Medieval cuisine includes the foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various European cultures during the Middle Ages, a period roughly dating from the 5th to the 16th century. Cuisine (from French cuisine, "cooking culinary art kitchen" ultimately from Latin coquere, "to cook" is a specific set Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an Cooking is the process of preparing Food by applying Heat, selecting measuring and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure for producing safe and edible The culture of Europe might better be described as a series of overlapping cultures During this period, diets and cooking changed across Europe, and these changes helped lay the foundations for modern European cuisine. This article is primarily about the human diet For a discussion of animal diets see List of feeding behaviours. European cuisine, or alternatively Western cuisine is a generalized term collectively referring to the Cuisines of Europe and other Western countries
Bread was the staple, followed by other foods made from cereals, such as porridge and pasta. Bread is a Staple food prepared by Baking a Dough of Flour and Water. Porridge, or porage, is a simple dish made by boiling Oats (normally crushed oats occasionally Oatmeal) or another cereal in Water Pasta ( Italian for "dough" is a generic term for Italian variants of Noodles. Meat was more prestigious and more expensive than grain or vegetables. In modern English usage meat most often refers to Animal tissue used as food mostly Skeletal muscle and associated Fat, but it may also refer The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however Common seasonings included verjuice, wine and vinegar. Alternate meanings Seasoning (cast iron; Seasoning (wood; Seasoning (slave Seasoning is the process of imparting or improving Verjuice (from Middle French vertjus "green juice" is a very acidic juice made by pressing unripe Grapes Sometimes Lemon or Sorrel Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the Fermentation of Ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient Acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid These, along with the widespread use of honey or sugar (among those who could afford it), gave many dishes a sweet-sour flavor. Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. Sweet and sour is a generic term that encompasses many styles of sauce cuisine and cooking methods The most popular types of meat were pork and chicken, while beef, which required greater investment in land, was less common. Pork' is the Culinary name for Meat from the domestic Pig ( Sus scrofa) often specifically the fresh meat but can be used as an all-inclusive Chicken is the Meat derived from the Chicken. It is the most common type of Poultry in the world and is frequently prepared as Food Beef is the Culinary name for Meat from Bovines especially domestic Cattle (cows Cod and herring were mainstays among the northern population, but a wide variety of other saltwater and freshwater fish were also eaten. Cod is the common name for the Genus Gadus of Fish, belonging to the family Gadidae, and is also used in the common name of a variety Herring are small Oily fish of the genus Clupea found in the shallow temperate waters of the North Atlantic, the Baltic Sea, the North Almonds, both sweet and bitter, were eaten whole as garnish, or more commonly ground up and used as a thickener in soups, stews, and sauces. The Almond ( Prunus dulcis, syn Prunus amygdalus Batsch Amygdalus communis L For other uses see Garnish (disambiguation Garnish is a substance used primarily as an embellishment or decoration to a prepared food or drink Thickening agents, or thickeners, are substances which when added to an aqueous mixture increase its Viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties Soup is a Food that is made by combining ingredients such as Meat and Vegetables in stock or hot/boiling Water, until the flavor A stew is a combination of Solid Food Ingredients that have been Cooked in Water or other water-based liquid typically by Simmering In Cooking, a sauce is Liquid or sometimes semi- Solid food served on or used in preparing other Foods Sauces are not consumed by themselves Particularly popular was almond milk, which was a common substitute for animal milk as a cooking medium during Lent and fasts. Almond milk is a milky drink made from ground Almonds Unlike animal Milk, almond milk contains no Cholesterol or Lactose and can be used Milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the Mammary glands of female Mammals (including Monotremes. Lent, in some Christian denominations, is the forty-day-long liturgical season of fasting and prayer before Easter. For Roman Catholics, Fasting is the reduction of one's intake of food to one full meal a day
Slow transportation and inefficient food preservation techniques prevented long-distance trade of many foods. Food preservation is the process of treating and handling Food in a way that preserves its edibility and nutrition value Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. For the most part, only the wealthy, especially the nobility, could afford imported ingredients such as spices. Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive Because of this, their cuisine was more prone to foreign influence than the cuisine of poorer people. As each level of society imitated the one above it, innovations from international trade and foreign wars gradually disseminated through the upper middle class of medieval cities.
In a time when famine was commonplace and social hierarchies were often brutally enforced, food was an important marker of social status in a way that has no equivalent today in most developed countries. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation Social hierarchy is a multi-tiered pyramid-like social or functional structure having an apex as the centralization of power The term developed country, or advanced country, is used to categorize countries with developed Economies in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors Aside from economic unavailability of luxuries such as spices, decrees outlawed consumption of certain foods among certain social classes, and sumptuary laws limited the conspicuous consumption among the nouveau riche who were not nobility. Sumptuary laws (from Latin sumptuariae leges) are Laws which attempt to regulate habits of consumption Conspicuous consumption is a term used to describe the lavish spending on goods and services acquired mainly for the purpose of displaying Income or Wealth. Nouveau riche ( French for "new rich" or new money, refers to a person who has acquired considerable Wealth within his or her Social norms also dictated that the food of the working class be less refined, since it was believed there was a divine or natural resemblance between one's labor and one's food, so manual labor required coarser, cheaper food. Social norms have been defined as "the rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values beliefs attitudes and behaviors Working class is a term used in academic Sociology and in ordinary conversation to describe depending on context and speaker those employed in specific fields or types
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Dietary norms
The cuisines of the cultures around the Mediterranean had since antiquity been based on cereals, particularly various types of wheat. Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Porridge and gruel, and later bread became the basic food staple that made up the majority of calorie intake for most of the population. The dependence on wheat remained as significant long into medieval era, and with the rise of Christianity spread northwards. The centrality of bread in religious rituals such as the Eucharist meant that it enjoyed an especially high prestige among foodstuffs. The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names is a Christian Sacrament by which in a common interpretation those Only (olive) oil and wine had a comparable value, but remained so much more exclusive outside of the warmer wine and olive growing regions. The role of bread as symbolic of sustenance (and even substance) is illustrated in a sermon given by Saint Augustine:
| “ | This bread retells your history … You were brought to the threshing floor of the Lord and were threshed … While awaiting catechism, you were like grain kept in the granary … At the baptismal font you kneaded into a single dough. Threshing is the process of loosening the edible part of Cereal Grain from the scaly inedible Chaff that surrounds it A catechism (ˈkætəkɪzəm κατηχισμός is a summary or exposition of Doctrine, traditionally used in Christian religious teaching from New Testament In the oven of the Holy Ghost you were baked into God’s true bread. | ” |
From the 8th to the 11th centuries, the proportion of various cereals rose from a mere 1/3 to around ¾ and bread remained the basic staple in most of Europe long into the modern era. [1]
The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches and their calendars had great influence on eating habits; consumption of meat was forbidden for a full third of the year for most Christians, and all animal products, including eggs and dairy products (but not fish), were generally prohibited during Lent and fast. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world An egg is a round or oval body laid by the female of many animals consisting of an Ovum surrounded by layers of Membranes and an outer casing which acts to nourish Dairy products are generally defined as Foodstuffs produced from Milk. Lent, in some Christian denominations, is the forty-day-long liturgical season of fasting and prayer before Easter. Fasting is primarily the act of willingly abstaining from some or all Food, Drink, or both for a period of time The church often made exceptions where non-animal alternatives were unavailable or simply unaffordable (e. g. the puffin being considered a fish for coastal fishermen in Norway). Puffin describes any of four Auk species (or alcids) in the Bird genus Fratercula (Latin little brother — probably a reference From around the time of the Roman Empire until about 800 AD many stone inscriptions can be found written in Runes Exempt from fasting regulations were children, the old, pilgrims, workers and beggars, but not the poor as long as they had some sort of shelter. A pilgrim is one who undertakes a Pilgrimage, literally 'far afield' Additionally, it was customary for all citizens to fast prior to taking the Eucharist, and these fasts were occasionally for a full day and required total abstinence. The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names is a Christian Sacrament by which in a common interpretation those
Medical science of the Middle Ages had a much greater influence on what was considered healthy and nutritious. One's lifestyle — including diet, exercise, appropriate social behavior, and approved medical remedies — was the way to good health, and all types of food were assigned certain properties that affected a person's health. All foodstuffs were also classified on scales ranging from hot to cold and moist to dry, according to the four bodily humors theory proposed by Galen that dominated Western medical science from late Antiquity until the 17th century. Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or
Fasting
Apart from the regimen dictated by physicians, the medieval diet was heavily influenced by religious restrictions. Both the eastern and the western churches ordained that feast should be alternated with fast. In most of Europe, Wednesdays, Fridays, sometimes Saturdays and various other days on the calendar, including Lent and Advent, were fast days. Lent, in some Christian denominations, is the forty-day-long liturgical season of fasting and prayer before Easter. Advent (from the Latin word la ''adventus'' meaning "coming" is a season of the Christian church, the period of expectant waiting and preparation for the Meat and animal products like milk, cheese, butter and eggs were not allowed, only fish. The fast was intended to mortify the body and invigorate the soul, to reinforce the medieval dogma that the flesh was inferior, and also to remind of Christ's sacrifice for humanity. Dogma (the plural is either dogmata or dogmas, Greek, plural) is the established Belief or Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " The intention was not to portray certain foods as unclean, but rather that abstention was a spiritual lesson in self-restraint. During particularly severe fast days, the number of daily meals was also reduced to one. Even if most people respected these restrictions and usually made penance when they violated them, there were also numerous ways of circumventing the problem, a conflict of ideals and practice eloquently summarized by scholar Bridget Ann Henisch:
| “ | It is the nature of man to build the most complicated cage of rules and regulations in which to trap himself, and then, with equal ingenuity and zest, to bend his brain to the problem of wriggling triumphantly out again. Penance is repentance of Sins as well as the proper name of the Catholic and Orthodox Christian Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation/Confession Lent was a challenge; the game was to ferret out the loopholes. [2] | ” |
