver from ore More than 100,000 tons of mercury were mined from the region of Huancavelica, Peru, over the course of three centuries following the discovery of deposits there in 1563. Huancavelica ( Wankawillka in Quechua) is a city in Peru. It is the Capital of the Huancavelica region and has a Population Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. The patio process and later pan amalgamation process continued to create great demand for mercury to treat silver ores until the late 1800s. The Pan amalgamation process is a method to extract Silver from ore using mercury

Former mines in Italy, the United States and Mexico which once produced a large proportion of the world supply have now been completely mined out or, in the case of Slovenia and Spain, shut down due to the fall of the price of mercury. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Nevada's McDermitt Mine, the last mercury mine in the United States, closed in 1992. Nevada ( is a state located in the western region of the United States of America. McDermitt is an unincorporated community straddling the Nevada - Oregon border in Humboldt County Nevada and Malheur County Oregon The price of mercury has been highly volatile over the years and in 2006 was $650 per 76-pound flask. [6]

Mercury is extracted by heating cinnabar in a current of air and condensing the vapor. The equation for this extraction is

HgS + O2 → Hg + SO2

In 2005, China was the top producer of mercury with almost two-thirds global share followed by Kyrgyzstan. Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан [7] Several other countries are believed to have unrecorded production of mercury from copper electrowinning processes and by recovery from effluents. Electrowinning, also called electroextraction, is the Electrodeposition of Metals from their Ores that have been put in solution or liquefied

Former mercury mines may be suited for constructive re-use. For example, in 1976 Santa Clara County, California purchased the historic Almaden Quicksilver Mine and created a county park on the site, after conducting extensive safety and environmental analysis of the property. Santa Clara County is a County located in the San Francisco Bay Area of the U Almaden Quicksilver County Park is a 4147 acres (17 km² Park that includes the grounds of former mercury ("quicksilver" mines adjacent

Releases in the environment

Amount of atmospheric mercury deposited at Wyoming's Upper Fremont Glacier over the last 270 years
Amount of atmospheric mercury deposited at Wyoming's Upper Fremont Glacier over the last 270 years

Preindustrial deposition rates of mercury from the atmosphere may be in the range of 4 ng/L in the western USA. Although that can be considered a natural level of exposure, regional or global sources have significant effects. Volcanic eruptions can increase the atmospheric source by 4–6 times. [8]

Natural sources such as volcanoes are responsible for approximately half of atmospheric mercury emissions. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the [9] The human-generated half can be divided into the following estimated percentages:

The above percentages are estimates of the global human-caused mercury emissions in 2000, excluding biomass burning, an important source in some regions. [9]

Mercury use of compact fluorescent bulb vs. incandescent bulb when powered by electricity generated from coal. Coal power in the United States accounts for approximately 50% of all power produced.
Mercury use of compact fluorescent bulb vs. incandescent bulb when powered by electricity generated from coal. Coal power in the United States accounts for approximately 50% of all power produced. Coal power accounts for about half of the electricity production in the United States.

Mercury also enters into the environment through the disposal (e. g. , landfilling, incineration) of certain products. Products containing mercury include: auto parts, batteries, fluorescent bulbs, medical products, thermometers, and thermostats. In electronics a battery is a combination of two or more Electrochemical cells which store chemical Energy which can be converted into electrical energy [12] Due to health concerns (see below), toxics use reduction efforts are cutting back or eliminating mercury in such products. Waste management is the collection Transport, processing, Recycling or disposal of Waste materials For example, most thermometers now use pigmented alcohol instead of mercury. The thermometer is a device that measures Temperature or Temperature gradient using a variety of different principles it comes from the Greek roots In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Mercury thermometers are still occasionally used in the medical field because they are more accurate than alcohol thermometers, though both are being replaced by electronic thermometers. Mercury thermometers are still widely used for certain scientific applications because of their greater accuracy and working range.

