Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra

The Mahābhārata (Devanāgarī: महाभारत), /maɦaːbʱaːrət̪ə/ is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Indian epic poetry is the Epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent. This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki

With more than 74,000 verses, long prose passages, and about 1. 8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is one of the longest epic poems in the world. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation ^[1] Including the Harivaṃśa, the Mahabharata has a total length of more than 90,000 verses. The Harivamsha (also Harivamsa; Sanskrit Harivaṃśa sa हरिवंश "the lineage of Hari ( Vishnu)" is an important

It is of immense importance to the culture of the Indian subcontinent, and is a major text of Hinduism. This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Its discussion of human goals (artha or purpose, kāma or pleasure, dharma or duty, and moksha or liberation) takes place in a long-standing tradition, attempting to explain the relationship of the individual to society and the world (the nature of the 'Self') and the workings of karma. Artha ( Devanagari: अर्थ is a Sanskrit term meaning "purpose cause motive meaning notion" The Sanskrit term ( Devanāgarī: धर्म Pali transliteration dhamma) is an Indian spiritual and religious In Indian religions, Moksha ( Sanskrit: sa मोक्ष mokṣa) or Mukti ( Sanskrit: sa मुक्ति literally "release" Karma ( Sanskrit: कर्म, kárman - "act action performance" Pali: kamma) is the concept of "action"

The title may be translated as "the great tale of the Bhārata Dynasty", according to the Mahābhārata's own testimony extended from a shorter version simply called Bhārata of 24,000 verses^[2] The epic is part of the Hindu itihāsa, literally "that which happened", which includes the Ramayana but not the Purāṇas. Indian epic poetry is the Epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent. For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times"

Traditionally, Hindus ascribe the authorship of the Mahābhārata to Vyasa. Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions Because of its immense length, its philological study has a long history of attempts to unravel its historical growth and composition layers. Its earliest layers date back to the late Vedic period (ca. The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being 5th c. BC) and it probably reached its final form in the early Gupta period (ca. The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C 4th c. AD).

Influence

Part of a series on Hindu scriptures

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Upanishad Aitareya · Brihadaranyaka · Isha · Taittiriya · Chandogya · Kena · Mundaka · Mandukya · Katha · Prashna · Shvetashvatara

Vedanga Shiksha · Chandas · Vyakarana · Nirukta · Jyotisha · Kalpa

Mahakavya (epics) Mahabharata · Ramayana

Other scriptures Smriti · Śruti · Bhagavad Gita · Purana · Agama · Darshana · Pancharatra · Tantra · Sutra · Stotra · Dharmashastra · Divya Prabandha · Tevaram · Ramacharitamanas · Shikshapatri · Vachanamrut · Ananda Sutram

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In its scope, the Mahabharata is more than simply a story of kings and princes, sages and wise men, demons and gods. Literature regarded as central to the Hindu literary tradition was predominantly composed in Sanskrit, Indeed much of the morphology and linguistic "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" The Yajurveda ( Sanskrit यजुर्वेदः, a Tatpurusha compound of yajus "sacrificial formula' + veda The Samaveda ( Sanskrit: सामवेद sāmaveda, from sāman "melody" + veda "knowledge") is third (in the usual The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi The oral tradition of the Vedas ( Śrauta) consists of several pathas, "recitations" or ways of chanting the Vedic Mantras Such traditions The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature The Aranyakas (Sanskrit आरण्यक āraṇyaka) are part of the Hindu śruti, the four Vedas these religious texts were composed in The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings The Aitareya Upanishad is one of the older "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad ( Sanskrit: बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद् is one of the older "primary" ( Mukhya The Isha Upanishad ( īśa upaniṣad, otherwise Ishopanishad īśopaniṣad or īśāvāsya upaniṣad) is one of the shortest of the Upanishads The Taittiriya Upanishad is one of the older " primary " Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the "primary" ( Mukhya) Upanishads Together with the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana and the Brihadaranyaka The Kena Upanishad (kenopaniṣad is one of the older "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Muṇḍaka Upanishad is one of the older "primary" ( Mukhya) Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. Māndūkya Upanishad is the shortest Upanishads - the scriptures of Hindu Vedanta. The Kaṭha Upanishad is one of the older Mukhya "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. Prashna Upanishad ( IAST praṣnopaniṣad is one of the older "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad (Sanskrit Śvetāśvatara) (400 - 200 BCE is one of the older "primary" Upanishads It is associated with the Black The Vedanga ( vedāṅga, "member of the Veda" are six auxiliary disciplines for the understanding and tradition of the Vedas. See Shiksha (NGO for the Indian non-governmental organization The main principle of Vedic meter is measurement by the number of syllables The Sanskrit grammatical tradition of vyākaraṇa is one of the six Vedanga disciplines Nirukta ("explanation etymological interpretation" is one of the six {{IAST|Vedānga}} disciplines of Hinduism, treating Etymology, particularly Jyotiṣa ( Sanskrit jyotiṣa, from jyótis- "light heavenly body" also spelled Jyotish and Jyotisha in English Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating Ritual. Indian epic poetry is the Epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent. The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki The following is a bibliography of Hindu scriptures and texts. Smriti (Sanskrit स्मृति " that which is remembered " refers to a specific body of Hindu religious Scripture If you are looking for the singer see Shruti Haasan. For other meanings see Śruti (disambiguation. For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times" Darśana ( Darshan, दर्शन is a Sanskrit term meaning "sight" (in the sense of an instance of seeing or beholding from a root Pāñcarātra are Vaishnavite devotional texts dedicated to a single deity Sriman Narayana who manifests in different forms Tantras (" Looms " or " Weavings " refers to numerous and varied scriptures pertaining to any of several esoteric traditions In Hinduism a Stotra is a hymn of praise These hymns praise aspects of the divine such as Devi, Siva, or Vishnu. Dharmaśāstra is a genre of Sanskrit texts and refers to the śāstra, or Indic branch of learning pertaining to Hindu Dharma, religious The Nalayira Divya Prabandha (or Nalayira Divya Prabhandham) is a collection of 4000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand' composed before 8th century The Tevaram ( Tamil: தேவாரம் Teva means "God" aram means "garland") denotes the first seven volumes of the Śrī Rāmacaritamānas ( Devanāgarī: hi श्री राम चरित मानस ( Hindi / Avadhi) is an Epic poem composed by the The Shikshapatri ( Devanagari: शिक्षापत्री is a text of two hundred and twelve verses written in Sanskrit by Bhagwan Swaminarayan The Vachanamrut of Bhagwan Swaminarayan is the most sacred and foundational scripture of the Swaminarayan faith. Ananda Sutram is the basic scripture of modern Yoga composed in Sanskrit by Shrii Shrii Anandamurti (1921-1990 in the year 1961 Vyasa says that one of its aims is elucidating the four goals of life: dharma (righteousness), artha (wealth), kama (pleasure), and moksha (liberation). Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions The Sanskrit term ( Devanāgarī: धर्म Pali transliteration dhamma) is an Indian spiritual and religious Artha ( Devanagari: अर्थ is a Sanskrit term meaning "purpose cause motive meaning notion" In Indian religions, Moksha ( Sanskrit: sa मोक्ष mokṣa) or Mukti ( Sanskrit: sa मुक्ति literally "release" The narrative culminates in moksha, believed by Hindus to be the ultimate goal of human beings. In Indian religions, Moksha ( Sanskrit: sa मोक्ष mokṣa) or Mukti ( Sanskrit: sa मुक्ति literally "release" Karma and dharma play an integral role in the Mahabharata. Karma ( Sanskrit: कर्म, kárman - "act action performance" Pali: kamma) is the concept of "action" The Sanskrit term ( Devanāgarī: धर्म Pali transliteration dhamma) is an Indian spiritual and religious

The Mahabharata includes aspects of Hinduism, stories of the gods and goddesses, and explanations of Hindu philosophy. Hindu philosophy is divided into six Sanskrit ''{{IAST|āstika}}'') schools of thought or darshanas (literally "views" Sankhya Among the principal works and stories that are a part of the Mahabharata are the following (often considered isolated as works in their own right):