While animal products were to be avoided during times of penance, pragmatic compromises often prevailed. The definition of "fish" was often extended to marine and semi-aquatic animals such as whales, barnacle geese, puffins and even beavers. Whales are marine mammals which are neither Dolphins (ie members of the families Delphinidae or Platanistoidae) nor Porpoises Orcas The Barnacle Goose ( Branta leucopsis) belongs to the Genus Branta of black geese, which contains Species with largely black Beavers are two primarily nocturnal semi-aquatic species of Rodent, one native to North America and one to Europe The choice of ingredients may have been limited, but that did not mean that meals were smaller. Neither were there any restrictions against (moderate) drinking or eating sweets. Banquets held on fish days could be splendid, and they were popular occasions for serving illusion food that imitated meat, cheese and eggs in various ingenious ways; fish could be molded to look like venison and fake eggs could be made by stuffing empty egg shells with fish roe and almond milk and cooking it in coals. Venison is the Culinary name for Meat from the family Cervidae. Roe or hard roe is the fully ripe internal ovaries or egg masses of Fish and certain marine Animals such as Shrimp, Scallop While Byzantine church officials took a hard-line approach, and discouraged any culinary refinement for the clergy, their western counterparts were far more lenient. [3] There are many accounts of members of monastic orders who flouted fasting restrictions through clever interpretations of the Bible. Those living the monastic life are known by the generic terms Monks (men and Nuns (women Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Since the sick were exempt from fasting, there often evolved the notion that fasting restrictions only applied to the main dining area, and many friars would simply eat their fast day meals in what would later evolve into the misericord rather than the refectory. A Friar is a member of one of the Mendicant orders. Friars and monks Friars differ from Monks in that they are called to a life of poverty in service MisericordiaJPG|thumb|Misericord from Magdalen College Oxford. Trapeza redirects here for the prehistoric Greek settlement see Trapeza Crete. Newly assigned Catholic monastery officials sought to amend the problem of fast evasion not merely with moral condemnation, but by making sure that well-prepared non-meat dishes were available on fast days. There was also no lack of grumbling about the rigors of fast among the laity. During Lent, kings and schoolboys, commoners and nobility, all complained about being deprived of meat for the long, hard weeks of solemn contemplation of their sins. At Lent, owners of livestock were even warned to keep an eye out for hungry dogs frustrated by a "hard siege by Lent and fish bones". [4]
Medieval dietetics
Medieval scholars considered human digestion to be a process similar to cooking. For contemporary medicine practiced outside of Europe see Islamic medicine, Byzantine medicine, Traditional Chinese medicine, and Ayurveda Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed The processing of food in the stomach was seen as a continuation of the preparation initiated by the cook. In order for the food to be properly "cooked" and for the nutrients to be properly absorbed, it was important that the stomach be filled in an appropriate manner. In Human anatomy, the stomach is a J-shaped hollow muscular organ of the Gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of Digestion, following Easily digestible foods would be consumed first, followed by gradually heavier dishes. If this regimen was not respected it was believed that heavy foods would sink to the bottom of the stomach, thus blocking the digestion duct, so that food would digest very slowly and cause putrefaction of the body and draw bad humors into the stomach. It was also of vital importance that food of differing properties not be mixed. [5]
Before a meal, the stomach would preferably be "opened" with an apéritif (from Latin aperire, "to open") that was preferably of a hot and dry nature: confections made from sugar- or honey-coated spices like ginger, caraway and seeds of anise, fennel or cumin, wine and sweetened fortified milk drinks. An apéritif (also spelled aperitif) is an alcoholic drink that is usually served to stimulate the appetite before a meal Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Confectionery is a set of Food items that are rich in Sugar; modern usage may include substances rich in artificial sweeteners as well Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the Ginger is commonly used as a cooking spice throughout the world Caraway or Persian cumin ( Carum carvi) is a Biennial plant in the family Apiaceae, native to Europe and western Asia '''Anise''' or Aniseed, less commonly anís (stressed on the second syllable ( Pimpinella anisum) is a Flowering plant in the family Apiaceae Fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare) is a Plant Species in the Genus Foeniculum (treated as the sole species in the genus by As the stomach had been opened, it should then be "closed" at the end of the meal with the help of a digestive, most commonly a dragée, which during the Middle Ages consisted of lumps of spiced sugar, or hypocras, a wine flavored with fragrant spices, along with aged cheese. thumb|Another form of dragée „Liebesperlen“ sweets (love pearls A dragée (dræˈʒeɪ dra-ZHAY from Greek tragêmata "sweets treats" Hypocras (various spellings include ypocras, hippocras and hipocras) is a drink made from Wine, possibly heated and mixed with spices most
A meal would ideally begin with easily digestible fruit, such as apples. It would then be followed by vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage, purslane, herbs, moist fruits, light meats like chicken or goat kid with potages and broths. Lettuce ( Lactuca sativa) is a Temperate annual or Biennial plant of the daisy family Asteraceae. The cabbage ( Brassica oleracea var capitata) is a leafy garden plant of the Family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae used as a Portulaca oleracea ( Common Purslane, also known as Verdolaga, Pigweed, Little Hogweed or Pusley) is an annual The domestic goat ( Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of goat Domesticated from the Wild goat of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe Potage (from Old French pottage; "potted dish" is a category of thick Soups Stews or Porridges in some of which meat and Broth is a Liquid in which Bones Meat, Fish, Cereal grains or Vegetables have been simmered and strained out Later would be consumed heavy meats such as pork and beef, as well as vegetables and nuts like pears and chestnuts, both considered difficult to digest. Pork' is the Culinary name for Meat from the domestic Pig ( Sus scrofa) often specifically the fresh meat but can be used as an all-inclusive Beef is the Culinary name for Meat from Bovines especially domestic Cattle (cows It was popular (and recommended by medical expertise) to finish the meal with aged cheese and various digestives. [6]
The most ideal food was that which most closely matched the humor of human beings, i. e. moderately warm and moist. Food should preferably also be finely chopped, ground, pounded and strained to achieve a true mixture of all the ingredients. White wine was believed to be cooler than red and the same distinction was applied to red and white vinegar. Milk was moderately warm and moist, but the milk of different animals was often believed to differ. Egg yolks were considered to be warm and moist while the whites were cold and moist. Skilled cooks were expected to conform to the regimen of humoral medicine. Even if this meant limitations in the combinations there was still plenty of room for artistic variation. [7]
Regional variation
Geographical variation was the result of differences in climate, political administration local customs that varied across the continent. The regional cuisines of medieval Europe were the results of differences in climate political administration and religious customs that varied across the continent Though sweeping generalizations should be avoided, more or less distinct areas where certain foodstuffs dominated can be discerned. In the British Isles, northern France, the Low Countries, the northern German-speaking areas, Scandinavia and the Baltic the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation of grapes and olives. The British Isles (Irish variously Na hOileáin Bhriotanacha, Oileáin Iarthair Eorpa, Éire agus an Bhreatain Mhór; Ellanyn Goaldagh Eileanan This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Low Countries, the historical region of de Nederlanden, are the countries on low-lying land around the delta of the Rhine, Scheldt Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well Baltic Seven Islandsgif|right|thumb|330px|A contemporary transnational Euroregion encompasses the islands of the Baltic countries For the Tokyo University supercomputer see Gravity Pipe. GRAPE, or GRA phics P rogramming E nvironment is The Olive ( Olea europaea) is a Species of small Tree in the family Oleaceae, native to the coastal areas of the eastern In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap second pressing wine) while beer was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) and pomegranates were common around in the Mediterranean. The pomegranate ( Punica granatum) is a Fruit -bearing Deciduous Shrub or small Tree growing to between five and eight metres tall Dried figs and dates occurred in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking. Ficus is a Genus of about 850 Species of woody Trees Shrubs Vines Epiphytes and hemi-epiphytes in the family The Date Palm ( Phoenix dactylifera) is a palm in the genus Phoenix, extensively cultivated for its edible Fruit. [8]
Olive oil was a ubiquitous ingredient around the Mediterranean, but remained an expensive import in the north where oil of poppy, walnut, hazel and filbert was the most affordable alternative. Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive ( Olea europaea; family Oleaceae along with Lilacs Jasmine and ash trees A poppy is any of a number of showy Flowers typically withone per stem, belonging to the poppy family. Butter and lard, especially after the terrible blood-letting of the population during the Black Death, was used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia The Low Countries, the historical region of de Nederlanden, are the countries on low-lying land around the delta of the Rhine, Scheldt Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the almond, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile almond milk, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety came along much later. The Almond ( Prunus dulcis, syn Prunus amygdalus Batsch Amygdalus communis L Almond milk is a milky drink made from ground Almonds Unlike animal Milk, almond milk contains no Cholesterol or Lactose and can be used [9]
Meals
There were typically two meals a day: dinner at mid-day and a lighter supper in the evening. Dinner is the main Meal of the day The meal normally consists of a combination of cooked or sometimes uncooked proteins (meat fish or legumes with vegetables and/or Supper is the name for the evening meal in some Dialects of English - ordinarily the last meal of the day Moralists frowned on breaking the overnight fast too early, and members of the church and cultivated gentry avoided it. Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings Gentry generally refers to people of high Social class, especially in the past For practical reasons, breakfast was still eaten by most working men, and was tolerated for young children, women, the elderly and the sick. Breakfast is the first meal of the day The word derives from the idea of break ing the '''fast''' of sleep Because the church preached against gluttony and other weaknesses of the flesh, men tended to be ashamed of the weak practicality of breakfast. Derived from the Latin gluttire, meaning to gulp down or swallow gluttony is the over-indulgence and Over-consumption of food drink or intoxicants Lavish dinner banquets and late-night reresopers (from Occitan rèire-sopar, "late supper") with considerable amounts of alcoholic beverage were considered immoral. A banquet is a large public meal or feast complete with main courses and desserts Occitan ( IPA BrE: /ˈɒksɪtn/ AmE: /ˈɑksəˌtɑn/ known also as Lenga d'òc or Langue d'oc (native name occitan The latter were especially associated with the vices of gambling, crude language, drunkenness, and lewd behavior. Drunkenness or inebriation is the state of being intoxicated by consumption of Alcoholic beverages to a degree that mental and physical faculties are noticeably Minor meals and snacks were common (although also disliked by the church), and working men commonly received an allowance from their employers in order to buy nuncheons, small morsels to be eaten during breaks. A snack food (commonly called a snack) is seen in Western culture as a type of food not meant to be eaten as a main Meal of the day – Breakfast [10]
Etiquette