The United States Clean Air Act, passed in 1990, put mercury on a list of toxic pollutants that need to be controlled to the greatest possible extent. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The 1990 Clean Air Act is a piece of United States environmental policy relating to the reduction of Smog and Air pollution. Thus, industries that release high concentrations of mercury into the environment agreed to install maximum achievable control technologies (MACT). In March 2005 EPA rule[13] added power plants to the list of sources that should be controlled and a national cap and trade rule was issued. Emissions trading (or emission trading) is an administrative approach used to control Pollution by providing economic Incentives for States were given until November 2006 to impose stricter controls, and several States are doing so. The rule was being subjected to legal challenges from several States in 2005 and decision was made in 2008. The Clean Air Mercury Rule was struck down by a Federal Appeals Court on February 8, 2008. The rule was deemed not sufficient to protect the health of persons living near coal fired power plants. The court opinion cited the negative impact on human health from coal fired power plants' mercury emissions documented in the EPA Study Report to Congress of 1998. [14]

Historically, one of the largest releases was from the Colex plant, a lithium-isotope separation plant at Oak Ridge. The plant operated in the 1950s and 1960s. Records are incomplete and unclear, but government commissions have estimated that some two million pounds of mercury are unaccounted for. [15]

One of the worst industrial disasters in history was caused by the dumping of mercury compounds into Minamata Bay, Japan. Industrial disasters are mass Disasters caused by industrial companies either by accident Negligence or incompetence is a city located in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan. It is on the west coast of Kyūshū. The Chisso Corporation, a fertilizer and later petrochemical company, was found responsible for polluting the bay from 1932–1968. The is a Japanese chemical company. It is particularly well known as a supplier of Liquid crystal used for LCD displays Chisso has been the subject of controversy Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant It is estimated that over 3,000 people suffered various deformities, severe mercury poisoning symptoms or death from what became known as Minamata disease. sometimes referred to as, is a neurological syndrome caused by severe Mercury poisoning.

Applications

Mercury column to measure pressure
Mercury column to measure pressure

Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in some thermometers, especially ones which are used to measure high temperatures (In the United States, non-prescription sale of mercury fever thermometers is banned by a number of different states and localities). The thermometer is a device that measures Temperature or Temperature gradient using a variety of different principles it comes from the Greek roots Other uses:

Miscellaneous uses: mercury switches (including home Mercury Light Switches installed prior to 1970), tilt switches used in old fire detectors, tilt switches in many modern home thermostats, electrodes in some types of electrolysis, batteries (mercury cells, including for sodium hydroxide and chlorine production, handheld games, and alkaline batteries), catalysts, insecticides, dental amalgams/preparations and liquid mirror telescopes. A mercury switch (also known as a mercury tilt switch) is a Switch whose purpose is to allow or interrupt the flow of Electric current in an Electrical A light switch is a Switch, most commonly used to operate Electric lights permanently connected equipment or Electrical outlets In modern homes An electrode is an Electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e In chemistry and manufacturing electrolysis is a method of separating chemically bonded elements and compounds by passing an Electric current In electronics a battery is a combination of two or more Electrochemical cells which store chemical Energy which can be converted into electrical energy A mercury battery (also called mercuric oxide battery, or mercury cell) is a non-rechargeable electrochemical battery, a Primary cell. Sodium hydroxide ( Na[[hydroxide OH]]) also known as Lye, caustic soda and (incorrectly according to IUPAC nomenclature Chlorine (ˈklɔriːn from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' ( khlôros, meaning 'pale green' is the Chemical element with Atomic number 17 and Alkaline batteries are a type of disposable battery dependent upon the reaction between Zinc and Manganese (IV oxide ( Zn / Mn[[Oxygen Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst An insecticide is a Pesticide used against Insects in all developmental forms Amalgam is a commonly used dental filling that has been used for over 150 years Liquid mirrors are Mirrors made with reflective liquids The most common liquid used is mercury, but other liquids will work as well (for example Low melting

The ultraviolet glow of a mercury vapor discharge in a Germicidal lamp.
The ultraviolet glow of a mercury vapor discharge in a Germicidal lamp. A germicidal lamp is a special type of lamp which produces Ultraviolet light (UVC

Historical uses: preserving wood, developing daguerreotypes, silvering mirrors, anti-fouling paints (discontinued in 1990), herbicides (discontinued in 1995), handheld maze games, cleaning, and road levelling devices in cars. The daguerreotype (original French daguerréotype) is an early type of Photograph, developed by Louis Daguerre, in which the image is exposed directly Silvering is the chemical process of coating Glass with a reflective substance A mirror is an object with a surface that has good Specular reflection; that is it is smooth enough to form an Image. A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed Mercury compounds have been used in antiseptics, laxatives, antidepressants, and in antisyphilitics. Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial Laxatives (or purgatives) are foods compounds or drugs taken to induce bowel movements or to loosen the stool most often taken to treat Constipation. An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression Syphilis is a Sexually transmitted disease caused by the spirochetal Bacterium Treponema pallidum pallidum. It was also allegedly used by allied spies to sabotage German planes. The Western Allies were the democracies and their colonial peoples within the broader coalition of Allies during World War II. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers A mercury paste was applied to bare aluminium, causing the metal to rapidly corrode. WikipediaNaming Corrosion means the breaking down of essential properties in a material due to Chemical reactions with its surroundings This would cause mysterious structural failures.