• Bhagavad Gita (Krishna advises and teaches Arjuna when he is ridden with doubt. Arjuna or Arjun ( Sanskrit: अर्जुन arjuna) is one of the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, whose name Bhishmaparva. )
• Yaksha prashna ( a dialogue comprising 124 questions, between Yudishtra and a yaksha, who is none other than dharma devata himself). This examines all important questions of a person who is interested in spiritual quest.
• Moksha dharmam. (an insightful dialogue between yudhishtra and many preceptors)
• Vidura neethi(conversation between vidura and dritharashtra).
• Damayanti (or Nala and Damayanti, a love story. Damayanti (दमयंती a character in Hindu mythology was the princess of Vidarbha Kingdom, who married king Nala, of Nishadha Kingdom Aranyakaparva. )
• Krishnavatara (the story of Krishna, the Krishna Lila, which is woven through many chapters of the story)
• An abbreviated version of the Ramayana. Krishna (कृष्ण in Devanagari kṛṣṇa in IAST, ˈkr̩ʂɳə in classical Sanskrit is a deity worshiped across many traditions of Hinduism The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki Aranyakaparva.
• Rishyasringa (also written as Rshyashrnga, the horned boy and rishi. According to Hindu mythology and scriptures, Rishyasringa ( Sanskrit:ऋष्यशृंग IAST: Ṛṣyaśṛnga ('deer-horned' in Aranyakaparva. )
• Vishnu sahasranama (a hymn to Vishnu, which describes his 1000 names; Anushasanaparva. The Vishnu sahasranāma (literally "the thousand names of Vishnu " is a list of 1000 names for Vishnu, one of the main forms of God For other meanings see Vishnu (disambiguation. Vishnu ( IAST viṣṇu Devanagari विष्णु (honorific )

The Mahabharata expresses an epic tendency towards all-inclusiveness at the beginning of its first parva (section): "What is found here, may be found elsewhere. What is not found here, will not be found elsewhere. "

Textual history and organization

It is usually thought that the full length of the Mahabharata has accreted over a long period. The Mahabharata itself (1. 1. 61) distinguishes a core portion of 24,000 verses, the Bharata proper, as opposed to additional secondary material, while the Ashvalayana Grhyasutra (3. Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating Ritual. 4. 4) makes a similar distinction. According to the Adi-parva of the Mahabharata (shlokas 81, 101-102), the text was originally 8,800 verses when it was composed by Vyasa and was known as the Jaya (Victory), which later became 24,000 verses in the Bharata recited by Vaisampayana, and finally over 90,000 verses in the Mahabharata recited by Ugrasravas. A Sanskrit term shloka (श्लोक also spelt sloka specifically denotes a metered and often rhymed poetic verse or phrase Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions Vaisampayana or Vaiśampayana a character in the Mahabharata, one of the two major Sanskrit Epics of Ancient India. ^[3]

As with the field of Homeric studies, research on the Mahabharata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating various layers within the text. Homeric scholarship is the study of Homeric epic, especially the two large surviving epics the Iliad and Odyssey. The complex structure had caused some early Western Indologists to refer to it as chaotic. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies ^[4]

The earliest known references to the Mahabharata and its core Bharata date back to the 6th-5th century B.C., in the Ashtadhyayi (sutra 6. The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC. The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. Pāṇini ( IAST: Pāṇini Dēvanāgarī: sa पाणिनि a Patronymic meaning "descendant of {{IAST|Paṇi}} " was an ancient 2. 38) of Pāṇini (c. Pāṇini ( IAST: Pāṇini Dēvanāgarī: sa पाणिनि a Patronymic meaning "descendant of {{IAST|Paṇi}} " was an ancient 520-460 B. C. ), and in the Ashvalayana Grhyasutra (3. Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating Ritual. 4. 4). This may suggest that the core 24,000 verses, known as the Bharata, as well as an early version of the extended Mahabharata, were composed by the 6th-5th century B. C. , with parts of the Jaya's original 8,800 verses possibly dating back as far as the 9th-8th century B. C. ^[5]

The Greek writer Dio Chrysostom (ca. Dio Chrysostom (Δίων Χρυσόστομος) Dion of Prusa or Dio Cocceianus (ca 40-ca. Year 40 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. 120) reported, "it is said that Homer's poetry is sung even in India, where they have translated it into their own speech and tongue. The result is that. . . the people of India. . . are not unacquainted with the sufferings of Priam, the laments and wailings of Andromache and Hecuba, and the valor of both Achilles and Hector: so remarkable has been the spell of one man's poetry!"^[6] Despite the passage's evident face-value meaning—that the Iliad had been translated into Sanskrit—some scholars have supposed that the report reflects the existence of a Mahabharata at this date, whose episodes Dio or his sources syncretistically identify with the story of the Iliad. In Greek mythology, Priam ( Greek Πρίαμος Priamos) was the king of Troy during the Trojan War and youngest son In Greek mythology, Andromache ( Ancient Greek:) was the wife of Hector and daughter of Eetion, and sister to Podes. This page is about the mythological figure for the Butterfly, see Morpho hecuba; for the Asteroid, see 108 Hecuba "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the The Iliad ( Greek: Ἰλιάς (Ancient Ιλιάδα (Modern is together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs often while melding practices of various schools of thought Christian Lassen, in his Indische Alterthumskunde, supposed that the reference is ultimately to Dhritarashtra's sorrows, the laments of Gandhari and Draupadi, and the valor of Arjuna and Suyodhana or Karna. Christian Lassen ( October 22, 1800 - May 8, 1876) was a Norwegian - German Orientalist. ^[7] This interpretation, endorsed in such standard references as Albrecht Weber's History of Indian Literature, has often been repeated without specific reference to what Dio's text says. Albrecht Weber ( 17 February 1825 &ndash 30 November 1901) was a German Indologist and Historian born in ^[8]

Later, the copper-plate inscription of the Maharaja Sharvanatha (533-534) from Khoh (Satna District, Madhya Pradesh) describes the Mahabharata as a "collection of 100,000 verses" (shatasahasri samhita). The word Mahārāja (also spelled maharajah) is Sanskrit for "great king" or " High king " (a Karmadharaya from mahānt WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Satna is a city and a Municipal corporation in Satna district in the Indian state Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP) ( Hindī: मध्य प्रदेश pronounced, Translation: Middle Province) often The redaction of this large body of text was carried out after formal principles, emphasizing the numbers 18^[9] and 12. In the study of Literature, redaction can refer to a form of Editing, in which multiple source texts are combined together ( redacted) and are The addition of the latest parts may be dated by the absence of the Anushasana-parvan from MS Spitzer, the oldest surviving Sanskrit philosophical manuscript dated to the first century, that contains among other things a list of the books in the Mahabharata. From this evidence, it is likely that the redaction into 18 books took place in the first century. An alternative division into 20 parvans appears to have co-existed for some time. The division into 100 sub-parvans (mentioned in Mbh. 1. 2. 70) is older, and most parvans are named after one of their constituent sub-parvans. The Harivamsa consists of the final two of the 100 sub-parvans, and was considered an appendix (khila) to the Mahabharata proper by the redactors of the 18 parvas. The Harivamsha (also Harivamsa; Sanskrit Harivaṃśa sa हरिवंश "the lineage of Hari ( Vishnu)" is an important

The division into 18 parvans is as follows:

The Adi-parva includes the snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) of Janamejaya, explaining its motivation, detailing why all snakes in existence were intended to be destroyed, and why in spite of this, there are still snakes in existence. This sarpasattra material was often considered an independent tale added to a version of the Mahabharata by "thematic attraction" (Minkowski 1991), and considered to have particularly close connection to Vedic (Brahmana) literature, in particular the Panchavimsha Brahmana which describes the Sarpasattra as originally performed by snakes, among which are snakes named Dhrtarashtra and Janamejaya, two main characters of the Mahabharata's sarpasattra, and Takshaka, the name of a snake also in the Mahabharata. Vedic Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language, the language of the Vedas, the oldest Shruti texts of Hinduism. The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature The Tandhya-maha- (or Praudha-) brahmana, or "great" Brahmana — usually called Panchavimsha-brahmana from its consisting of twenty-five The Shatapatha Brahmana gives an account of an Ashvamedha performed by Janamejaya Parikshita. The Shatapatha Brahmana (sa शतपथ ब्राह्मण śatapatha brāhmaṇa, " Brahmana of one-hundred paths" abbreviated ŚB The Ashvamedha ( Sanskrit: sa अश्वमेध aśvamedhá; " Horse sacrifice " was one of the most important royal Rituals

According to what one character says at Mbh. 1. 1. 50, there were three versions of the epic, beginning with Manu (1. 1. 27), Astika (1. 3, sub-parva 5) or Vasu (1. 57), respectively. These versions would correspond to the addition of one and then another 'frame' settings of dialogues. The Vasu version would omit the frame settings and begin with the account of the birth of Vyasa. The Astika version would add the Sarpasattra and Ashvamedha material from Brahmanical literature, introduce the name Mahabharata, and identify Vyasa as the work's author. The redactors of these additions were probably Pancharatrin scholars who according to Oberlies (1998) likely retained control over the text until its final redaction. Pāñcarātra are Vaishnavite devotional texts dedicated to a single deity Sriman Narayana who manifests in different forms Mention of the Huna in the Bhishma-parva however appears to imply that this parva may have been edited around the 4th century. The Huna (also known as Indo-Hephthalites or Alchon) as they were known in South Asia, seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group who

Historicity

Main article: Kingdoms of ancient India

Map of "Bharatvarsha" (Kingdom of India) during the time of Mahabharata and Ramayana. This article is about the kingdoms as reflected in Sanskrit literature The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki (Title and location names are in English. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States )

The historicity of the Mahabharata war is unclear. The epic's setting certainly has an historical precedent in Vedic India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power in the late 2nd and early 1st millennia B. The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being Kuru ( Sanskrit: कुरु was the name of an Indo-Aryan tribe and their kingdom in the Vedic civilization of India, and later a C. ^[11] A dynastic conflict of the period could have been the inspiration for the Jaya, the core on which the Mahabharata corpus was built, with a climactic battle eventually coming to be viewed as an epochal event. Dating this conflict relies almost exclusively on textual materials in the Mahabaharata itself and associated genealogical lists in the later Puranic literature. For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times"

The evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds. Of the first kind, there is the direct statement that there were 1015 (or 1050) years between the birth of Parikshita (Arjuna's grandson) and the accession of Mahapadma Nanda, commonly dated to 382 B. C. , which would yield an estimate of about 1400 B. C. for the Bharata battle. ^[12] However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in the genealogies. ^[13] Of the second kind are analyses of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between the times of Adhisimakrishna (Parikshita's great-grandson) and Mahapadma Nanda. Pargiter accordingly estimated 26 generations by averaging 10 different dynastic lists and, assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an estimate of 850 B. C. for Adhisimakrishna, and thus approximately 950 B. C. for the Bharata battle. ^[14] B. B. Lal used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to estimate a date of 836 B. Braj Basi Lal (born in Jhansi, India in 1921 is a well-known Indian archaeologist C. , and correlated this with archaeological evidence from Painted Grey Ware sites, the association being strong between PGW artifacts and places mentioned in the epic. The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW is an Iron Age culture of Gangetic plain, lasting from roughly 1100 BC to 350 BC. ^[15]

Attempts to date the events using methods of archaeoastronomy have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimates ranging from the late 4th to the mid 2nd millennium B. Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the study of how peoples in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky how they used phenomena C. ^[16] The late 4th millennium date has a precedent in the calculation of the Kaliyuga epoch, based on planetary conjunctions, by Aryabhata (6th century). Āryabhaṭa ( Devanāgarī: आर्यभट (AD 476 &ndash 550 is the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics His date of February 18th 3102 B. C. has become widespread in Indian tradition (for example, the Aihole inscription of Pulikeshi II, dated to Saka 556 = 634 A. Aihole ( Kannada ಐಹೊಳೆ is a town in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India Pulakesi II (ಇಮ್ಮಡಿ ಪುಲಿಕೇಶಿ (610 - 642 CE is the most famous ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. D. , claims that 3735 years have elapsed since the Bharata battle. ^[17]) Another traditional school of astronomers and historians, represented by Vriddha-Garga, Varahamihira (author of the Brhatsamhita) and Kalhana (author of the Rajatarangini), place the Bharata war 653 years after the Kaliyuga epoch, corresponding to 2449 B. Daivajna Varāhamihira ( Devanagari: वराहमिहिर 505 &ndash 587 also called Varaha or Mihira was an Indian Astronomer, Mathematician The Bṛhat Saṃhitā is a 6th century Sanskrit encyclopedia by Varahamihira of wide ranging subjects of human interest including Astrology Kalhana ( कल्हण) (c 12th century) a Kashmiri Brahmin was the celebrated author of Rajatarangini, Kashmir 's history The Rājatarangiṇī ( The River of Kings) is a metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir from earliest time written in Sanskrit by Kalhaṇa. C. ^[18]

In discussing the dating questions historian A. L. Basham says:

"According to the most popular later tradition the Mahabharata War took place in 3102 B. C. , which in the light of all evidence, is quite impossible. More reasonable is another tradition, placing it in the 15th century B. C. , but this is also several centuries too early in the light of our archaeological knowledge. Probably the war took place around the beginning of the 9th century B. C. ; such a date seems to fit well with the scanty archaeological remains of the period, and there is some evidence in the Brahmana literature itself to show that it cannot have been much earlier. "^[19]

Authorship and structure

The epic is traditionally ascribed to Vyasa, who is also one of the major dynastic characters within the epic. Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions The first section of the Mahabharata states that it was Ganesha who, at the request of Vyasa, wrote down the text to Vyasa's dictation. Ganesha ( Sanskrit: sa गणेश Gaṇeśa) also spelled Ganesa or Ganesh and also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar Ganesha is said to have agreed to write it only on condition that Vyasa never pause in his recitation. Vyasa agreed, providing that Ganesha took the time to understand what was said before writing it down. This also serves as a popular variation on the stories of how Ganesha's right tusk was broken (a traditional part of Ganesha imagery). This version attributes it to the fact that, in the rush of writing, his pen failed, and he snapped off his tusk as a replacement in order that the transcription not be interrupted.

The epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many Indian religious and secular works. A story within a story is a Literary device or Conceit in which one story is told during the action of another story It is recited to the King Janamejaya who is the great-grandson of Arjuna, by Vaisampayana, a disciple of Vyasa. Emperor Janamejaya ( Sanskrit: जनमेजय was the son of Maharaja Parikshit and great-grandson of Arjuna the valiant warrior hero of Arjuna or Arjun ( Sanskrit: अर्जुन arjuna) is one of the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, whose name Vaisampayana or Vaiśampayana a character in the Mahabharata, one of the two major Sanskrit Epics of Ancient India. Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions

Synopsis

The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuru clan. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Hastinapur (हस्‍तिनापुर (Hastinapura in Sanskrit) is a town and a Nagar panchayat Kuru ( Sanskrit: कुरु was the name of an Indo-Aryan tribe and their kingdom in the Vedic civilization of India, and later a The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the Kaurava and the Pandava. The term Kaurava ( Sanskrit:कौरव is a Sanskrit term that means a descendant of Kuru, a legendary king who is the ancestor of many of the characters In the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Pandava (or Pandawa brothers ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डव pāṇḍavaḥ are the five acknowledged sons of Although the Kaurava is the senior branch of the family, Duryodhana, the eldest Kaurava, is younger than Yudhisthira, the eldest Pandava. In the Hindu epic the Mahābhārata, Duryodhana (दुर्योधन is the eldest son of the blind king Dhritarashtra by Queen Gandhari In the great Hindu epic Mahabharata, Yudhisthira ( Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर yudhiṣṭhira) the eldest son of King Both Duryodhana and Yudhisthira claim to the first in line to inherit the throne.