There was an increasing trend throughout the Middle Ages to escape the stern collectivism that permeated the entire period. Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral political or social outlook that stresses human Interdependence and the importance of a Collective, rather than Otherwise the medieval meal was a communal affair, like every other part of life. The entire household, including servants, would ideally dine together. To sneak off to enjoy private company was considered a haughty and inefficient egotism in a world where people depended very much on each other. Egotism is the motivation to maintain and enhance favorable views of self In the 13th century, English bishop Robert Grosseteste advised the Countess of Lincoln: "forbid dinners and suppers out of hall, in secret and in private rooms, for from this arises waste and no honour to the lord and lady. See also List of bishops of Lincoln and precursor offices The Bishop of Lincoln heads the ( Anglican) Robert Grosseteste (c 1175 &ndash October 9, 1253) English statesman scholastic philosopher, Theologian and Bishop of Earl of Lincoln is a title that has been created eight times in the Peerage of England. " He also recommended to watch that the servants not make off with leftovers to make merry at rere-suppers, rather than giving it as alms. Alms or almsgiving exists in a number of religions In general it involves giving materially to another as an act of religious virtue Although there are descriptions of dining etiquette on special occasions, less is known about the details of day to day meals of the elite or about the table manners of the common people and the destitute. However, it can be assumed there were no such extravagant luxuries as multiple courses, luxurious spices or hand-washing in scented water. For the coarsely ground flour see Flour. A meal is an instance of Eating, specifically one that takes place at a specific time and includes [10]
Things were different for the wealthy. Before the meal and between courses, shallow basins and linen towels were offered to guests so they could wash their hands, as cleanliness was emphasized. A towel is a piece of absorbent fabric or Paper used for drying or wiping Social codes made it difficult for women to uphold the stereotype of being neat, delicate and immaculate while enjoying a sumptuous feast, so the wife of the host often dined in private with her entourage. She could then join dinner only after the potentially messy business of eating was done. Overall, fine dining was a predominantly male affair, and it was uncommon for anyone but the most honored of guests to bring his wife or her ladies-in-waiting. A lady-in-waiting (also called waiting maid) is a female personal assistant at a Noble court, attending to a queen, a Princess or other The hierarchical nature of society was reinforced by etiquette where the lower ranked were expected to help the higher, the younger to assist the elder, and men to spare women the risk of sullying dress and reputation by having to handle food in an unwomanly fashion. Etiquette is a code that governs the expectations of Social behavior, according to the contemporary conventional norm within a Society, Shared drinking cups were common even at lavish banquets for all but those who sat at the high table, as was the standard etiquette of breaking bread and carving meat for one's fellow diners. For the Ronin Warriors character see Dais (Ronin Warriors. Desert Senna ( Senna covesii) is locally known as "dais" [11]
Food was mostly served on plates or in stew pots, and diners would take their share from the dishes and place it on trenchers of stale bread, wood or pewter with the help of spoons or bare hands. Unglazed platesjpg|thumb|A set of plates before being glazed at a Pottery shop trencher (from Old French tranchier; "to cut" is a type of Tableware, commonly used in Medieval cuisine. Pewter is a Metal Alloy, traditionally between 85 and 99 percent Tin, with the remainder consisting of Copper and Antimony, acting A spoon is a Utensil consisting of a small shallow bowl at the end of a handle used primarily for serving and eating Liquid, or semi-liquid foods and solid foods In lower-class households it was common to eat food straight off the table. Knives were used at the table, but most people were expected to bring their own, and only highly favored guests would be given a personal knife. A knife is a handheld sharp-edged instrument consisting of handle attached to a Blade used for cutting A knife was usually shared with at least one other dinner guest, unless one was of very high rank or well-acquainted with the host. Forks for eating were not in widespread usage in Europe until the early modern period, and early on were limited to Italy. As a piece of Cutlery or Kitchenware, a fork is a tool consisting of a handle with several narrow tines (usually two three or four on one end The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western '''Europe''' and its first colonies which spans the three centuries between Even there it was not until the 14th century that the fork became common among Italians of all social classes. The change in attitudes can be illustrated by the reactions to the table manners of the Byzantine princess Theodora Doukaina in the late 11th century. Teodora Anna Dukaina Selvo ( Greek: Θεοδώρα Άννα Δούκαινα, born Theodora Dukaina Komnena 1058-1083 was a Byzantine princess She was the future wife of the Doge of Venice, Domenico Selvo, and caused considerable dismay among upstanding Venetians. The Doge ( Venetian language, also Doxe, derived from Latin Dux military leader duke cf Domenico Selvo (died 1087 was the 31st Doge of Venice, serving from 1071 to 1084 The foreign consort's insistence on having her food cut up by her eunuch servants and then eating the pieces with a golden fork shocked and upset the diners so much that the Bishop of Ostia later interpreted her refined foreign manners as pride and referred to her as ". A eunuch (ˈjuːnək is a Castrated man in particular one castrated early enough to have major hormonal consequences the term usually refers to those castrated in order to The Bishop of Ostia is the ecclesiastical head of the Catholic Diocese of Ostia, one of the seven Suburbicarian sees of Rome Pride is a lofty view of one's self or one's own Pride often manifests itself as a high opinion of one's Nation (national pride Ethnicity (ethnic pride or appearance . . the Venetian Doge's wife, whose body, after her excessive delicacy, entirely rotted away. "[12]
Food preparation
All types of cooking involved the direct use of fire. Stoves did not appear until the 18th century, and cooks had to know how to cook directly over an open fire. A stove is an enclosed heated space The term is commonly taken to mean an enclosed space in which fuel is burned to provide heating either to heat the space in which the stove is situated Ovens were used, but they were expensive to construct and only existed in fairly large households and bakeries. An oven is an enclosed compartment for Heating, Baking or Drying. This article refers to the cooking profession For other uses see Baker (disambiguation A baker is someone who primarily Bakes It was common for a community to have shared ownership of an oven to ensure that the bread baking essential to everyone was made communal rather than private. Communes in Europe in the Middle Ages were sworn allegiances of mutual defense (both physical defense and of traditional freedoms among community members of a town or city There were also portable ovens designed to be filled with food and then buried in hot coals, and even larger ones on wheels that were used to sell pies in the streets of medieval towns. A pie is a baked dish which is usually made of a Pastry dough shell that covers or completely contains a filling of various sweet or Savoury ingredients But for most people, almost all cooking was done in simple stewpots, since this was the most efficient use of firewood and did not waste precious cooking juices, making potages and stews the most common dishes. Potage (from Old French pottage; "potted dish" is a category of thick Soups Stews or Porridges in some of which meat and A stew is a combination of Solid Food Ingredients that have been Cooked in Water or other water-based liquid typically by Simmering [13] Overall, most evidence suggests that medieval dishes had a fairly high fat content, or at least when fat could be afforded. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water This was considered less of a problem in a time of back-breaking toil, famine, and a greater acceptance - even desirability - of plumpness; only the poor or sick, and devout ascetics, were thin. Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. [14]
Fruit was readily combined with meat, fish and eggs. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. An egg is a round or oval body laid by the female of many animals consisting of an Ovum surrounded by layers of Membranes and an outer casing which acts to nourish The recipe for Tart de brymlent, a fish pie from the recipe collection Forme of Cury, includes a mix of figs, raisins, apples and pears with fish (salmon, codling or haddock) and pitted damson plums under the top crust. The Forme of Cury, so named by Samuel Pegge, was a roll of Cookery written by the Master Cooks of King Richard II of England. Ficus is a Genus of about 850 Species of woody Trees Shrubs Vines Epiphytes and hemi-epiphytes in the family Raisins are dried Grapes They are produced in many regions of the world such as the United States, Australia, Chile, The apple is the pomaceous Fruit of the apple tree Species Malus domestica in the Rose family Rosaceae. A pear is a pomaceous Fruit produced by a tree of Genus Pyrus. Salmon is the common name for several species of Fish of the family Salmonidae. The haddock or offshore hake is a marine Fish distributed on both sides of the North Atlantic. A plum or gage is a stone fruit Tree in the genus Prunus, subgenus Prunus. [15] It was more important to make sure that the dish agreed with contemporary standards of medicine and dietetics. For contemporary medicine practiced outside of Europe see Islamic medicine, Byzantine medicine, Traditional Chinese medicine, and Ayurveda A dietitian (also 'dietician' though 'dietitian' is used consistently by professionals is an expert in Food and Nutrition. This meant that food had to be "tempered" according to its nature by an appropriate combination of preparation and mixing certain ingredients, condiments and spices. A condiment is a prepared edible substance or Mixture, often preserved or fermented (usually a liquid that is added in relatively small For example, fish was considered to be quite cold and moist, and best cooked in a way that heated and dried it, such as frying or oven baking, and seasoned with hot and dry spices; beef was dry and hot and should therefore be boiled; pork was hot and moist and should therefore always be roasted. Frying is the Cooking of food in Oil or Fat, a technique that originated in ancient Egypt around 2500BC Beef is the Culinary name for Meat from Bovines especially domestic Cattle (cows Boiling (also called ebullition) a type of Phase transition, is the rapid vaporization of a Liquid, which typically occurs when a liquid [16] In some recipe collections, alternative ingredients were assigned with more consideration to the humoral nature than similarity in taste. A recipe is a set of instructions that show how to prepare or make something especially a culinary dish. Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers In a recipe for quince pie, cabbage is given as working equally well, and in another turnips are considered to be the equivalent of pears. The Quince (kwɪns or Cydonia oblonga, is the sole member of the genus Cydonia and native to warm-temperate southwest Asia in the Caucasus The cabbage ( Brassica oleracea var capitata) is a leafy garden plant of the Family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae used as a For similar vegetables also called "turnip" see Turnip (disambiguation. [17]
The completely edible shortcrust pie did not appear in recipes until the 15th century. Shortcrust pastry is a type of Pastry often used for the base of a Tart or Pie. Before that the bread was primarily used as a cooking container. Extant recipe collections show that gastronomy in the Late Middle Ages developed significantly. Gastronomy is the study of the relationship between Culture and Food. New techniques, like the shortcrust pie and the clarification of jelly with egg whites began to appear in recipes in the late 14th century and recipes began to include detailed instructions instead of being mere memory aides. [18]
The medieval kitchen
In most households, cooking was done on an open hearth in the middle of the main living area, to make efficient use of the heat. In common historic and modern usage a hearth (Har-th is a Brick - or stone -lined Fireplace or Oven used for Cooking and/or Heating This was the most common arrangement, even in wealthy households, for most of the Middle Ages, where the kitchen was combined with the dining hall. Towards the Late Middle Ages a separate kitchen area began to evolve. The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries (AD 1300–1499 For the Banana Yashimoto novel see Kitchen (novel A kitchen, is a room or part of a room (sometimes called "kitchen The first step was to move the fireplaces towards the walls of the main hall, and later to build a separate building or wing that contained a dedicated kitchen area, often separated from the main building by a covered arcade. An arcade is a passage or walkway covered over by a succession of Arches or vaults supported by columns This way, the smoke, odors and bustle of the kitchen could be kept out of sight of guests, and the fire risk lessened.