In Islamic Spain it was used for filling decorative pools. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or [17]

In some applications, mercury can be replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive galinstan alloy. Galinstan is an Eutectic Alloy of Gallium, Indium, and Tin which is liquid at room temperature typically freezing at −19 ° An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has

A new type of atomic clock, using mercury instead of caesium, has been demonstrated. An atomic clock is a type of Clock that uses an Atomic resonance Frequency standard as its timekeeping element Caesium or cesium (ˈsiːziəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Cs and Atomic number 55 Accuracy is expected to be within one second in 100 million years. [18][19]

Hat making

From the mid-18th to the mid-19th centuries, a process called "carroting" was used in the making of felt hats. Felt is a non-woven cloth that is produced by matting condensing and pressing fibers Animal skins were rinsed in an orange solution (the term "carroting" arose from this color) of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate, Hg(NO3)2·2H2O. Mercury(II nitrate is a toxic colorless or white soluble crystalline compound of mercury. [20] This process separated the fur from the pelt and matted it together. This solution and the vapors it produced were highly toxic. The United States Public Health Service banned the use of mercury in the felt industry in December 1941. Organization of the Public Health Service The Public Health Service Act placed the United States Public Health Service ( PHS) as the primary division The psychological symptoms associated with mercury poisoning are said by some to have inspired the phrase "mad as a hatter", though etymological study suggests that the phrase is actually much older and unrelated to hatters - see hatter for commentary on the origin of the phrase. "Mad as a hatter" redirects here For the Batman episode see Mad as a Hatter (Batman The Animated Series. Lewis Carroll's "Mad Hatter" in his book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland was a play on words based on the older phrase, but the character himself does not exhibit symptoms of mercury poisoning. Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (ˈdɒdsən (27 January 1832 &ndash 14 January 1898 better known by the Pen name Lewis Carroll (/ˈkærəl/ was an English The Hatter is a fictional character initially encountered at a tea party in Lewis Carroll 's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and later again as " Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865 is a novel written by English author Charles Lutwidge Dodgson better known under the Pseudonym Lewis [21]

Cosmetics

Mercury is widely used in the manufacture of mascara. Mascara is a cosmetic used to darken thicken and define Eyelashes Mascara comes in three forms liquid cake and cream In 2008, Minnesota became the first state in the US to ban intentionally added mercury in cosmetics, giving it a tougher standard than the federal government. [22]

Production of chlorine and caustic soda

Chlorine is produced from sodium chloride (common salt, NaCl) using electrolysis to separate the metallic sodium from the chlorine gas. Chlorine (ˈklɔriːn from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' ( khlôros, meaning 'pale green' is the Chemical element with Atomic number 17 and For sodium chloride in the diet see Salt. Sodium chloride, also known as common salt, table salt, or Halite, is a In chemistry and manufacturing electrolysis is a method of separating chemically bonded elements and compounds by passing an Electric current Sodium (ˈsoʊdiəm is an element which has the symbol Na( Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) atomic number 11 atomic mass 22 Usually the salt is dissolved in water to produce a brine. By-products of any such chloralkali process are caustic soda (sodium hydroxide (NaOH)) and hydrogen (H2). A chloralkali process always implies the Electrolysis of common salt or Sodium chloride. Sodium hydroxide ( Na[[hydroxide OH]]) also known as Lye, caustic soda and (incorrectly according to IUPAC nomenclature By far the largest use of mercury[23][24] in the late 1900s was in the mercury cell process (also called the Castner-Kellner process) where metallic sodium is formed as an amalgam at a cathode made from mercury; this sodium is then reacted with water to produce sodium hydroxide. The Castner-Kellner process is a method of Electrolysis on an Aqueous Alkali Chloride solution (usually Sodium chloride solution Sodium (ˈsoʊdiəm is an element which has the symbol Na( Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) atomic number 11 atomic mass 22 A cathode is an Electrode through which (positive Electric current flows out of a polarized electrical device [25] Many of the industrial mercury releases of the 1900s came from this process, although modern plants claimed to be safe in this regard. [24] After about 1985, all new chloralkali production facilities that were built in the United States used either membrane cell or diaphragm cell technologies to produce chlorine. Sodium hydroxide ( Na[[hydroxide OH]]) also known as Lye, caustic soda and (incorrectly according to IUPAC nomenclature