The struggle culminates in the great battle of Kurukshetra, in which the Pandavas are ultimately victorious. The Kurukshetra War ( Devangari: कुरुक्षेत्र युद्ध forms an essential component of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata In the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Pandava (or Pandawa brothers ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डव pāṇḍavaḥ are the five acknowledged sons of The battle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty and duty taking precedence over what is right, as well as the converse.

The Mahabharata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty, and ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven. Krishna (कृष्ण in Devanagari kṛṣṇa in IAST, ˈkr̩ʂɳə in classical Sanskrit is a deity worshiped across many traditions of Hinduism It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali (Kali Yuga), the fourth and final age of mankind, where the great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and man is heading toward the complete dissolution of right action, morality and virtue. In Hinduism, Kali ( IAST: káli; Devnāgari: sa कलि from a root kad "suffer grieve hurt confound confuse" Kali Yuga ( Devanāgarī: sa कलियुग lit "Age of Kali " "age of vice" is one of the four stages of development that the world goes

The elder generations

Janamejaya's ancestor Shantanu, the king of Hastinapura has a short-lived marriage with the goddess Ganga and has a son, Devavrata (later to be called Bhishma), who becomes the heir apparent. Shantanu ( Sanskrit: शंतनु is a king of Hastinapura in the great epic of the Mahābhārata. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Hastinapur (हस्‍तिनापुर (Hastinapura in Sanskrit) is a town and a Nagar panchayat In Hinduism, the river Ganga ( Sanskrit and Hindi गंगा Gaṅgā) or Ganges River (as called by westerners is considered Bhishma: One of the strongest characters of the Mahabharata. He was the great-uncle of both the Pandavas and the Kauravas A unparalleled archer he once

Many years later, when the king goes hunting, he sees Satyavati, and asks to marry her. Satyavati ( Sanskrit: सत्यवती is the great-grandmother of the Pandava and Kaurava princes principal characters of the Mahābhārata She is the daughter of a fisherman, and already has a son, Vyasa. Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions Her father refuses to consent to the marriage unless Shantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the king upon his death. To solve the king's dilemma, Devavrata agrees not to take the throne. As the fisherman is not sure about the prince's children honouring the promise, Devavrata also takes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise.

Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati, Chitrangada and Vichitravirya. Vichitravirya ( Sanskrit: विचित्रवीर्य vichitravīrya) in the Hindu epic Mahabharata is the younger son of queen Upon Shantanu's death, Chitrangada becomes king. After his death Vichitravirya rules Hastinapura. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Hastinapur (हस्‍तिनापुर (Hastinapura in Sanskrit) is a town and a Nagar panchayat In order to arrange the marriage of the young Vichitravirya, Bhishma goes to Kāśī for a swayamvara of the three princesses Amba, Ambika and Ambalika. Varanasi ( Sanskrit: वाराणसी Vārāṇasī, pronunciation) also commonly known as Benares ( or Banaras (बनारस Swayamvara ( Sanskrit: स्‍वयं‍वर in ancient India, was a practice of choosing a life partner among a list of suitors by a girl of marriageable He wins them, and Ambika and Ambalika are married to Vichtravirya. Amba wishes to marry someone else who Bhishma defeated. Bhishma lets her but the man she wants refuses. Amba asks Bhishma to marry her but he can not. So Amba becomes Bhishma's bitter enemy,holding him responsible for her plight.

The Pandava and Kaurava princes

When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asks her first son Vyasa to father children on the widows. Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions Niyoga ( Sanskrit: नियोग is an ancient Hindu tradition, when a woman (whose husband is either incapable of fatherhood or has died without having a child Ambika shuts her eyes when she sees him and her son Dhritarashtra is born blind. In the Mahābhārata Dhritarashtra ( Sanskrit: धृतराष्ट्र dhritarāshtra) was the son born to Vichitravirya 's first wife Ambalika turns pale and bloodless, and her son Pandu is born pale (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced' [1]). In the Mahābhārata epic Pandu ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डु is the son of Vichitravirya and his second wife Ambalika from Vyasa Vyasa fathers a third son Vidura, by a serving maid, who is born normal. Vidura ( Sanskrit: विदुर vidūra) was half-brother to Dhritarashtra and Pandu.

Dhritarashtra marries Gandhari, who blindfolds herself when she finds she has been married to a blind man. Pandu takes the throne because of Dhritarashtra's blindness. Pandu marries twice, to Kunti and Madri. Kunti ( Sanskrit: कुंती is the mother of the eldest three of the Pandava brothers from the Indian epic Mahābhārata. In the Mahābhārata epic Madri ( Sanskrit: माद्री was a princess of the Madra kingdom and the second wife of Pandu. Pandu is however cursed by sage Kindama that if he engages in a sexual act, he will die. In the epic Mahābhārata, Kindama was a Rishi who lived in the woods and could transform himself into an animal form He then retires to the forest along with his two wives, and his brother rules thereafter, despite his blindness.

Pandu's elder queen Kunti however, asks the gods Dharma, Vayu, and Indra for sons, by using a boon granted by Durvasa. The Sanskrit term ( Devanāgarī: धर्म Pali transliteration dhamma) is an Indian spiritual and religious In Hinduism Vayu ( Sanskrit: वायु, IAST: Vāyu Malay: Bayu Thai: Phra Pai is a primary deity the father of Indra ( Sanskrit: इन्द्र or इंद्र Indra, Malay: Indera, Thai: พระอินทร์ Phra-Intra She gives birth to three sons Yudhishtira, Bhima, and Arjuna through these gods. In the great Hindu epic Mahabharata, Yudhisthira ( Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर yudhiṣṭhira) the eldest son of King In the Mahābhārata, Bhima ( Sanskrit: भीम IAST: Bhīma was the second of the Pandava brothers Arjuna or Arjun ( Sanskrit: अर्जुन arjuna) is one of the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, whose name Kunti shares her boon with the younger queen Madri, who bears the twins Nakula and Sahadeva through the Ashwini twins. In the Mahābhārata epic Madri ( Sanskrit: माद्री was a princess of the Madra kingdom and the second wife of Pandu. Nakula ( Sanskrit: नकुल naküla) was one of the five Pandava brothers according to the epic Mahābhārata. Sahadeva ( Sanskrit: सहदेव sahadéva)was one of the five Pandava brothers according to the epic Mahābhārata. The Ashvins (अश्विन ( aśvin- "possessor of horses" "horse tamer" "cavalier" dual aśvinau) or Ashwini Kumaras However Pandu and Madri, indulge in sex and Pandu dies. Madri dies on his funeral pyre. Kunti raises the five brothers, who are from then usually referred to as the Pandava brothers. In the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Pandava (or Pandawa brothers ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डव pāṇḍavaḥ are the five acknowledged sons of

Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons through Gandhari, all born after the birth of Yudhishtira. These are the Kaurava brothers, the eldest being Duryodhana, and the second Dushasana. The term Kaurava ( Sanskrit:कौरव is a Sanskrit term that means a descendant of Kuru, a legendary king who is the ancestor of many of the characters In the Hindu epic the Mahābhārata, Duryodhana (दुर्योधन is the eldest son of the blind king Dhritarashtra by Queen Gandhari Dushasana (दुश्यासन Duśśāsana in IAST transliteration and sometimes written Duhshasana and Dushyasana) was the second son of the blind There is rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava brothers, from their youth and into manhood.

Lākṣagṛha (The House of Lac)

Duryodhana plots to get rid of the Pandavas. He has a palace built of flammable materials (mostly Lac), and arranges for them to stay there, with the intention of setting it alight. However, the Pandavas are warned by their uncle, Vidura, who sends them a miner to dig a tunnel. They are able to escape to safety and go into hiding, but after leaving others behind, whose bodies are mistaken for them. The Pandavas and Kunti go into hiding.