Many basic variations of cooking utensils available today, such as frying pans, pots, kettles, and waffle irons, already existed, even if they were often too expensive for poorer households. A frying pan, frypan, or skillet is a pan used for Frying, Searing, and browning foods "Saucepan" redirects here In Australia "the Saucepan" is sometimes used as an unofficial name for part of the constellation of Pavo, when finding the A kettle is a Kitchenware piece Depending on culture and historical location in the context of bathware the word kettle can have a variety of meanings A waffle iron is a Cooking Appliance used to make Waffles It usually consists of two hinged metal plates molded to create the honey comb pattern Other tools more specific to cooking over an open fire were spits of various sizes, and material for skewering anything from delicate quails to whole oxen. Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized Birds in the Pheasant family Phasianidae, or in the family Odontophoridae. Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family There were also cranes with adjustable hooks so that pots and cauldrons could easily be swung away from the fire to keep them from burning or boiling over. A cauldron or caldron (from Latin Caldarium, hot bath is a large Metal pot ( Kettle) for cooking and/or boiling Utensils were often held directly over the fire or placed into embers on tripods. To assist the cook there were also assorted knives, stirring spoons, ladles and graters. A ladle is a type of Spoon used to serve Soup or other liquids A grater is a kitchen utensil used to grate foods into fine strips or crumbs In wealthy households one of the most common tools was the mortar and sieve cloth, since many medieval recipes called for food to be finely chopped, mashed, strained and seasoned either before or after cooking. A pestle and mortar is a Tool used to crush grind and mix substances This was based on a belief among physicians that the finer the consistency of food, the more effectively the body would absorb the nourishment. It also gave skilled cooks the opportunity to elaborately shape the results. Fine-textured food was also associated with wealth, for example finely-milled flour was more expensive, while the bread of commoners was typically brown and coarse. A typical procedure was to skin and dress an animal, grind up the meat and mix it with spices and other ingredients and return it into its own skin, or mold it into the shape of a completely different animal. Game is any Animal hunted for Food or not normally domesticated (such as Venison) [13]
The kitchen staff of huge noble or royal courts occasionally numbered in the hundreds: pantlers, bakers, waferers, sauciers, larderers, butchers, carvers, page boys, milk maids, butlers and countless scullions. In a Noble court or Household, the office of panter or pantler originated with the person entrusted with the supply of Bread and later involved In cooking a wafer is a crisp often sweet very thin flat and dry Cake, often used to decorate Ice cream. A larder is a cool area for storing Food prior to useLarders were commonplace in houses before the widespread use of the Refrigerator. A butcher is someone who prepares various Meats and other related goods for sale While an average peasant household often made do with firewood collected from the surrounding woodlands, the major kitchens of households had to cope with the logistics of daily providing at least two meals for several hundred people. Guidelines on how to prepare for a two-day banquet can be found in the 15th century cookbook Du fait de cuisine ("On cookery") by Chiquart, master chef of Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy. Amadeus VIII ( September 4, 1383 &ndash January 7, 1451) was the son of Amadeus VII Count of Savoy and Bonne of Berry. The House of Savoy (Casa Savoia was formed in the early eleventh century in the historical Savoy region Chiquart recommends that the chief cook should have at hand at least 1,000 cartloads of "good, dry firewood" and a large barnful of coal. [19]
Preservation
Food preservation methods were basically the same as had been used since antiquity, and did not change much until the invention of canning in the early 19th century. Canning is a method of preserving food in which the food is processed and sealed in an airtight container The most common and simplest method was to expose foodstuffs to heat or wind to remove moisture, thereby prolonging the durability if not the flavor of almost any type of food from cereals to meats; the drying of food worked by drastically reducing the activity of various water-dependent microorganisms that cause decay. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually In warm climates this was mostly achieved by leaving food out in the sun, and in the cooler northern climates by exposure to strong winds (especially common for the preparation of stockfish), or in warm ovens, cellars, attics, and at times even in living quarters. Stockfish is unsalted Fish, especially Cod, dried by sun and wind on wooden racks on the foreshore called flakes, or in special drying houses
Subjecting food to a number of chemical processes such as smoking, salting, brining, conserving or fermenting also made it keep longer. Smoking is the process of flavoring, Cooking, or preserving Food by exposing it to the Smoke from burning or smoldering plant materials Salting is the preservation of Food with salt. It is related to Pickling (preparing food with brine rather than dry salt In Cooking, brining is a process similar to Marination in which Meat is soaked in a salt solution (the Brine) before cooking Fermentation in Food processing typically refers to the conversion of Sugar to Alcohol using Yeast under Anaerobic conditions Most of these methods had the advantage of shorter preparation times and of introducing new flavors. Smoking or salting meat of livestock butchered in the fall was a common household strategy to avoid having to feed more animals than necessary during the lean winter months. Butter tended to be heavily salted (5–10%) in order not to spoil. Butter is a Dairy product made by churning fresh or fermented Cream or Milk. Vegetables, eggs or fish were also often pickled in tightly packed jars, containing brine and acidic liquids (lemon juice, verjuice or vinegar). Pickling, also known as brining or corning, is the process of preserving Food by Anaerobic fermentation in Brine (a solution Verjuice (from Middle French vertjus "green juice" is a very acidic juice made by pressing unripe Grapes Sometimes Lemon or Sorrel Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the Fermentation of Ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient Acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid Another method was to create a seal around the food by cooking it in sugar or honey or fat, in which it was then stored. Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the Bacterial modification was also encouraged, however, by a number of methods; grains, fruit and grapes were turned into alcoholic drinks that disinfected the beverage, and milk was fermented and cured into a multitude of cheeses or buttermilk. For the Tokyo University supercomputer see Gravity Pipe. GRAPE, or GRA phics P rogramming E nvironment is In Food preparation curing refers to various preservation and Flavoring processes especially of Meat or Fish, by the addition of Cheese is a Food made from Milk, usually the milk of cows, Buffalo, Goats or sheep, by coagulation. Buttermilk is a Fermented dairy product produced from Cow's milk with a characteristically sour taste [20]
Cereals
The phrase Our daily bread was a concrete reality during the Middle Ages. The Lord's Prayer, also known as the Our Father or Pater noster, is probably the best-known Prayer in Christianity. Food intake among all social classes consisted mainly of cereals, usually in the form of bread and, to a lesser extent, gruel, porridge, and pasta. Bread is a Staple food prepared by Baking a Dough of Flour and Water. Porridge, or porage, is a simple dish made by boiling Oats (normally crushed oats occasionally Oatmeal) or another cereal in Water Pasta ( Italian for "dough" is a generic term for Italian variants of Noodles. Estimates of bread consumption all over Europe are fairly similar: around 1–1. 5 kg (2–3 lb) of bread per person per day. The pound or pound-mass (abbreviation lb, lbm, or sometimes in the United States #) is a unit of Mass The most common grains were rye, barley, buckwheat, millet, and oats. Rye ( Secale cereale) is a grass grown extensively as a grain and forage crop Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for Buckwheat refers to plants in two genera of the Dicot family Polygonaceae: the Eurasian genus Fagopyrum, and the North American genus The millets are a group of small- Seeded Species of Cereal crops or grains widely grown around the world for Food and Fodder Oats redirects here It may mean either the common cereal oat discussed here or any cultivated or wild species of the Genus Avena. Rice remained a fairly expensive import for most of the Middle Ages and was grown in northern Italy only towards the end of the period. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Wheat was common all over Europe and was considered to be the most nutritious of all grains, but was more prestigious and thus more expensive. Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support The finely sifted white flour that modern Europeans are most familiar with was reserved for the bread of the upper classes, while those of lower status ate bread that became coarser, darker and of a higher bran content the lower one was on the social ladder. Flour is a powder made of Cereal grains It is the key ingredient of Bread, which is a staple food in many countries and therefore the availability Bran is the hard outer layer of Grain and consists of combined Aleurone and Pericarp. In times of grain shortages or outright famine, grains could be supplemented with cheaper and less desirable substitutes like chestnuts, dried legumes, acorns, ferns, and a wide variety of more or less nutritious vegetable matter. Chestnut ( Castanea) (including some chinkapin or Chinquapin) is a Genus of eight or nine Species of Deciduous A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants The acorn is the nut of the Oak tree (genera Quercus, Lithocarpus and Cyclobalanopsis, in the A fern is any one of a group of about 20000 Species of Plants classified in the phylum or division Pteridophyta, also known as Filicophyta
One of the most common constituents of a medieval meal, either as part of a banquet or as a small snack, were sops, pieces of bread with which a liquid like wine, soup, broth, or sauce could be soaked up and eaten. A sop is a piece of Bread or Toast with which liquid food of some sort is soaked up and then eaten Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Soup is a Food that is made by combining ingredients such as Meat and Vegetables in stock or hot/boiling Water, until the flavor Broth is a Liquid in which Bones Meat, Fish, Cereal grains or Vegetables have been simmered and strained out In Cooking, a sauce is Liquid or sometimes semi- Solid food served on or used in preparing other Foods Sauces are not consumed by themselves Another common sight at the medieval dinner table was the frumenty, a thick wheat porridge often boiled in a meat broth and seasoned with spices. Frumenty (sometimes furmity, fromity, or fermenty) was a popular dish in Western European Medieval cuisine. Porridges were also made of every type of grain and could be served as desserts or dishes for the sick, if boiled in milk (or almond milk) and sweetened with sugar. Dessert is a course that typically comes at the end of a meal usually consisting of sweet Food but sometimes of a strongly-flavored one such as some Cheeses The Almond milk is a milky drink made from ground Almonds Unlike animal Milk, almond milk contains no Cholesterol or Lactose and can be used Pies filled with meats, eggs, vegetables, or fruit were common throughout Europe, as were turnovers, fritters, doughnuts, and many similar pastries. A pie is a baked dish which is usually made of a Pastry dough shell that covers or completely contains a filling of various sweet or Savoury ingredients A turnover is a kind of Pastry made by placing a filling on a piece of dough folding the dough over and sealing it A fritter is any kind of food coated in batter and Deep fried. A doughnut (also spelled "donut" is a sweet Deep-fried piece of Dough or batter. This article describes Pastry in food For the Distributed Hash Table system see Pastry_(DHT. By the Late Middle Ages biscuits (cookies in the U. The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries (AD 1300–1499 A biscuit (ˈbɪskɨt is a small baked product the exact meaning varies markedly in different parts of the world In the United States and Canada, a cookie is a small flat-baked treat usually round containing milk flour eggs and sugar etc S. ) and especially wafers, eaten for dessert, had become high-prestige foods and came in many varieties. In cooking a wafer is a crisp often sweet very thin flat and dry Cake, often used to decorate Ice cream. Grain, either as bread crumbs or flour, was also the most common thickener of soups and stews, alone or in combination with almond milk.