Dentistry

The element mercury is the main ingredient in dental amalgams. Controversy over the health effects from the use of mercury amalgams began shortly after its introduction into the western world, nearly 200 years ago,. Health effects, health impacts or health risks are changes in Health resulting from exposure to a source In 1845, The American Society of Dental Surgeons, concerned about mercury poisoning, asked its members to sign a pledge that they would not use amalgam. The American Society of Dental Surgeons (ASDS was the first national dental organization formed in the United States of America The ASDS disbanded in 1865. The American Dental Association formed three years after and currently takes the position that "amalgam is a valuable, viable and safe choice for dental patients,"[26] In 1993, the United States Public Health Service reported that "amalgam fillings release small amounts of mercury vapor," but in such a small amount that it "has not been shown to cause any . The American Dental Association (ADA is an American Professional association established in 1859 and has more than 152000 members Organization of the Public Health Service The Public Health Service Act placed the United States Public Health Service ( PHS) as the primary division . . adverse health effects". This position is not shared by all governments and there is an ongoing dental amalgam controversy. The dental amalgam controversy is a debate over the use of mercury amalgam as a Dental filling. A recent review by an FDA-appointed advisory panel rejected, by a margin of 13-7, the current FDA report on amalgam safety, stating the report's conclusions were unreasonable given the quantity and quality of information currently available. Panelists said remaining uncertainties about the risk of so-called silver fillings demanded further research; in particular, on the effects of mercury-laden fillings on children and the fetuses of pregnant women with fillings, and the release of mercury vapor on insertion and removal of mercury fillings. In Norway new dental amalgam fillings are banned from 1 January 2008. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common The Minister of the Environment and International Development announced the ban in a press release 21 December 2007. Events 69 - The end of the Year of the four emperors: Following Galba, Otho and Vitellius, Vespasian Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The ban affects the use of mercury in nearly all products. [27] The ban is implemented by changes in The Product Control Act. [28]

Medicine

Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine, although they are much less common today than they once were, now that the toxic effects of mercury and its compounds are more widely understood.

Mercury(I) chloride (also known as calomel or mercurous chloride) has traditionally been used as a diuretic, topical disinfectant, and laxative. Mercury(I chloride is the Chemical compound with the formula Hg2Cl2 Mercury(I chloride is the Chemical compound with the formula Hg2Cl2 A diuretic is any Drug that elevates the rate of urination ( Diuresis) Disinfectants are Antimicrobial agents that are applied to non-living objects to destroy Microorganisms, the process of which is known as disinfection. Laxatives (or purgatives) are foods compounds or drugs taken to induce bowel movements or to loosen the stool most often taken to treat Constipation. Mercury(II) chloride (also known as mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate) was once used to treat syphilis (along with other mercury compounds), although it is so toxic that sometimes the symptoms of its toxicity were confused with those of the syphilis it was believed to treat. Mercury(II chloride or mercuric chloride (formerly corrosive sublimate) is the Chemical compound with the formula HgCl sub>2 Syphilis is a Sexually transmitted disease caused by the spirochetal Bacterium Treponema pallidum pallidum. [29] It was also used as a disinfectant. Blue mass, a pill or syrup in which mercury is the main ingredient, was prescribed throughout the 1800s for numerous conditions including constipation, depression, child-bearing and toothaches. Blue mass was the name of a medicine prescribed made and sold in the United States in the 1800s [30] In the early 20th century, mercury was administered to children yearly as a laxative and dewormer, and it was used in teething powders for infants. The mercury containing organohalide Mercurochrome is still widely used but has been banned in some countries such as the U. Merbromin (marketed as Mercurochrome, Merbromine, Sodium mercurescein, Asceptichrome, Supercrome and Cinfacromin) is a S.