Marriage to Draupadi

During the course of their hiding the Pandavas learn of a swayamvara which is taking place for the hand of the Pāñcāla princess Draupadī. Swayamvara ( Sanskrit: स्‍वयं‍वर in ancient India, was a practice of choosing a life partner among a list of suitors by a girl of marriageable For the Genus of Gossamer-winged butterflies, see Panchala (butterfly. In the Ancient Indian epic Mahābhārata, Krsnā Draupadī (Devanagari कृष्णा द्रौपदी; approx The Pandavas enter the competition in disguise as Brahmins. The task is to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling while looking at its reflection in oil below. Most of the princes fail, many being unable to lift the bow. Arjuna succeeds however. The Pandavas return home and inform their mother that Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what they have brought back. Without looking, Kunti asks them to share whatever it is Arjuna has won among themselves. Thus Draupadi ends up being the wife of all five brothers.

Indraprastha

After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back to Hastinapura. The Kuru family elders and relatives negotiate and broker a split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining a new territory. Yudhishtira has a new capital built for this territory at Indraprastha. The city of Indraprastha ( City of Indra) ( Sanskrit: इन्‍द्रप्रस्‍थ a city in ancient India that was the capital of the kingdom Neither the Pandava nor Kaurava sides are happy with the arrangement however.

Shortly after this, Arjuna kidnaps and then marries Krishna's sister, Subhadra. Subhadrā ( Sanskrit: सुभद्रा is an important character in the Mahābhārata. Yudhishtira wishes to establish his position as king; he seeks Krishna's advice. Krishna advises him, and after due preparation and the elimination of some opposition, Yudhishthira carries out the rājasūya yagna ceremony; he is thus recognised as pre-eminent among kings.

The Pandavas have a new palace built for them, by Maya the Danava. In Hindu mythology, Maya (मय or Mayasura (मयासुर was a great ancient king of the Asura, Daitya and Rakshasa races The Danavas in Vedic mythology were a race of the Asuras. The Danavas were the sons of Danu, who in turn was a daughter of Daksha. They invite their Kaurava cousins to Indraprastha. Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water, and will not step in. After being told of his error, he then sees a pond, and assumes it is not water and falls in. Draupadi laughs at him, and he is humiliated.

The dice game

Sakuni, Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges a dice game, playing against Yudhishtira with loaded dice. Yudhishtira loses all his wealth, then his kingdom. He then even gambles his brothers, himself, and finally his wife into servitude. The jubilant Kauravas insult the Pandavas in their helpless state and even try to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire court, but her honour is saved by Krishna who miraculously creates lengths of cloth to replace the ones being removed.

Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders are aghast at the situation, but Duryodhana is adamant that there is no place for two crown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra orders for another dice game. The Pandavas are required to go into exile for 13 years, and for the 13th year must remain hidden. If discovered by the Kauravas, they will be forced into exile for another 12 years.

Exile and return

The Pandavas spend twelve years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. They also prepare alliances for a possible future conflict. They spend their final year in disguise in the court of Virata, and are discovered at or after the end of the year. Virata ( Sanskrit: विराट in the Hindu epic Mahabharata, was a king in whose court the Pandavas spent a year in concealment

At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha. However, this fails, as Duryodhana objects that they were discovered while in hiding, and that no return of their kingdom was agreed. War becomes inevitable.

The battle at Kurukshetra

Main article: Kurukshetra war

Bhishma on his death-bed of arrows with the Pandavas and Krishna - Folio from the Razmnama(1761 - 1763), Persian translation of the Mahabharata, commissioned by Mughal emperor Akbar. The Kurukshetra War ( Devangari: कुरुक्षेत्र युद्ध forms an essential component of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata In the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Pandava (or Pandawa brothers ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डव pāṇḍavaḥ are the five acknowledged sons of Krishna (कृष्ण in Devanagari kṛṣṇa in IAST, ˈkr̩ʂɳə in classical Sanskrit is a deity worshiped across many traditions of Hinduism Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar The Pandavas are dressed in Islamic armour and robes. ^[20]

The two sides summon vast armies to their help, and line up at Kurukshetra for a war. Kurukshetra ( Hindi: कुरुक्षेत्र is the name of a City in Kurukshetra District of the Indian state of Haryana हरियाणा The Kingdoms of Panchala, Dwaraka, Kasi, Kekaya, Magadha, Matsya, Chedi, Pandya and the Yadus of Mathura and some other clans like the Parama Kambojas were allied with the Pandavas. For the Genus of Gossamer-winged butterflies, see Panchala (butterfly. Varanasi ( Sanskrit: वाराणसी Vārāṇasī, pronunciation) also commonly known as Benares ( or Banaras (बनारस Kekayas or Kaikeyas (केक‍य were an ancient people attested to have been living in north-western Punjab -- between Gandhara and Beas river Magadha (मगध formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas ( Sanskrit, "great countries" or regions in ancient India. This article concerns the Hindu avatar For the ancient kingdom see Matsya Rajya. Chedi kingdom (चेदि was one among the many kingdoms ruled during early periods by Paurava kings and later by Yadav kings in the central and western India Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation Yadu (यदु is the name of one of the five Aryan clans mentioned in the Rig Veda. Mathura ( IAST mathurā)( Hindi: मथुरा is a holy City in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Ancient Sanskrit literature reveals that like the Madras Uttara Madras and the Kurus / Uttara Kurus the ancient Kambojas also had In the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Pandava (or Pandawa brothers ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डव pāṇḍavaḥ are the five acknowledged sons of The allies of the Kauravas included the kings of Pragjyotisha, Anga, Kekaya, Sindhudesa (including Sindhus, Sauviras and Sivis), Mahishmati, Avanti in Madhyadesa, Madra, Gandhara, Bahlikas, Kambojas and many others. The term Kaurava ( Sanskrit:कौरव is a Sanskrit term that means a descendant of Kuru, a legendary king who is the ancestor of many of the characters The earliest reference to Angas (अंग occurs in the Atharava Veda (V Kekayas or Kaikeyas (केक‍य were an ancient people attested to have been living in north-western Punjab -- between Gandhara and Beas river The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. Madra or Madraka is the name of an ancient region and its inhabitants located in the north-west division of the ancient Indian Sub-continent. Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient Bahlika (बाह्लिक finds mention in Atharvaveda, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas Vartikka of Katyayana, Brhatsamhita The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature Prior to war being declared, Balarama, had expressed his unhappiness at the developing conflict, and left to go on pilgrimage, thus he does not take part in the battle itself. Balarama (बलराम Balarāma) also named Baladeva, Baldau, Balabhadra and Halayudha, is the elder brother of the divine In Religion and Spirituality, a pilgrimage is a long journey or Search of great Moral significance Krishna takes part in a non-combatant role, as charioteer for Arjuna.

Before the battle, Arjuna, seeing himself facing great-uncle Bhishma and his teacher Drona on the other side, has doubts about the battle and he fails to lift his Gandiva bow. Bhishma: One of the strongest characters of the Mahabharata. He was the great-uncle of both the Pandavas and the Kauravas A unparalleled archer he once In the epic Mahābhārata, Drona ( Sanskrit: द्रोण droNa) or Dronacharya (द्रोणाचार्य droNāchārya Krishna wakes him up to his call of duty in the famous Bhagavad Gita section of the epic.

Though initially sticking to chivalrous notions of warfare, both sides soon adopt dishonourable tactics. At the end of the 18-day battle, only the Pandavas, Satyaki, Kripa, Ashwathama, Kritavarma and Krishna survive.

The end of the Pandavas

After "seeing" the carnage, Gandhari who had lost all her sons, curses Krishna to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stopping the war, he had not done so. Krishna accepts the curse, which bears fruit 36 years later.