The importance of bread as a daily staple meant that bakers played a crucial role in any medieval community. Among the first town guilds to be organized were the bakers', and laws and regulations were passed to keep bread prices stable. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers The English Assize of Bread and Ale of 1266 listed extensive tables where the size, weight, and price of a loaf of bread was regulated in relation to grain prices. The Assize of Bread and Ale (Assisa panis et cervisiæ was a 13th-century Statute ( Assize) in late medieval English law that set standards of The baker's profit margin stipulated in the tables was later increased through successful lobbying from the London Baker's Company by adding the cost of everything from firewood and salt to the baker's wife, house, and dog. The Worshipful Company of Bakers is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London. Since bread was such a central part of the medieval diet, swindling by those who were trusted with supplying the precious commodity to the community was considered a serious offense. Bakers who were caught tampering with weights or adulterating dough with less expensive ingredients could receive severe penalties. Dough is a paste made out of any Cereals (grains or leguminous crops by mixing the Flour with a small amount of Water. This gave rise to the "baker's dozen": a baker would give 13 for the price of 12, to be certain of not being known as a cheat. A baker's dozen, also known as a long dozen and a "long measure" is 13, one more than a proper Dozen. [21]
Bread was used for more than just eating: though often of wood or metal (mostly pewter), trenchers that served as dinner plates in affluent households were made out of old bread made from unsifted flour far into the early modern era, and bread was used to wipe off knives when passing them to the next diner or before fishing out salt from the shared salt cellars. Pewter is a Metal Alloy, traditionally between 85 and 99 percent Tin, with the remainder consisting of Copper and Antimony, acting trencher (from Old French tranchier; "to cut" is a type of Tableware, commonly used in Medieval cuisine. A salt cellar is a bowl usually small for holding Salt. The use of salt cellars continued through the 1940s but has been in decline since and been gradually replaced with Even the seemingly carefree handling of hot metal serving plates could be achieved with slices of bread neatly tucked into the hands of servants, but still away from the unforgiving gaze of fussy, high-ranking diners. [22]
Fruit and vegetables
While grains were the primary constituent of most meals, vegetables such as cabbage, beets, onions, garlic and carrots were common foodstuffs. The cabbage ( Brassica oleracea var capitata) is a leafy garden plant of the Family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae used as a The beet or beetroot is a Flowering plant species ( Beta vulgaris) in the family Chenopodiaceae. Organicsalsajpg||thumb|right|Onions used in salsa.]]Cooked onions in frying pan Allium sativum L, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the Onion family Alliaceae. The carrot ( Daucus carota subsp sativus, Etymology: Middle French carotte, from Late Latin carōta, from Greek karōton Many of these were eaten daily by peasants and workers, but were less prestigious than meat. The cookbooks, intended mostly for those who could afford such luxuries, which appeared in the late Middle Ages, only contained a small number of recipes using vegetables other than side dishes and the occasional potage. Potage (from Old French pottage; "potted dish" is a category of thick Soups Stews or Porridges in some of which meat and Carrots were available in many variants during the Middle Ages: among them a tastier reddish-purple variety and a less prestigious green-yellow type. Various legumes, like chickpeas, fava beans and peas were also common and important sources of protein. A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants The chickpea ( Cicer arietinum) (also garbanzo bean, Indian pea, ceci bean, bengal gram, chana, kadale kaalu, Vicia faba, the broad bean, fava bean, faba bean, horse bean, field bean, tic bean is a species of A pea (inaccurately called a '''sweet pea''' by food distubutors is most commonly the small spherical Seed or the seed-pod of the Legume Pisum Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl With the exception of peas, they were frowned on by contemporary dietetics, partly because of their tendency to cause flatulence. A dietitian (also 'dietician' though 'dietitian' is used consistently by professionals is an expert in Food and Nutrition. Flatulence is the production of a mixture of gases in the digestive tract of Mammals that are byproducts of the digestion process The importance of vegetables to the common people is illustrated by accounts from 16th century Germany stating that many peasants ate sauerkraut three to four times a day. Sauerkraut ( English:, German:, Yiddish: ˈzɔi̯əʀˌkʀɔi̯t is finely shredded Cabbage that has been fermented by various [23]
Fruit was popular and could be served fresh, dried, or preserved, and was a common ingredient in many meat dishes. Since sugar and honey were expensive, it was common to include many types of fruit in dishes that called for sweeteners of some sort. The fruits of choice in the south were lemons, citrons, bitter oranges (the sweet type was not introduced until several hundred years later), pomegranates, quinces, and, of course, grapes. The lemon ( Citrus × limon) is a hybrid in cultivated wild plants The citron is a fragrant fruit with the botanical name Citrus medica L For the fruit known as "Chinese Bitter Orange" see Trifoliate orange. The pomegranate ( Punica granatum) is a Fruit -bearing Deciduous Shrub or small Tree growing to between five and eight metres tall The Quince (kwɪns or Cydonia oblonga, is the sole member of the genus Cydonia and native to warm-temperate southwest Asia in the Caucasus For the Tokyo University supercomputer see Gravity Pipe. GRAPE, or GRA phics P rogramming E nvironment is Further north, apples, pears, plums, and strawberries were more common. The apple is the pomaceous Fruit of the apple tree Species Malus domestica in the Rose family Rosaceae. A pear is a pomaceous Fruit produced by a tree of Genus Pyrus. A plum or gage is a stone fruit Tree in the genus Prunus, subgenus Prunus. Garden strawberries are a common variety of strawberry cultivated worldwide Figs and dates were eaten all over Europe, but remained rather expensive imports in the north. Ficus is a Genus of about 850 Species of woody Trees Shrubs Vines Epiphytes and hemi-epiphytes in the family The Date Palm ( Phoenix dactylifera) is a palm in the genus Phoenix, extensively cultivated for its edible Fruit.
Common and often basic ingredients in many modern European cuisines like potatoes, kidney beans, cacao, vanilla, tomatoes, chili peppers and maize were not available to Europeans until the late 15th century with the European contact with the Americas, and even then it often took a long time for the new foodstuffs to be accepted by society at large. The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae CACAO is a research Java Virtual Machine developed at Vienna University of Technology. Vanilla is a Flavoring derived from Orchids of the genus Vanilla native to Mexico. The tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum, syn Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is a herbaceous usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family The chili pepper, chilli pepper, or chili, is the fruit of the plants from the Genus Capsicum, which are members of the nightshade Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica [24]
Meats
While all forms of wild game were popular among those who could obtain it, most meat came from domesticated animals. Game is any Animal hunted for Food or not normally domesticated (such as Venison) Beef was not as common as today because raising cattle was labor-intensive, requiring pastures and feed, and oxen and cows were much more valuable as draught animals and for producing milk. Beef is the Culinary name for Meat from Bovines especially domestic Cattle (cows Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family A working animal is an animal that is kept by humans and trained to perform tasks Animals slaughtered because they were no longer able to work were not particularly appetizing and were therefore less valued. Far more common was pork, as pigs required less attention and cheaper feed. Pork' is the Culinary name for Meat from the domestic Pig ( Sus scrofa) often specifically the fresh meat but can be used as an all-inclusive Pigs, also called hogs or' swine', are Ungulates which have been domesticated as sources of food leather and similar products since ancient times Domestic pigs often ran freely even in towns and could be fed on just about any organic kitchen waste, and suckling pig was a sought-after delicacy. Suckling pig (or sucking pig) is a young Pig that has only fed on its mother's milk Mutton and lamb were fairly common, especially in areas with a sizeable wool industry, as was veal. Lamb, hogget, and mutton are the meat of Domestic sheep. The meat of an animal in its first year is lamb; that of an older sheep is hogget Wool is the fiber derived from the specialized skin cells called follicles of animals in the Caprinae family principally sheep, but the hair of certain species Veal is the Meat of Unlike most of the modern Western world, just about every part of the animal was eaten, including ears, snout, tail, tongue, and womb. The tongue is the large bundle of Skeletal muscles on the floor of the Mouth that manipulates Food for chewing and swallowing (deglutition Intestines, bladder and stomach could be used as casings for sausage or even illusion food such as giant eggs. Sausage casing is the material that contains and encloses the filling of a Sausage. A sausage is a prepared Food, usually made from Ground meat, animal fat salt and Spices (sometimes with other ingredients such as herbs typically packed Among the meats that today are rare or even considered inappropriate for human consumption were hedgehog and porcupine, occasionally mentioned in late medieval recipe collections. A hedgehog is any of the small spiny Mammals of the Subfamily Erinaceinae and the order Erinaceomorpha. Porcupines are Rodents with a coat of sharp spines or quills that defend them from predators The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries (AD 1300–1499 [25] Both were considered lesser forms of pig, hence their names.
A wide range of birds was eaten, including swans, peafowl, quail, partridge, storks, cranes, larks and just about any wild bird that could be hunted. Swans are Birds of the family Anatidae, which also includes geese and Ducks Swans are grouped with the closely related geese in The term peafowl refers to Gallinaceous Birds classified within the genera Rheinardia Argusianus Afropavoand Pavo Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized Birds in the Pheasant family Phasianidae, or in the family Odontophoridae. Partridges are Birds in the Pheasant family Phasianidae. They are a non-migratory Old World group Storks are large long-legged long-necked wading Birds with long stout bills, belonging to the family Ciconiidae. Cranes are large long-legged and long-necked Birds of the order Gruiformes, and family Gruidae. Larks are Passerine Birds of the family Alaudidae. All species occur in the Old World, including northern and eastern Australia Swans and peafowl were often domesticated, but were only eaten by the social elite, and more praised for their fine appearance (often used to create stunning entremets) than for their meat. An entremet (or entremets, from Old French, literally meaning "between servings" is in modern French cuisine a small dish served between courses As today, geese and ducks had been domesticated but were not as popular as the chicken, the fowl equivalent of the pig. Goose (plural geese) is the English name for a considerable number of Birds belonging to the family Anatidae. For duck as a food see Duck (food; for other meanings see Duck (disambiguation. The chicken ( Gallus gallus, sometimes G gallus domesticus) is a domesticated Fowl which is traditionally believed to have descended from Curiously enough the barnacle goose was believed to reproduce not by laying eggs like other birds, but by growing in barnacles, and was hence considered acceptable food for fast and Lent. The Barnacle Goose ( Branta leucopsis) belongs to the Genus Branta of black geese, which contains Species with largely black A barnacle is a type of Arthropod belonging to infraclass Cirripedia in the subphylum Crustacea, and is hence distantly related to Lent, in some Christian denominations, is the forty-day-long liturgical season of fasting and prayer before Easter. [24]
Meats were more expensive than plant foods. Though rich in protein, the calorie-to-weight ratio of meat was less than that of plant food. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl This article is about the unit of energy For its use in Nutrition and Food labelling regulations, see the article on Food energy. Meat could be up to four times as expensive as bread. Fish was up to 16 times as costly, and was still expensive even for coastal populations. This meant that fasts could mean an especially meager diet for those who could not afford alternatives to meat and animal products like milk and eggs. It was only after the Black Death had eradicated up to half of the European population that meat became more common even for poorer people. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia The drastic reduction in many populated areas resulted in a labor shortage, meaning that wages shot up. It also left vast areas of farmland untended, making them available for pasture and putting more meat on the market. Pasture is land with Herbaceous vegetation cover used for grazing of Ungulate Livestock as part of a Farm or Ranch. [26]