Since the 1930s some vaccines have contained the preservative thiomersal, which is metabolized or degraded to ethyl mercury. A vaccine is a biological preparation which is used to establish or improve immunity to a particular disease Thiomersal ( INN) (C9H9HgNaO2S commonly known in the United States as thimerosal, is an Organomercury compound (approximately Ethylmercury (sometimes ethyl mercury) is a Cation composed of an Ethyl group and a mercury atom its chemical formula is C 2 Although it was widely speculated that this mercury-based preservative can cause or trigger autism in children, scientific studies showed no evidence supporting any such link. The thiomersal controversy is between claims that Thiomersal -containing Vaccines (TCVs cause or contribute to the development of Autism and other Language development. The terminology [31] Nevertheless thiomersal has been removed from or reduced to trace amounts in all U. S. vaccines recommended for children 6 years of age and under, with the exception of inactivated influenza vaccine. [32]

Mercury in the form of one of its common ores, cinnabar, remains an important component of Chinese, Tibetan, and Ayurvedic medicine. Cinnabar, sometimes written cinnabarite, is a name applied to red Mercury(II sulfide ( Hg[[sulfide S]] or native Vermilion, the common Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Tibetan medicine is a centuries-old traditional medical system that employs a complex approach to diagnosis incorporating techniques such as pulse analysis and Urinalysis, and Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other As problems may arise when these medicines are exported to countries that prohibit the use of mercury in medicines, in recent times, less toxic substitutes have been devised.

Today, the use of mercury in medicine has greatly declined in all respects, especially in developed countries. Thermometers and sphygmomanometers containing mercury were invented in the early 18th and late 19th centuries, respectively. A mercury-in-glass thermometer, invented by German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, is a Thermometer consisting of mercury in a Glass A sphygmomanometer ( or blood pressure meter is a device used to measure Blood pressure, comprising an inflatable Cuff to restrict blood flow and a In the early 21st century, their use is declining and has been banned in some countries, states and medical institutions. In 2002, the U.S. Senate passed legislation to phase out the sale of non-prescription mercury thermometers. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives A prescription (℞ is a health-care program implemented by a Physician or other medical practitioner in the form of instructions that govern the plan of care for an individual In 2003, Washington and Maine became the first states to ban mercury blood pressure devices. Washington ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The State of Maine ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean [33] Mercury compounds are found in some over-the-counter drugs, including topical antiseptics, stimulant laxatives, diaper-rash ointment, eye drops, and nasal sprays. Over-the-counter (OTC drugs are medicines that may be sold without a prescription, in contrast to Prescription drugs The name "over-the-counter" Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial Laxatives (or purgatives) are foods compounds or drugs taken to induce bowel movements or to loosen the stool most often taken to treat Constipation. Diaper rash ( US) or nappy rash ( UK) is a generic term applied to Skin rashes in the Diaper area that are caused by various skin An ointment is a viscous semisolid preparation used topically on a variety of body surfaces Eye drops are saline -containing Drops used as a vector to administer medication in the Eye. Nasal sprays, or nasal mists, are used for the nasal delivery of a drug or drugs generally to alleviate cold or Allergy symptoms such as Nasal congestion The FDA has “inadequate data to establish general recognition of the safety and effectiveness,” of the mercury ingredients in these products. [34] Mercury is still used in some diuretics, although substitutes now exist for most therapeutic uses.

Gold mining

Mercury was historically extensively used in hydraulic gold mining, in order to help the gold to sink through the flowing water-gravel mixture. Thin mercury particles may form mercury-gold amalgam and therefore increase the gold recovery rates. Large scale use of mercury stopped in the 1960s. However mercury is still used in small scale, often clandestine, gold prospection. Total use of mercury in placer mining in California has been estimated to more than 4500 tons (10,000,000 lbs). Placer mining (pronounced "plass-er" refers to the mining of alluvial deposits for Minerals This may be done by open-pit (also called open-cast [35]

Mercury was also historically used in silver mining. [36]