The Pandavas who had ruled their kingdom meanwhile, decide to renounce everything. Clad in skins and rags they retire to the Himalaya and climb towards heaven in their bodily form. A stray dog travels with them. One by one the brothers and Draupadi fall on their way. As each one stumbles, Yudhishitra gives the rest the reason for their fall (Draupadi was partial to Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva were vain and proud of their looks, Bhima and Arjuna were proud of their strength and archery skills, respectively). Only the virtuous Yudhisthira who had tried everything to prevent the carnage and the dog remain. The dog reveals himself to be the god Yama (also known as Yama Dharmaraja), and then takes him to the underworld where he sees his siblings and wife. After explaining the nature of the test, Dharma takes Yudhishtira back to heaven and explains that it was necessary to expose him to the underworld for the one lie he had said during his entire life. The Kurukshetra War ( Devangari: कुरुक्षेत्र युद्ध forms an essential component of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata Dharma then assures him that his siblings and wife would join him in heaven after they had been exposed to the underworld for measures of time according to their vices.

Arjuna's grandson Parikshita rules after them and dies bitten by a snake. Parikshit ( Sanskrit: परिक्षित् IAST: Parikṣit with the alternative form परीक्षित् IAST: Parīkṣit is in the His furious son, Janamejaya, decides to perform a snake sacrifice (sarpasttra) in order to destroy the snakes. It is at this sacrifice that the tale of his ancestors is narrated to him.

Versions, translations, and derivative works

Many regional versions of the work developed over time, mostly differing only in minor details, or with verses or subsidiary stories being added. These include some versions from outside the Indian subcontinent, such as the Kakawin Bharatayuddha from Java. Kakawin Bhāratayuddha is an Old Javanese poetical rendering of some books ( parva) of the Mahabharata by Mpu Sedah and his brother Java (Jawa is an Island of Indonesia and the site of its Capital city Jakarta.

Critical Edition

Between 1919 and 1966, the scholars at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, compared the various manuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, on 13,000 pages in 19 volumes, followed by the Harivamsha in another two volumes and six index volumes. The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI is located in Pune, Maharashtra, India. Pune (ˈpuːneɪ Marathi: पुणे Hindi: पूना formerly Poona, is the second largest city in the state of Maharashtra This is the text that is usually used in current Mahabharata studies for reference. ^[21] This work is sometimes called the 'Pune' or 'Poona' edition of the Mahabharata.

Modern interpretations

MT Vasudevan Nair's Randamoozham. A radical approach in interpreting 'the silences of Vyasa' when he narrated the epic Mahabharatha, the 'Second Turn' ('Randamoozham' for those who know Malayalam) describes the events taking Bhima, the second of the Pandavas as the pivotal point. This book bring out the true colors of a lot of characters whom we usually consider as gods.

Krishna as depicted in Yakshagana from Karnataka which is based largely on stories of Mahabharata

The acclaimed Kannada novelist S.L. Bhyrappa wrote a novel in Kannada (Translated to most of the Indian languages and English) titled Parva, giving new interpretation to the story of Mahabharata. Yakshagana ( Kannada:ಯಕ್ಷಗಾನ pronounced as yaksha-gaana) is a classical Folk art form of the state of Karnataka in India Karnataka (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ pronounced) is a state in the southern part of India Kannada (kn [[wiktಕನ್ನಡ ಕನ್ನಡ]] Kannaḍa) is one of the major Dravidian languages of India, spoken predominantly in the state Santeshivara Lingannaiah Bhyrappa ( Kannada:ಸಂತೇಶಿವರ ಲಿಂಗಣ್ಣಯ್ಯ ಭೈರಪ್ಪ (born July 26, 1934) Parva (ಪರ್ವ is a Kannada language novel written by S L Bhyrappa based on the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata. He carried years of research where Mahabharata happened, in the plains of North India, Uttarakhand and Garwal region in particular. Geography Northern India lies mainly on continental India and a very small part of it lies on the Indian peninsula Uttarakhand ( Hindi: उत्तराखण्ड or उत्तराखंड Uttar + Akhand i He tried to understand the social and ethical practices in these regions and correlate them with the story of Mahabharata. He gave a realistic, rational explanation of the characters and events of Mahabharata.

In the late 1980s, the Mahabharata TV series ^[22] was televised and shown on India's national television (Doordarshan). Mahabharat is a successful Indian Television series based on the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata. Doordarshan (दूरदर्शन literally Tele-Vision) is the public television broadcaster of India and a division of Prasar Bharati, a public The series was written by Dr. Rahi Masoom Reza and directed by B. R. Chopra and his son Ravi Chopra. Dr Rahi Masoom Reza, born in Ghazipur in eastern Uttar Pradesh ( India) in a Muslim family was a famous Urdu shayar. Baldev Raj Chopra (BR Chopra (born April 22 1914 in Ludhiana, Punjab) is an Indian director and producer of Bollywood movies and television serials The concept was by Pt. Narendra Sharma - a well-known poet and lyricist. It was also shown in the UK by the BBC, where it achieved audience figures of 5 million, unheard of for a subtitled series being aired in the afternoon. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located ^[23]

In the West, the most acclaimed and well known presentation of the epic is Peter Brook's nine hour play premiered in Avignon in 1985 and its five hour movie version The Mahabharata (1989) ^[24], which was shown on other TV networks, including PBS (through the "Great Performances" show) and Danmarks Radio (credited in the movie's credits). The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings Peter Stephen Paul Brook CH, CBE (born 21 March 1925) is a British theatre and Film director and innovator Avignon (/aviɲɔ̃/ in French) ( Provençal: Avinhon in classical norm or Avignoun in Mistralian norm is a commune The Mahabharata is a 1989 film version of the Hindu epic, Mahabharata, directed by Peter Brook. The Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS) is a Non-profit Public broadcasting Television service with 354 member TV stations in the Great Performances is a Television series devoted to the Performing arts and has been aired on the U DR (formerly Danmarks Radio) is Denmark 's national Broadcasting corporation

However, there have been film versions of the Mahabharata long before these two versions, the earliest of which was shown in 1920. ^[25]. Another upcoming Indian film version The Mahabharata is currently in production. The Mahabharata is a 1989 film version of the Hindu epic, Mahabharata, directed by Peter Brook.

Among literary reinterpretations of the Mahabharata the most famous is arguably Sashi Tharoor's major work entitled "The Great Indian Novel", an involved literary, philosophical, and political novel which superimposes the major moments of post-Independence India in the 20th century onto the driving events of the Mahabharata epic. Shashi Tharoor ( Malayalam: ശശി തരൂര്‍ born 9 March 1956 in London) was an Indian Diplomat at the United The Great Indian Novel is a satirical novel by Shashi Tharoor. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country An acclaimed book, "The Great Indian Novel" also contemporized well-known characters of the epic into equally well-known politicians of the modern era (e. g. Indira Gandhi as the villainous Duryodhana). Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi ( Indirā Priyadarśinī Gāndhī) ( Née: Nehru (19 November 1917 - 31 October 1984 was the Prime Minister of the In the Hindu epic the Mahābhārata, Duryodhana (दुर्योधन is the eldest son of the blind king Dhritarashtra by Queen Gandhari

Mahabharata was also reinterpreted by Shyam Benegal in Kalyug. Shyam Benegal ( శ్యాం బెనెగల్‌) (born 14 December, 1934in Andhra pradesh) is a prolific Indian director and screenwriter Kalyug is a modern-day replaying of the Mahabharat, with the Pandava industrial family being locked in a titanic battle with their Kaurav rivals. But the times are different from the original Mahabharat's, and external forces impinge on feudal values causing disconcerting results. ^[26]

Western interpretations of the Mahabharata include William Buck's Mahabharata and Elizabeth Seeger's Five Sons of King Pandu.