Fish and seafood
Although less prestigious than other animal meats, and often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days, seafood was still the mainstay of many coastal populations. Seafood is any Sea Animal or Seaweed that is served as Food, or is suitable for eating particularly saltwater animals such "Fish" to the medieval man was also a general name for anything not considered a proper land-living animal, including marine mammals such as whales and porpoises. Marine mammals are a diverse group of roughly 120 species of Mammal that are primarily Ocean -dwelling or depend on the ocean for food Whales are marine mammals which are neither Dolphins (ie members of the families Delphinidae or Platanistoidae) nor Porpoises Orcas Porpoises are Small Cetaceans of the Family Phocoenidae; they are related to Whales and Dolphins They are distinct from dolphins Also included were the beaver, due to its scaly tail and considerable time spent in water, and barnacle geese, due to lack of knowledge of where they migrated. Beavers are two primarily nocturnal semi-aquatic species of Rodent, one native to North America and one to Europe The Barnacle Goose ( Branta leucopsis) belongs to the Genus Branta of black geese, which contains Species with largely black Such foods were also considered appropriate for fast days. [27] Especially important was the fishing and trade in herring and cod in the Atlantic and the Baltic Sea. Herring are small Oily fish of the genus Clupea found in the shallow temperate waters of the North Atlantic, the Baltic Sea, the North Cod is the common name for the Genus Gadus of Fish, belonging to the family Gadidae, and is also used in the common name of a variety The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. The herring was of unprecedented significance to the economy of much of Northern Europe, and it was one of the most common commodities traded by the Hanseatic League, a powerful north German alliance of trading guilds. The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade Kippers made from herring caught in the North Sea could be found in markets as far away as Constantinople. A kipper is a whole Herring that has been split from tail to head gutted salted and Cold smoked. The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked. Stockfish, cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole and dried, was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. Stockfish is unsalted Fish, especially Cod, dried by sun and wind on wooden racks on the foreshore called flakes, or in special drying houses A wide range of mollusks including oysters, mussels and scallops were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwater crayfish were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Molluscs are animals belonging to the phylum Mollusca. There are around 250000 extant Species within the phylum with an estimated 70000 The common name oyster is used for a number of different groups of Bivalve Mollusks most of which live in marine habitats or Brackish water. The common name mussel is used for members of several different families of Clams or Bivalve Molluscs, from both saltwater and freshwater habitats A scallop (ˈskɒləp or /ˈskæləp/ is a marine Bivalve Mollusk of the family Pectinidae. Crayfish, crawfish, crawdads, or crodgers are freshwater Crustaceans resembling small Lobsters to which they are closely Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most. Freshwater fish such as pike, carp, bream, perch, lamprey, and trout were common. Carp is a common name for various Freshwater Fish of the family Cyprinidae, a very large Bream is a general term for a number of species of Freshwater and marine Fish, mainly but not exhaustively drawn from the genera Perca is the genus of fish referred to as perch or sometimes yellow perch, a group of freshwater Fish belonging to the family Percidae A lamprey (sometimes also called lamprey eel) is a Jawless fish with a toothed funnel-like sucking mouth Trout is the common name given to a number of Species of Freshwater Fish belonging to the Salmonidae family [24]
Drink
In modern times, water is seen as a common choice to drink with a meal. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. In the Middle Ages, however, concerns over purity, medical recommendations and its low prestige value made it less favored, and alcoholic beverages were always preferred. They were seen as more nutritious and beneficial to digestion than water, with the invaluable bonus of being less prone to putrefaction due to the alcohol content. Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed Putrefaction is the decomposition of animal Proteins especially by anaerobic microorganisms, described as Putrefying bacteria. Wine was consumed on a daily basis in most of France and all over the Western Mediterranean wherever grapes were cultivated. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. For the Tokyo University supercomputer see Gravity Pipe. GRAPE, or GRA phics P rogramming E nvironment is Further north it remained the preferred drink of the bourgeoisie and the nobility who could afford it, and far less common among peasants and workers. The drink of commoners in the northern parts of the continent was primarily beer or ale. Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea Ale is a type of Beer brewed from Malted Barley using a top-fermenting Brewers' yeast. Because of the difficulty of preserving this beverage for any time (especially before the introduction of hops), it was mostly consumed fresh; it was therefore cloudier and perhaps had a lower alcohol content than the typical modern equivalent. Hops are the female Flower cones of the hop plant ( Humulus lupulus) Plain milk was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, being reserved for the very young or elderly, and then usually as buttermilk or whey. Milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the Mammary glands of female Mammals (including Monotremes. Buttermilk is a Fermented dairy product produced from Cow's milk with a characteristically sour taste Whey or milk plasma is the liquid remaining after Milk has been Curdled and strained it is a By-product of the manufacture of Cheese Fresh milk was overall less common than other dairy products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling. A dairy is a facility for the extraction and processing of animal Milk &mdashmostly from goats or cows, but also from buffalo, Sheep [28]
Juices, as well as wines, of a multitude of fruits and berries had been known at least since Roman antiquity and were still consumed in the Middle Ages: pomegranate, mulberry and blackberry wines, perry, and cider which was especially popular in the north where both apples and pears were plentiful. JUICE is a widely used non-commercial Software package for editing and analysing phytosociological data Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The pomegranate ( Punica granatum) is a Fruit -bearing Deciduous Shrub or small Tree growing to between five and eight metres tall The BlackBerry is a Wireless Handheld device introduced in 1999 as a two-way pager Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Perry is an Alcoholic beverage made of fermented Pear Juice. It is similar to Cider, in that it is made using a similar For the non-alcoholic beverage commonly known in the US as "cider" see Apple cider. Medieval drinks that have survived to this day include prunellé from wild plums (modern-day slivovitz), mulberry gin and blackberry wine. A plum or gage is a stone fruit Tree in the genus Prunus, subgenus Prunus. Slivovitz is a Distilled beverage made from Damson plums It is frequently called plum brandy If anyone else has a dictionary of some Slavic language Gin is a spirit flavoured with Juniper berries. Distilled gin is made by redistilling white grain spirit which has been flavoured with juniper Many variants of mead have been found in medieval recipes, with or without alcoholic content. Mead (ˈmiːd is a fermented Alcoholic beverage made of Honey, Water, and Yeast. However, the honey-based drink became less common as a table beverage towards the end of the period and eventually wound up primarily as a sick-potion. Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the Kumis, the fermented milk of mares or camels, was known in Europe, but as with mead was mostly something prescribed by physicians. Kumis ( Turkish:kımız Mongolian:airag is a fermented dairy product traditionally made from mare's milk The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. Camels are Even-toed ungulates within the Genus Camelus. The Dromedary, one-humped or Arabian camel has a single hump and the [29] Mead has often been presented as the common drink of the Slavs. This is partially true since mead bore great symbolic value at important occasions. When agreeing on treaties and other important affairs of state, mead was often presented as a ceremonial gift. It was also common at weddings and baptismal parties, though in limited quantity due to its high price. In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted In medieval Poland, mead had a status equivalent to that of imported luxuries, such as spices and wines. The culture of medieval Poland is closely intertwined with the activities of the Catholic Church in Poland especially during the first centuries of the Polish state's history [30]
Wine
Wine was commonly drunk and was also regarded as the most prestigious and healthy choice. According to Galen's dietetics it was considered hot and dry (hence the modern use of "dry" in describing wine), but these qualities were moderated when wine was watered down. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Unlike water or beer, which were considered cold and moist, consumption of wine in moderation (especially red wine) was, among other things, believed to aid digestion, generate good blood and brighten the mood. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products The quality of wine differed considerably according to vintage, the type of grape and more importantly, the number of grape pressings. Vintage, in Wine -making is the process of picking Grapes and creating the finished product The first pressing was made into the finest and most expensive wines which were reserved for the upper classes. The second and third pressings were subsequently of lower quality and alcohol content. Common folk usually had to settle for a cheap white or rosé from a second or even third pressing, meaning that it could be consumed in quite generous amounts without leading to heavy intoxication. A rosé (From French rosé ‘pinkish’ Wine has some of the color typical of a red wine but only enough to turn it pink For the poorest (or the most pious), watered-down vinegar would often be the only available choice. Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the Fermentation of Ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient Acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid
The aging of high quality red wine required specialized knowledge as well as expensive storage and equipment, and resulted in an even more expensive end product. Judging from the advice given in many medieval documents on how to salvage wine that bore signs of going bad, preservation must have been a widespread problem. Even if vinegar was a common ingredient, there was only so much of it that could be used. In the 14th century cookbook Le Viandier there are several methods for salvaging spoiling wine; making sure that the wine barrels are always topped up or adding a mixture of dried and boiled white grape seeds with the ash of dried and burnt lees of white wine were both effective bactericides, even if the chemical processes were not understood at the time. Le Viandier (often called Le Viandier de Taillevent) is a recipe collection largely credited to Guillaume Tirel, alias Taillevent Lees refers to deposits of dead Yeast or residual yeast and other particles that precipitate or are carried by the action of " Fining " to the bottom of A bactericide or bacteriocide is a substance that kills bacteria and preferably nothing else Spiced or mulled wine was not only popular among the affluent, but was also considered especially healthy by physicians. Mulled wine, variations of which are popular around the world is Wine, usually red combined with spices and typically served warm Wine was believed to act as a kind of vaporizer and conduit of other foodstuffs to every part of the body, and the addition of fragrant and exotic spices would make it even more wholesome. Spiced wines were usually made by mixing an ordinary (red) wine with an assortment of spices such as ginger, cardamom, pepper, grains of paradise, nutmeg, cloves and sugar. Ginger is commonly used as a cooking spice throughout the world The name cardamom (or cardamon is used for herbs within two genera of the Ginger family Zingiberaceae, namely Elettaria and Amomum Piper, the pepper plants or pepper vines (a term used for certain Clematis in older times are an economically and ecologically For the similarly-named Luso-Brazilian chili pepper see Malagueta pepper. The nutmegs Myristica are a Genus of Evergreen Trees indigenous to tropical southeast Asia and Australasia This article is about the Spice; for other meanings see Clove (disambiguation. These would be contained in small bags which were either steeped in wine or had liquid poured over them to produce hypocras and claré. Steeping or weltering may mean Soaking in Liquid until saturated with a Soluble ingredient as in for example the steeping of Hypocras (various spellings include ypocras, hippocras and hipocras) is a drink made from Wine, possibly heated and mixed with spices most Claret is a name used in English, primarily in Britain, for red Wine from the Bordeaux region of France. By the 14th century, bagged spice mixes could be bought ready-made from spice merchants. [31]