Safety

See also: mercury poisoning

Mercury and most of its compounds are extremely toxic and are generally handled with care; in cases of spills involving mercury (such as from certain thermometers or fluorescent light bulbs) specific cleaning procedures are used to avoid toxic exposure. Mercury poisoning (also known as mercurialism, hydrargyria, Hunter-Russell syndrome, or acrodynia when affecting children is a Disease A mercury-in-glass thermometer, invented by German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, is a Thermometer consisting of mercury in a Glass A fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a Gas-discharge lamp that uses Electricity to excite mercury Vapor. [37] It can be inhaled and absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes, so containers of mercury are securely sealed to avoid spills and evaporation. Heating of mercury, or compounds of mercury that may decompose when heated, is always carried out with adequate ventilation in order to avoid exposure to mercury vapor. The most toxic forms of mercury are its organic compounds, such as dimethylmercury and methylmercury. An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon. Dimethylmercury (( C[[Hydrogen H]]32 Hg) is a flammable colorless liquid and one of the strongest known Neurotoxins It is described Methylmercury (sometimes methyl mercury) is an Organometallic Cation with the formula + Mercury can cause both chronic and acute poisoning.

Amando Kapauan was among the first to look into the problem of mercury in the environment, and he designed the appropriate equipment for mercury analysis in water, fish, and soil. Amando Kapauan ( July 4, 1931 &ndash

Occupational exposure

Due to the health effects of mercury exposure, industrial and commercial uses are regulated in many countries. The World Health Organization, OSHA, and NIOSH all treat mercury as an occupational hazard, and have established specific occupational exposure limits. For the European Agency see European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, (OSHA The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (or NIOSH) is the United States federal agency responsible for conducting research and making recommendations Environmental releases and disposal of mercury are regulated in the U. S. primarily by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.

Case control studies have shown effects such as tremors, impaired cognitive skills, and sleep disturbance in workers with chronic exposure to mercury vapour even at low concentrations in the range 0. Case-control is a type of Epidemiological Study design. Case-control studies are used to identify factors that may contribute to a medical condition by comparing subjects 7–42 μg/m3. [38][39]

A study has shown that acute exposure (4–8 hours) to calculated elemental mercury levels of 1. 1 to 44 mg/m3 resulted in chest pain, dyspnea, cough, hemoptysis, impairment of pulmonary function, and evidence of interstitial pneumonitis. Dyspnea or dyspnoea (pronounced disp-nee-ah, IPA /dɪsp'niə/ from Latin dyspnoea, from Greek dyspnoia from Hemoptysis or haemoptysis (see American and British spelling differences) is the expectoration ( Coughing up of Blood or of blood-stained Pneumonitis is a general term that refers to inflammation of lung tissue [40]

Acute exposure to mercury vapor has been shown to result in profound central nervous system effects, including psychotic reactions characterized by delirium, hallucinations, and suicidal tendency. Occupational exposure has resulted in broad-ranging functional disturbance, including erethism, irritability, excitability, excessive shyness, and insomnia. Erethism or erethism mercurialis is a symptom complex of mercury poisoning presenting with excessive Shyness, timidity and social phobia With continuing exposure, a fine tremor develops and may escalate to violent muscular spasms. Tremor initially involves the hands and later spreads to the eyelids, lips, and tongue. Long-term, low-level exposure has been associated with more subtle symptoms of erethism, including fatigue, irritability, loss of memory, vivid dreams, and depression. [41][42]

Treatment

Research on the treatment of mercury poisoning is limited. Currently available drugs for acute mercurial poisoning include chelators N-acetyl-D,L-penicillamine (NAP), British Anti-Lewisite (BAL), 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS), and dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). Penicillamine is a Pharmaceutical of the chelator class It is sold under the trade names of Cuprimine and Depen. Dimercaprol ( INN) or British anti-Lewisite (abbreviated BAL) is a compound developed by British biochemists at Oxford University during 23-Dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (abbreviated DMPS) and its sodium salt (known as Unithiol) are Chelating agents that form complexes with various Dimercaptosuccinic acid, or DMSA is the Chemical compound with the formula HO2CCH(SHCH(SHCO2H In one small study including 11 construction workers exposed to elemental mercury, patients were treated with DMSA and NAP. [43] Chelation therapy with both drugs resulted in the mobilization of a small fraction of the total estimated body mercury. DMSA was able to increase the excretion of mercury to a greater extent than NAP.

Mercury in fish

California sign warning about the risks from mercury-containing fish.
California sign warning about the risks from mercury-containing fish.