English translations

Lal version

A poetic translation of the full epic into English, done by the poet P. Lal is complete, and in 2005 began being published by Writers Workshop, Calcutta. Purusottama Lal (born 1929 born in the state of Punjab in India, is a poet essayist translator professor and publisher Writers Workshop is a Calcutta -based literary publisher founded by the poet P The P. Lal translation is a non-rhyming verse-by-verse rendering, and is the only edition in any language to include all slokas in all recensions of the work (not just those in the Critical Edition). It is both poetic and swift to read, and is oriented to the oral/musical tradition in which the work was originally created. The completion of the publishing project is scheduled for 2008. Thirteen of the eighteen volumes are now available:

Vol 1: Adi Parva, 1232 pages, 2005, ISBN 81-8157-370-6

Vol 2: Sabha Parva, 520 pages, 2005, ISBN 81-8157-382-X

Vol 3: Vana Parva, 1580 pages, 2005, ISBN 81-8157-448-6

Vol 4: Virata Parva, 400 pages, 2006, ISBN 81-8157-382-X

Vol 5: Udyoga Parva, 970 pages, 2006, ISBN 81-8157-530-X

Vol 6: Bhishma Parva, 920 pages, 2006, ISBN 81-8157-548-2

Vol 7: Drona Parva, 1522 pages, 2007, ISBN 81-8157-640-3

Vol 8: Karna Parva, 1025 pages, 2008, ISBN 978-81-8157-711-5

Vol 10: Sauptika Parva, 173 pages, 2008, ISBN 978-81-8157-723-8

Vol 14: Asvamedhika Parva, 2008, In Progress

Vol 15: Asramavasuka Parva, 157 pages, 2007, ISBN 81-8157-606-3

Vol 16: Mausala Parva, 60 pages, 2006, ISBN 81-8157-550-4

Vol 17: Mahaprasthana Parva, 30 pages, 2006 ISBN 81-8157-552-0

Vol 18: Svargarohana Parva, 80 pages, 2006 ISBN 81-8157-554-7

Clay Sanskrit Library version

A project to translate the full epic into English prose, translated by various hands, began to appear in 2005 from the Clay Sanskrit Library, published by New York University Press. Clay Sanskrit Library is a series of books published by New York University Press and the JJC Foundation New York University ( NYU) is a private, Nonsectarian, Coeducational Research University in New York City. The translation is based not on the Critical Edition but on the version known to the commentator Nīlakaṇṭha. Currently available are portions of Parvas two, three, four, seven, eight, and nine.

Maha·bhárata II: The Great Hall: 588 pp, Paul Wilmot, 2006, ISBN 978-0-8147-9406-7
Maha·bhárata III: The Forest (volume four of four): 374 pp, William J. Johnson, 2005, ISBN 978-0-8147-4278-5
Maha·bhárata IV: Viráta: 516 pp, Kathleen Garbutt, 2007, ISBN 978-0-8147-3183-3
Maha·bhárata V: Preparations for War (volume one of two): 450 pp, Kathleen Garbutt, 2008, ISBN 978-0-8147-3191-8
Maha·bhárata V: Preparations for War (volume two of two): forthcoming
Maha·bhárata VI: Bhishma (volume one of two): forthcoming
Maha·bhárata VII: Drona (volume one of four): 473 pp, Vaughan Pilikian, 2006, ISBN 978-0-8147-6723-8
Maha·bhárata VIII: Karna (volume one of two): 604 pp, Adam Bowles, 2007, ISBN 978-0-8147-9981-9
Maha·bhárata VIII: Karna (volume two of two): 450 pp, Adam Bowles, 2008, ISBN 978-0-8147-9995-6
Maha·bhárata IX: Shalya (volume one of two): 371 pp, Justin Meiland, 2005, ISBN 978-0-8147-5706-2
Maha·bhárata IX: Shalya (volume two of two): 470 pp, Justin Meiland, 2007, ISBN 978-0-8147-5737-6

Chicago version

Another English prose translation of the full epic, based on the Critical Edition, is also in progress, published by University Of Chicago Press, initiated by Chicago Indologist J. The University of Chicago is a Private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. A. B. van Buitenen (Parvas 1-5) and, following a 20-year hiatus caused by the death of van Buitenen, is being continued by D. Gitomer of DePaul University (Parva 6), J. L. Fitzgerald of The University of Tennessee (Parvas 11-13) and W. Doniger of Chicago University (Parvas 14-18):

Vol. 1: Parva 1, 545 pages, 1980, ISBN 0-226-84663-6

Vol. 2: Parvas 2-3, 871 pages, 1981, ISBN 0-226-84664-4

Vol. 3: Parvas 4-5, 582 pages, 1983, ISBN 0-226-84665-2

Vol. 4: Parva 6 (forthcoming)

Vol. 7: Parva 11, first half of parva 12, 848 pages, 2003, ISBN 0-226-25250-7

Vol. 8: Second half of Parva 12 (forthcoming)

Ganguli version

Until these three projects are available in full, the only available complete English translations remain the Victorian prose versions by Kisari Mohan Ganguli,^[27] published between 1883 and 1896 (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers) and by M. Victorian literature is the literature produced during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901 and corresponds to the Victorian era. Kisari Mohan Ganguli was the person who translated the Indian epic Mahabharata into the English language between 1883 to 1896 N. Dutt (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers). Most critics consider the translation by Ganguli to be faithful to the original text. The complete text of Ganguli's translation is available online (see External Links).

Indonesian version

This is a Kawi version that is found on the Indonesian island of Bali and was translated by Dr. I. Gusti Putu Phalgunadi. I Gusti Putu Phalgunadi is an Indonesian scholar who has translated many of Indonesian Scriptures from the Kawi language to English Of the eighteen parvas, only eight Kawi manuscripts remain.

Vol 1: Adi Parva - The First Book, 305 pages, 1990, ISBN 81-85179-50-6

Vol 2: Virataparva - The Fourth Book, 197 pages, 1992, ISBN 81-85689-05-9

Vol 3: Udyogaparva, 345 pages, 1994, ISBN 81-85689-96-2

Vol 4: Bhishmaparva, 283 pages, 1995, ISBN 81-86471-05-7

Vol 5: Asramavasaparva, Mosalaparva, Prasthanikaparva, Svargarohanaparva, 161 pages, 1997, ISBN 81-86471-11-1

Kuru family tree

Key to Symbols

• Male: blue border
• Female: red border
• Pandavas: green box
• Kauravas: red box