Beer
While wine was the most common table beverage in much of Europe, this was not the case in the northern regions where grapes were not cultivated. See also Beer Beer is one of the world's oldest beverages with the history of beer dating back to the 6th millennium BC and being recorded in the written history of Those who could afford it drank imported wine, but even for nobility in these areas it was common to drink beer or ale, particularly towards the end of the Middle Ages. Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea Ale is a type of Beer brewed from Malted Barley using a top-fermenting Brewers' yeast. In England, the Low Countries, northern Germany, Poland and Scandinavia, beer was consumed on a daily basis by people of all social classes and age groups. Great Britain during the Middle Ages (from the 5th century withdrawal of Roman forces from the province of Britannia The Low Countries, the historical region of de Nederlanden, are the countries on low-lying land around the delta of the Rhine, Scheldt Despite the lack of a German nation state prior to 1871 the History of Germany dates back to the era of the Germanic tribes. The culture of medieval Poland is closely intertwined with the activities of the Catholic Church in Poland especially during the first centuries of the Polish state's history The history of Scandinavia is the history of the Nordic countries — Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland. However, the heavy influence from Arab and Mediterranean culture on medical science (particularly due to the Reconquista and the influx of Arabic texts) meant that beer was often heavily disfavored. Literature See also Arabic literature Arabic literature is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers of the The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period For most medieval Europeans, it was a humble brew compared with common southern drinks and cooking ingredients, such as wine, lemons and olive oil. Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive ( Olea europaea; family Oleaceae along with Lilacs Jasmine and ash trees Even comparatively exotic products like camel's milk and gazelle meat generally received more positive attention in medical texts. Camels are Even-toed ungulates within the Genus Camelus. The Dromedary, one-humped or Arabian camel has a single hump and the A GAZelle (ГАЗе́ль is a series of mid-sized Trucks Vans and Buses made by Russian car manufacturer GAZ. Beer was just an acceptable alternative and was assigned various negative qualities. In 1256, the Sienese physician Aldobrandino described beer in the following way:
| “ | But from whichever it is made, whether from oats, barley or wheat, it harms the head and the stomach, it causes bad breath and ruins the teeth, it fills the stomach with bad fumes, and as a result anyone who drinks it along with wine becomes drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating urination and makes one's flesh white and smooth. Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Siena. Halitosis, oral malodor, breath odor mouth odor foul breath fetor oris fetor ex ore or most commonly bad breath are terms used to describe noticeably unpleasant Dental caries is a disease that damages Tooth structures resulting in what is commonly called tooth decay or cavities which are holes in the teeth Urination, also known as micturition, voiding, and more rarely emiction, is the process of disposing Urine from the Urinary bladder | ” |
The intoxicating effect of beer was believed to last longer than that of wine, but it was also admitted that it did not create the "false thirst" associated with wine. Though less prominent than in the north, beer was consumed in northern France and the Italian mainland. Perhaps as a consequence of the Norman conquest and the travelling of nobles between France and England, one French variant described in the 14th century cookbook Le Menagier de Paris was called godale (most likely a direct borrowing from the English "good ale") and was made from barley and spelt, but without hops. A cookbook is a Book that contains information on Cooking, and/or a list of Recipes It may also contain information on ingredient origin freshness English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Spelt ( Triticum spelta) is a Hexaploid species of Wheat. Spelt was an important staple in parts of Europe from the Bronze Age to medieval times Hops are the female Flower cones of the hop plant ( Humulus lupulus) In England there were also the variants poset ale, made from hot milk and cold ale, and brakot or braggot, a spiced ale prepared much like hypocras. A posset is a hot Milk drink popular in the Middle Ages for its supposed medicinal properties Mead (ˈmiːd is a fermented Alcoholic beverage made of Honey, Water, and Yeast. Hypocras (various spellings include ypocras, hippocras and hipocras) is a drink made from Wine, possibly heated and mixed with spices most [32]
That hops could be used for flavoring beer had been known at least since Carolingian times, but was adopted gradually due to difficulties in establishing the appropriate proportions. The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolings, or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family with its origins in the Before the discovery of hops, gruit, a mix of various herbs, had been used. Gruit (sometimes grut) is an old-fashioned Herb mixture used for bittering and flavoring Beer, popular before the extensive use of hops. A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like Gruit did not have the same preserving properties as hops, and the end result had to be consumed quickly to avoid the inevitable spoiling. Another flavoring method was to increase the alcohol content, but this was more expensive and lent the beer the undesired characteristic of being a quick and heavy intoxicant. In the Early Middle Ages beer was primarily brewed in monasteries, and on a smaller scale in individual households. The Early Middle Ages is a period in the History of Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire spanning roughly five centuries from AD 500 This article concerns the buildings occupied by monastics. For the life inside monasteries and its historical roots see Monasticism. By the High Middle Ages breweries in the fledgling medieval towns of northern Germany began to take over production. The High Middle Ages was the period of European history in the 11th 12th and 13th centuries (AD 1000&ndash1299 Communes in Europe in the Middle Ages were sworn allegiances of mutual defense (both physical defense and of traditional freedoms among community members of a town or city Though most of the breweries were small family businesses that employed at most eight to ten people, regular production allowed for investment in better equipment and increased experimentation with new recipes and brewing techniques. These operations later spread to Holland in the 14th century, then to Flanders and Brabant, and reached England by the 15th century. Holland is a region in the western part of the Netherlands. A maritime and economic power in the 17th century Holland today consists of the Dutch provinces of Flanders (Vlaanderen Flandre Flandern is a geographical region located in parts of present day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. The Duchy of Brabant was a historical region in the Low Countries. Hopped beer became very popular in the last decades of the Late Middle Ages. The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries (AD 1300–1499 In England and the Low Countries, the per capita annual consumption was around 275–300 liters (60–66 gallons), and it was consumed with practically every meal: low alcohol-content beers for breakfast, and stronger ones later in the day. The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of Volume. A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries When perfected as an ingredient, hops could make beer keep for six months or more, and facilitated extensive exports. [33]
Distillates
The ancient Greeks and Romans also knew of the technique, but it was not practiced on a major scale until some time around the 12th century, when Arabic innovations in the field combined with water-cooled glass alembics were introduced. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC An alembic (from Arabic Al-inbiq الأنبيق is an alchemical Still consisting of two Retorts connected by a tube Distillation was believed by medieval scholars to produce the essence of the liquid being purified, and the term aqua vitae ("water of life") was used as a generic term for all kinds of distillates into the 17th century. Aqua vitae ( Latin, “water of life” is an archaic name for a concentrated Aqueous solution of Ethanol. The early use of various distillates, alcoholic or not, was varied, but it was primarily culinary or medicinal; grape syrup mixed with sugar and spices was prescribed for a variety of ailments, and rose water was used as a perfume and cooking ingredient and for hand washing. In Cooking, a syrup (from Arabic' ar شراب sharab, beverage via Latin siropus) is a thick Viscous Liquid thumb|right|250px|Rose water Rose water or rose syrup (گلاب Golâb, Gül suyu ماء ورد Māʾ ward, Urdu: گلاب رس Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living Alcoholic distillates were also occasionally used to create dazzling, fire-breathing entremets (a type of entertainment dish served between courses) by soaking a piece of cotton in spirits. An entremet (or entremets, from Old French, literally meaning "between servings" is in modern French cuisine a small dish served between courses Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp It would then be placed in the mouth of the stuffed, cooked and occasionally redressed animals, and lit just before presenting the creation.
Aqua vitae in its alcoholic forms was highly praised by medieval physicians. In 1309 Arnaldus of Villanova wrote that "It prolongs good health, dissipates superfluous humours, reanimates the heart and maintains youth. Arnaldus de Villa Nova (also called Arnaldus de Villanueva Arnaldus Villanovanus Arnaud de Ville-Neuve or Arnau de Vilanova ( 1235 Valencia –1311 Genoa) " In the Late Middle Ages, the production of moonshine started to pick up, especially in the German-speaking regions. Production Uses Usually large scale distillation is practiced for the purpose of making ethanol for drinking, yet it may also practiced for creating Biofuel The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. By the 13th century, Hausbrand (literally "home-burnt" from gebrannter wein, brandwein; "burnt (distilled) wine") was commonplace, marking the origin of brandy. Brandy (from brandywine, derived from Dutch brandewijn — “burnt wine” is a spirit produced by distilling Wine Towards the end of the Late Middle Ages, the consumption of spirits became so engrained even among the general population that restrictions on sales and production began to appear in the late 15th century. In 1496 the city of Nuremberg issued restrictions on the selling of aquavit on Sundays and official holidays. [34]
Herbs and spices
Spices were among the most luxurious products available in the Middle Ages, the most common being black pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger and cloves. A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive Black pepper ( Piper nigrum) is a flowering Vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its Fruit, which is usually dried Cinnamon ( Cinnamomum verum, synonym C zeylanicum) is a small Evergreen Tree 10–15 metres (32 The nutmegs Myristica are a Genus of Evergreen Trees indigenous to tropical southeast Asia and Australasia Ginger is commonly used as a cooking spice throughout the world This article is about the Spice; for other meanings see Clove (disambiguation. They all had to be imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them extremely expensive. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the late Middle Ages. Units of mass There are three similar units of Mass called the ton: Long ton (simply ton in countries such as the United The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1. 5 million people. [35] While pepper was the most common spice, the most exclusive was saffron, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Saffron ( Kurdish/Persian زَعْفَرَان is a Spice derived from the dried Stigma of the Flower of the saffron crocus ( Crocus sativus Spices that have now fallen into some obscurity include grains of paradise, a relative of cardamom which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, long pepper, mace, spikenard, galangal and cubeb. For the similarly-named Luso-Brazilian chili pepper see Malagueta pepper. The name cardamom (or cardamon is used for herbs within two genera of the Ginger family Zingiberaceae, namely Elettaria and Amomum Long pepper ( Piper longum) sometimes called Javanese Long Pepper, Indian Long Pepper or Indonesian Long Pepper, is a flowering The nutmegs Myristica are a Genus of Evergreen Trees indigenous to tropical southeast Asia and Australasia Spikenard ( Nardostachys grandiflora or Nardostachys jatamansi; also called nard, nardin,and muskroot) is a Flowering The Galangal plant or Blue Ginger is a Rhizome with culinary and medicinal uses (Thai Ka (ข่า Malay lengkuas (Alpinia galangal Traditional Mandarin Cubeb ( Piper cubeba) or tailed pepper, is a plant in Genus Piper, cultivated for its Fruit and Essential oil Sugar, unlike today, was considered to be a type of spice due to its high cost and humoral qualities. Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose.