Fish and shellfish have a natural tendency to concentrate mercury in their bodies, often in the form of methylmercury, a highly toxic organic compound of mercury. Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two Shellfish is a Culinary and Fisheries term for those aquatic Invertebrate animals that are used as Food: various species of molluscs Methylmercury (sometimes methyl mercury) is an Organometallic Cation with the formula + Species of fish that are high on the food chain, such as shark, swordfish, king mackerel, albacore tuna, and tilefish contain higher concentrations of mercury than others. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. Sharks ( Superorder Selachimorpha) are a type of Fish with a full cartilaginous Skeleton and a highly streamlined body Swordfish ( Xiphias gladius) are large highly migratory Predatory Fish characterized by a long flat bill. The king mackerel ( Scomberomorus cavalla) is a migratory species of Mackerel that lives its entire life in the open waters of the western Atlantic Ocean The albacore, Thunnus alalunga, is a type of Tuna in the family Scombridae. Tilefishes, also known as blanquillo, are mostly small Perciform marine Fish comprising the family Malacanthidae. This is because mercury is stored in the muscle tissues of fish, and when a predatory fish eats another fish, it assumes the entire body burden of mercury in the consumed fish. Since fish are less efficient at depurating than accumulating methylmercury, fish-tissue concentrations increase over time. Thus species that are high on the food chain amass body burdens of mercury that can be ten times higher, or more, than the species they consume. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. This process is called biomagnification. Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification, or biological magnification is the increase in concentration of a substance such as the Pesticide The first occurrence of widespread mercury poisoning in humans occurred this way in Minamata, Japan, now called Minamata disease. Mercury poisoning (also known as mercurialism, hydrargyria, Hunter-Russell syndrome, or acrodynia when affecting children is a Disease is a city located in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan. It is on the west coast of Kyūshū. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. sometimes referred to as, is a neurological syndrome caused by severe Mercury poisoning.

The complexities associated with mercury transport and environmental fate are described by USEPA in their 1997 Mercury Study Report to Congress. [44] Because methylmercury and high levels of elemental mercury can be particularly toxic to unborn or young children, organizations such as the U.S. EPA and FDA recommend that women who are pregnant or plan to become pregnant within the next one or two years, as well as young children avoid eating more than 6 ounces (one average meal) of fish per week. [45]

In the United States the FDA has an action level for methyl mercury in commercial marine and freshwater fish that is 1. 0 parts per million (ppm), and in Canada the limit for the total of mercury content is 0. 5 ppm. The Got Mercury? website includes a calculator for determining mercury levels in fish. Got Mercury? is a public awareness campaign about mercury levels in Seafood. [46]

Species with characteristically low levels of mercury include shrimp, tilapia, salmon, pollock, and catfish (FDA March 2004). True shrimp are swimming decapod Crustaceans classified in the Infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh Tilapia (təˌlɑpiə is the common name for nearly a hundred Species of Cichlid Fishes from the Tilapiine cichlid tribe Salmon is the common name for several species of Fish of the family Salmonidae. Pollock (or pollack, pronounced the same and listed first in most UK and US dictionaries is the common name used for either of the two Species of marine Catfish ( order Siluriformes) are a very diverse group of bony Fish. The FDA characterizes shrimp, catfish, pollock, salmon, and canned light tuna as low-mercury seafood, although recent tests have indicated that up to 6 percent of canned light tuna may contain high levels. [47]

Mercury and aluminium

Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminum amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact. WikipediaNaming Aluminium amalgam is a Solution of Aluminium in mercury However, when the amalgam is exposed to air, the aluminium oxidizes, leaving behind mercury. The oxide flakes away, exposing more mercury amalgam, which repeats the process. This process continues until the supply of amalgam is exhausted, and since it releases mercury, a small amount of mercury can “eat through” a large amount of aluminium over time, by progressively forming amalgam and relinquishing the aluminium as oxide.

Aluminium in air is ordinarily protected by a molecule-thin layer of its own oxide, which is not porous to oxygen. Mercury coming into contact with this oxide does no harm. However, if any elemental aluminium is exposed (even by a recent scratch), the mercury may combine with it, starting the process described above, and potentially damaging a large part of the aluminium before it finally ends. [48]

For this reason, restrictions are placed on the use and handling of mercury in proximity with aluminium. In particular, mercury is not allowed aboard aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft.