Common herbs such as sage, mustard, and especially parsley were grown and used in cooking all over Europe, as were caraway, mint, dill and fennel. Common sage ( Salvia officinalis) is a small perennial Evergreen Subshrub, with woody stems grayish leaves and blue to purplish flowers For the prepared condiment see Mustard (condiment. For other uses of the term "mustard" see Mustard. Parsley ( Petroselinum crispum) is a bright Green, biennial Herb, also used as Spice. Caraway or Persian cumin ( Carum carvi) is a Biennial plant in the family Apiaceae, native to Europe and western Asia Mentha ( mint) is a Genus of about 25 Species (and many hundreds of varieties) of Flowering plants in the family Dill ( Anethum graveolens) is a short-lived perennial herb. It is the sole species of the genus Anethum, though classified by some botanists Fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare) is a Plant Species in the Genus Foeniculum (treated as the sole species in the genus by Anise could be used to flavor fish and chicken dishes, and its seeds were served as sugar-coated comfits. '''Anise''' or Aniseed, less commonly anís (stressed on the second syllable ( Pimpinella anisum) is a Flowering plant in the family Apiaceae Comfits (also known as torpedos due to their shape are Spices dried Fruits or nuts coated with Sugar candy often passed round during Locally grown herbs were more affordable and were also used in upper-class food, but were then usually less prominent or included merely as coloring. A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like A popular modern-day misconception is that medieval cooks used liberal amounts of spices, particularly black pepper, merely to disguise the taste of spoiled meat. However, a medieval feast was as much a culinary event as it was a display of the host's vast resources and generosity, and as most nobles had a wide selection of fresh or preserved meats, fish or seafood to choose from, the use of ruinously expensive spices on cheap, rotting meat would have made little sense. [36]
Sweets and desserts
The term "dessert" comes from the Old French desservir, "to clear a table", literally "to un-serve", and originated during the Middle Ages. Dessert is a course that typically comes at the end of a meal usually consisting of sweet Food but sometimes of a strongly-flavored one such as some Cheeses The Old French was the Romance Dialect continuum spoken in territories which span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium It would typically consist of dragées and mulled wine accompanied by aged cheese, and by the Late Middle Ages could also include fresh fruit covered in sugar, honey or syrup and boiled-down fruit pastes. thumb|Another form of dragée „Liebesperlen“ sweets (love pearls A dragée (dræˈʒeɪ dra-ZHAY from Greek tragêmata "sweets treats" Cheese is a Food made from Milk, usually the milk of cows, Buffalo, Goats or sheep, by coagulation. There was a wide variety of fritters, crêpes with sugar, sweet custards and darioles, almond milk and eggs in a pastry shell that could also include fruit and sometimes even bone marrow or fish. A fritter is any kind of food coated in batter and Deep fried. A crêpe (kreɪp French kʀɛp is a type of very thin cooked Pancake usually made from Wheat Flour. Custard is a range of preparations based on Milk and eggs thickened with heat Dariole is a French term meaning a small cylindrical mold It also refers to the dessert that is baked in the mold [37] German-speaking areas had a particular fondness for krapfen: fried pastries and dough with various sweet and savory fillings. Marzipan in many forms was well-known in Italy and southern France by the 1340s and is assumed to be of Arab origin. For the character in the animated internet cartoon see Homestar Runner. [38] Anglo-Norman cookbooks are full of recipes for sweet and savory custards, potages, sauces and tarts with strawberries, cherries, apples and plums. The Anglo-Normans were mainly the descendants of the Normans who ruled England following the conquest by William of Normandy in 1066, although Potage (from Old French pottage; "potted dish" is a category of thick Soups Stews or Porridges in some of which meat and A tart is a Pastry dish usually sweet that is a type of Pie with an open top not covered with pastry This article is about the Cherry berry also classified as fruit for the ornamental tree See Cherry Blossom. The English chefs also had a penchant for using flower petals of roses and elderberry. A rose is a perennial flowering Shrub or vine of the Genus Rosa, within the family Rosaceae, that contains over 100 species Sambucus ( Elder or Elderberry) is a genus of between 5 and 30 species of Shrubs or small Trees (two species Herbaceous) An early form of quiche can be found in Forme of Cury, a 14th century recipe collection, as a Torte de Bry with a cheese and egg yolk filling. In French cuisine, a quiche (IPA) is a baked dish that is made primarily of eggs and Milk or Cream in a Pastry The Forme of Cury, so named by Samuel Pegge, was a roll of Cookery written by the Master Cooks of King Richard II of England. [39]
In northern France, a wide assortment of waffles and wafers was eaten with cheese and hypocras or a sweet malmsey as issue de table ("departure from the table"). A waffle is a light batter cake cooked in a Waffle iron patterned to give a distinctive and characteristic shape In cooking a wafer is a crisp often sweet very thin flat and dry Cake, often used to decorate Ice cream. Hypocras (various spellings include ypocras, hippocras and hipocras) is a drink made from Wine, possibly heated and mixed with spices most Malvasia (also known as Malvazia) is a group of wine Grape varieties grown historically in the Mediterranean region and the island of Madeira The ever-present candied ginger, coriander, aniseed and other spices were referred to as épices de chambre ("parlor spices") and were taken as digestables at the end of a meal to "close" the stomach. Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum) also commonly called cilantro, is an annual Herb in the family Apiaceae. '''Anise''' or Aniseed, less commonly anís (stressed on the second syllable ( Pimpinella anisum) is a Flowering plant in the family Apiaceae [40] Like their Muslim counterparts in Spain, the Arab conquerors of Sicily introduced a wide variety of new sweets and desserts that eventually found their way to the rest of Europe. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Just like Montpellier, Sicily was once famous for its comfits, nougat candy (torrone, or turrón in Spanish) and almond clusters (confetti). Montpellier ( Occitan Montpelhièr) is a City in the south of France. Comfits (also known as torpedos due to their shape are Spices dried Fruits or nuts coated with Sugar candy often passed round during Turrón ( Spanish) torró ( Catalan) or torrone ( Italian) is a Nougat confection typically made of Honey, sugar From the south, the Arabs also brought the art of ice cream making that produced sherbets and several examples of sweet cakes and pastries; cassata alla Siciliana (from Arabic qas'ah, the term for the terra cotta bowl with which it was shaped), made from marzipan, sponge cake and sweetened ricotta and cannoli alla Siciliana, originally cappelli di turchi ("Turkish hats"), fried, chilled pastry tubes with a sweet cheese filling. Ice cream or ice-cream (originally iced cream) is a frozen dessert made from Dairy products such as Milk and Cream, combined Şerbet ( Turkish) (Soda powder Etymology Turkish & Persian Turkish şerbet from Persian & Urdu شربت Hindi sharbat from Arabic Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Terra cotta ( Italian: "baked earth" is a Ceramic. Its uses include vessels water & waste water pipes and surface embellishment in Building construction Sponge cake is a cake based on Flour (usually Wheat flour Sugar, and eggs sometimes leavened with Baking powder, that derives its Ricotta (pronounced in Italian) is an Italian Sheep milk Whey cheese. [41]
See also
Notes
- ^ Hunt & Murray, p. The Cuisine of Early modern Europe (c 1500 - 1800) was a mix of dishes inherited from Medieval cuisine combined with innovations Guillaume Tirel, alias Taillevent ( Old French: "slicewind" (born ca Frumenty (sometimes furmity, fromity, or fermenty) was a popular dish in Western European Medieval cuisine. A sop is a piece of Bread or Toast with which liquid food of some sort is soaked up and then eaten An entremet (or entremets, from Old French, literally meaning "between servings" is in modern French cuisine a small dish served between courses The medieval household was like modern Households the centre of family life for all classes of European society 16.
- ^ Henisch, p. 41.
- ^ Henisch, p. 43.
- ^ Henisch, p. 40.
- ^ Scully, pp. 135–136.
- ^ Scully, pp. 126–135.
- ^ Terence Scully, "Tempering Medieval Food" in Food in the Middle Ages, pp. 7-12
- ^ Scully p. 218
- ^ Scully p. 83
- ^ a b Henisch, chapter 2
- ^ Adamson, pp. 161–164.
- ^ Henisch, pp. 185–186.
- ^ a b Adamson, chapter 2
- ^ Dembinska, p. 143.
- ^ Scully, p. 113.
- ^ Scully. pp. 44–46.
- ^ Scully, p. 70.
- ^ Barbara Santich, "The Evolution of Culinary Techniques in the Medieval Era" in Food in the Middle Ages, pp. 61-81
- ^ Scully, p. 96.
- ^ Medieval science. . . , "Food storage and preservation"
- ^ Scully, pp. 35–38.
- ^ Adamson, pp. 161–164.
- ^ Cabbage and other foodstuffs in common use by most German-speaking peoples are mentioned in Walther Ryff's dietary from 1549 and Hieronymus Bock's Deutsche Speißkamer ("German Larder") from 1550, see Regional Cuisines, p. Hieronymus Bock, also seen as "Boch" ( 1498 - February 21, 1554) also known under his latinised name Hieronymus Tragus 163.
- ^ a b c Adamson, chapter 1
- ^ Regional Cuisines, p. 89.
- ^ Adamson, p. 164.
- ^ The rather contrived classification of barnacle geese as fish was not universally accepted. The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II examined barnacles and noted no evidence of any bird-like embryo in them, and the secretary of Leo of Rozmital wrote a very skeptical account of his reaction to being served barnacle goose at a fish-day dinner in 1456; Henisch, pp. The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states Frederick II ( December 26, 1194 &ndash December 13, 1250) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty was a Pretender to the title 48–49.
- ^ Adamson, pp. 48–51.
- ^ Scully, pp. 154–157.
- ^ Dembinska, p. 80.
- ^ Scully, pp. 138–146.
- ^ Scully, pp. 151–154.
- ^ Medieval science. . . , "Brewing"
- ^ Scully, pp. 157–165.
- ^ Adamson, p. 65; by comparison, the estimated population of Britain in 1340, right before the Black Death, was only 5 million, and was a mere 3 million by 1450 (Fontana p. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia 36).
- ^ Scully, pp. 84–86.
- ^ Scully, pp. 135–136.
- ^ Adamson, p. 89.
- ^ Adamson, p. 97.
- ^ Adamson, p. 110.
- ^ Regional Cuisines, pp. 120–121.
References
- Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004) Food in Medieval Times ISBN 0-313-32147-7
- Dembinska, Maria (1999) Food and drink in medieval Poland: rediscovering a cuisine of the past, translated by Magdalena Thomas, revised and adapted by William Woys Weaver ISBN 0-8122-3224-0
- The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages (1972); J. C Russel Population in Europe 500–1500 ISBN 0-00-632841-5
- Food in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays (1995) edited by Melitta Weiss Adamson ISBN 0-8153-1345-4
- Henisch, Bridget Ann (1976), Fast and Feast: Food in Medieval Society ISBN 0-271-01230-7
- Hunt, Edwin S. & Murray, James H. (1999) A history of business in Medieval Europe, 1200-1550 ISBN 0-521-49923-2
- Medieval science, technology, and medicine : an encyclopedia (2005) Thomas Glick, Steven J. Livesey, Faith Wallis, editors ISBN 0-415-96930-1
- Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays (2002) edited by Melitta Weiss Adamson ISBN 0-415-92994-6
- Scully, Terence (1995) The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages ISBN 0-85115-611-8
External links
- Le Viandier de Taillevent - An online translation of the 14th century cookbook by James Prescott
- Medieval cookery books at the British Library - Learning resources on the medieval kitchen
- How to Cook Medieval - A guide on how to make medieval cuisine with modern ingredients
- The Forme of Cury - A late 14th century English cookbook, available from Project Gutenberg
- Cariadoc's Miscellany - A collection of articles and recipes on medieval and Renaissance food
- MedievalCookery.com - Recipes, information, and notes about cooking in medieval Europe
- Olde Hansa - The medieval restaurant of Tallinn - contains also information about cooking, eating habit and culture during the hanseatic times
- Getting your bread in medieval societyPDF (86. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere 9 KiB)
- Feeding the poor in medieval Catalonia
- Nutrition and the Early-Medieval Diet
- Dietary Requirements of the Medieval Peasant
- Making Medieval Sauces
- Pyes de ParesPDF (196 KiB) - An experiment with pies as a way of preserving meat
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