Regulations

In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency is charged with regulating and managing mercury contamination. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Several laws give the EPA this authority, including the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Safe Drinking Water Act. A Clean Air Act describes one of a number of pieces of legislation relating to the reduction of Smog and Air pollution in general The Clean Water Act is the primary Federal law in the United States governing Water pollution. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA enacted in 1976, is a Federal law of the United States contained in 42 U The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA is the principal federal law in the United States that ensures safe Drinking water for the public Additionally, the Mercury-containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act, passed in 1996, phases out the use of mercury in batteries, and provides for the efficient and cost-effective disposal of many types of used batteries. The Mercury-containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act (Public law 104-142) was enacted by President Bill Clinton in 1996 [49]

In the European Union, the directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (see RoHS) bans mercury from certain electrical and electronic products, and limits the amount of mercury in other products to less than 1000 ppm. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in The Directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment 2002/95/EC ( / commonly referred to as the Restriction of Hazardous "Parts-per" notation is used especially in Science and Engineering, to denote Ratios (relative proportions in measured quantities particularly [50] There are restriction for mercury concentration in packaging (the limit is 100 ppm for sum of mercury, lead, hexavalent chromium and cadmium) and batteries (the limit is 5 ppm). Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Hexavalent chromium ( Cr(VI) compounds are those which contain the element Chromium in the +6 Oxidation state. Cadmium (ˈkædmiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Cd and Atomic number 48 [51] In July 2007, the European Union also banned mercury in non-electrical measuring devices, such as thermometers and barometers. The ban applies to new devices only, and contains exemptions for the health care sector and a two year grace period for manufacturers of barometers. [52] Norway enacted a total ban on the use of mercury in the manufacturing and import/export of mercury products, effective January 1, 2008. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common [53] In 2002, several lakes in Norway were found to have a poor state of mercury pollution, with 1 mg/g of mercury. [54]

Mercury Spills

Mercury spillage in St. Andrew's School(paranaque)

In February 2006, the school had a mercury spillage during a science experiment on February 16. From the 89 students exposed with mercury, 11 were confined in the Philippine General Hospital on February 20,[55] and were released after few days. The Philippine General Hospital (PGH is a tertiary state-owned hospital administered and operated by the University of the Philippines Manila, the University of the [56] Several students were given chelation therapy to remove the mercury in their blood. Chelation is the binding or complexation of a bi- or multidentate Ligand. [57] Due to the incident, the school was temporarily closed. Graduating students, whose education was postponed due to the school's closure, had classes on St. Paul's College of Parañaque; while the undergraduates had home studying modules. Homeschooling (also called home education) home learning or homeschool  – is the education of children at home typically by parents or professional [58] Different agencies from the national and local government pushed efforts to decontaminate the mercury, though they were unsuccessful. [59] The Department of Health hired experts from United States for the clean-up,[60] and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of United States responded to give help. The Philippines' Department of Health ( DOH) ( Filipino: Kagawaran ng Kalusugan) is the principal health agency in the Philippines [61] Globecare and Royal Haskoning of the Netherlands conducted the clean-up and charged for free. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Jun Bernabe, mayor of Parañaque, purchased a Lumex machine that aided in conducting mercury levels in the school premises. Parañaque representative Eduardo "Ed" Zialcita proposed a bill that bans the use of mercury in schools. The Congress of the Philippines ( Filipino: Kongréso ng Pilipínas) is the national Legislature of the Philippines. [62]

Health Secretary Francisco Duque, after assuring on the positive findings of the Inter-Agency on Environmental Health validated by the US EPA, declared the school safe from mercury contamination and classes will resume on June 2006. Francisco Duque III, Philippine Secretary of Health was born on February 13 1957 in Manila. [63]

Despite the incident, St. Andrew's School gained an award from the Consumers and Marketing Executive in the Philippine Marketing Excellency Awards for being The Most Outstanding Catholic School for Boys (Parañaque) on May 2006. [64]

Origin of the spillage

Mercury in a beaker
Mercury in a beaker

There were several claims on the origin of the mercury spillage. One is the location of the spillage; there were reports that the mercury spilled in the classroom[59] or in the science laboratory. [65] Another is the action on how the mercury spilled. There were claims that the science teacher allowed to pass the beaker of mercury to the class only to observe it;[55] others claimed that the students played with the mercury,[66][59] and others claimed that the beaker was accidentally opened. [56]

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