Notes

• a: Santanu was a king of the Kuru dynasty or kingdom, and was some generations removed from any ancestor called Kuru. Kuru ( Sanskrit: कुरु was the name of an Indo-Aryan tribe and their kingdom in the Vedic civilization of India, and later a In Hinduism, the river Ganga ( Sanskrit and Hindi गंगा Gaṅgā) or Ganges River (as called by westerners is considered Shantanu ( Sanskrit: शंतनु is a king of Hastinapura in the great epic of the Mahābhārata. Satyavati ( Sanskrit: सत्यवती is the great-grandmother of the Pandava and Kaurava princes principal characters of the Mahābhārata Parāśara "crusher destroyer" is the name of several figures in Hindu tradition a son of Vasishtha, or a son of Shakti and Bhishma: One of the strongest characters of the Mahabharata. He was the great-uncle of both the Pandavas and the Kauravas A unparalleled archer he once Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions Ambika (अम्‍बिका was the daughter of King of Kashi and wife of Vichitravirya, King of Hastinapur. Vichitravirya ( Sanskrit: विचित्रवीर्य vichitravīrya) in the Hindu epic Mahabharata is the younger son of queen Ambalika (अम्‍बालिका was the daughter of King of Kashi and the wife of Vichitravirya, King of Hastinapur. In the Mahābhārata Dhritarashtra ( Sanskrit: धृतराष्ट्र dhritarāshtra) was the son born to Vichitravirya 's first wife Alternate meanings see Gandhari Gāndhārī (गांधारी is a character in the Hindu epic the Mahābhārata The villain Shakuni ( Sanskrit: शकुनि an avatar of Dvapara the personification of Dvapara Yuga, was the brother of Gandhari in the Mahābhārata Kunti ( Sanskrit: कुंती is the mother of the eldest three of the Pandava brothers from the Indian epic Mahābhārata. In the Mahābhārata epic Pandu ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डु is the son of Vichitravirya and his second wife Ambalika from Vyasa In the Mahābhārata epic Madri ( Sanskrit: माद्री was a princess of the Madra kingdom and the second wife of Pandu. Karna ( Sanskrit: कर्ण written Karṇa in IAST transliteration is one of the central characters of the Mahābhārata. In the great Hindu epic Mahabharata, Yudhisthira ( Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर yudhiṣṭhira) the eldest son of King In the Mahābhārata, Bhima ( Sanskrit: भीम IAST: Bhīma was the second of the Pandava brothers Arjuna or Arjun ( Sanskrit: अर्जुन arjuna) is one of the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, whose name Nakula ( Sanskrit: नकुल naküla) was one of the five Pandava brothers according to the epic Mahābhārata. Sahadeva ( Sanskrit: सहदेव sahadéva)was one of the five Pandava brothers according to the epic Mahābhārata. In the Hindu epic the Mahābhārata, Duryodhana (दुर्योधन is the eldest son of the blind king Dhritarashtra by Queen Gandhari Duhsala (alias Dushala Dussala etc was the sister of Duryodhana in the Indian epic Mahābhārata. Dushasana (दुश्यासन Duśśāsana in IAST transliteration and sometimes written Duhshasana and Dushyasana) was the second son of the blind In the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Pandava (or Pandawa brothers ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डव pāṇḍavaḥ are the five acknowledged sons of The term Kaurava ( Sanskrit:कौरव is a Sanskrit term that means a descendant of Kuru, a legendary king who is the ancestor of many of the characters Shantanu ( Sanskrit: शंतनु is a king of Hastinapura in the great epic of the Mahābhārata. His marriage to Ganga preceded his marriage to Satyavati. The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent Satyavati ( Sanskrit: सत्यवती is the great-grandmother of the Pandava and Kaurava princes principal characters of the Mahābhārata
• b: Pandu and Dhritarashtra were fathered by Vyasa after Vichitravirya's death. In the Mahābhārata epic Pandu ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डु is the son of Vichitravirya and his second wife Ambalika from Vyasa In the Mahābhārata Dhritarashtra ( Sanskrit: धृतराष्ट्र dhritarāshtra) was the son born to Vichitravirya 's first wife Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions Vichitravirya ( Sanskrit: विचित्रवीर्य vichitravīrya) in the Hindu epic Mahabharata is the younger son of queen Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura were the sons of Vyasa with Ambika, Ambalika and a maid servant respectively.
• c: Karna was born to Kunti through her invocation of Surya, before her marriage to Pandu. Karna ( Sanskrit: कर्ण written Karṇa in IAST transliteration is one of the central characters of the Mahābhārata. Kunti ( Sanskrit: कुंती is the mother of the eldest three of the Pandava brothers from the Indian epic Mahābhārata. In Hinduism, Surya ( Devanagari: सूर्य sūrya, lit "the Supreme Light" Malay: Suria; Thai: In the Mahābhārata epic Pandu ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डु is the son of Vichitravirya and his second wife Ambalika from Vyasa
• d: The Pandavas were acknowledged sons of Pandu but were begotten by Kunti's invocation of various deities. In the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Pandava (or Pandawa brothers ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डव pāṇḍavaḥ are the five acknowledged sons of In the Mahābhārata epic Pandu ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डु is the son of Vichitravirya and his second wife Ambalika from Vyasa Kunti ( Sanskrit: कुंती is the mother of the eldest three of the Pandava brothers from the Indian epic Mahābhārata. In particular:
  • Yama or Dharma (Dharmadeva), for Yudhishtira
  • Vayu, for Bhima
  • Indra or Varuna for Arjuna
  • The twins, Nakula and Sahadeva were born to Madri through her invocation of the The Ashvins
• e:Duryodhana and his siblings were born at the same time, and they were of the same generation as their Pandava cousins. | Llama, the animal Yama ( Sanskrit: यम also known as Yamarāja (यमराज in India Yanluowang (閻羅王 or simply Yan The Sanskrit term ( Devanāgarī: धर्म Pali transliteration dhamma) is an Indian spiritual and religious In the great Hindu epic Mahabharata, Yudhisthira ( Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर yudhiṣṭhira) the eldest son of King In Hinduism Vayu ( Sanskrit: वायु, IAST: Vāyu Malay: Bayu Thai: Phra Pai is a primary deity the father of In the Mahābhārata, Bhima ( Sanskrit: भीम IAST: Bhīma was the second of the Pandava brothers Indra ( Sanskrit: इन्द्र or इंद्र Indra, Malay: Indera, Thai: พระอินทร์ Phra-Intra In Vedic religion, Varuna or Waruna ( Devanagari:वरुण IAST: varuṇa) is a god of the Sky, of Rain and Arjuna or Arjun ( Sanskrit: अर्जुन arjuna) is one of the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, whose name Nakula ( Sanskrit: नकुल naküla) was one of the five Pandava brothers according to the epic Mahābhārata. Sahadeva ( Sanskrit: सहदेव sahadéva)was one of the five Pandava brothers according to the epic Mahābhārata. In the Mahābhārata epic Madri ( Sanskrit: माद्री was a princess of the Madra kingdom and the second wife of Pandu. The Ashvins (अश्विन ( aśvin- "possessor of horses" "horse tamer" "cavalier" dual aśvinau) or Ashwini Kumaras In the Hindu epic the Mahābhārata, Duryodhana (दुर्योधन is the eldest son of the blind king Dhritarashtra by Queen Gandhari In the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Pandava (or Pandawa brothers ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डव pāṇḍavaḥ are the five acknowledged sons of

The birth order of siblings is correctly shown in the family tree (from left to right), except for Vyasa and Bhishma whose birth order is not described, and Vichitravirya who was born after them. Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions Bhishma: One of the strongest characters of the Mahabharata. He was the great-uncle of both the Pandavas and the Kauravas A unparalleled archer he once The fact that Ambika and Ambalika are sisters is not shown in the family tree. Ambika (अम्‍बिका was the daughter of King of Kashi and wife of Vichitravirya, King of Hastinapur. Ambalika (अम्‍बालिका was the daughter of King of Kashi and the wife of Vichitravirya, King of Hastinapur. The birth of Duryodhana took place after the birth of Karna and Yudhishtira, but before the birth of the remaining Pandava brothers.

Some siblings of the characters shown here have been left out for clarity; these include Chitrangada, the eldest brother of Vichitravirya. Vidura, half-brother to Dhritarashtra and Pandu. Vidura ( Sanskrit: विदुर vidūra) was half-brother to Dhritarashtra and Pandu. The family tree continues through the descendants Arjuna, and these have also not been shown here. Arjuna or Arjun ( Sanskrit: अर्जुन arjuna) is one of the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, whose name

See also

• Bhagavad Gita
• Kakawin Bhāratayuddha
• Kingdoms of Ancient India
• Kurukshetra war
• Ramayana
• Harilal Upadhyay (author of the set of seven books, on Mahabharat Epic in Gujarati language)

Notes

References

• Chaturvedi Badrinath, The Mahabharata : An Inquiry in the Human Condition, New Delhi, Orient Longman (2006)
• Basham, A. L. (1954). The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before The Coming of the Muslims. New York: Grove Press.  
• J. Brockington, The Sanskrit Epics, Leiden (1998).
• Alf Hildebeitel, The Ritual of Battle, Krishna in the Mahabharata, SUNY Press, New York 1990.
• E. W. Hopkins, The Great Epic of India, New York (1901).
• Keay, John (2000). India: A History. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.  
• H. Oldenberg, Zur Geschichte der Altindischen Prosa, Berlin (1917)
• Jyotirmayananda Swami, Mysticism of the Mahabharata, Yoga Research Foundation, Miami 1993. Hermann Oldenberg (1854-1920 was a German scholar of Indology, and Professor at Kiel (1898 and Göttingen (1908
• Paule Lerner, Astrological Key in Mahabharata, David White (trans. ) Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 1988.
• Ruth Cecily Katz, Arjuna in the Mahabharata, University of South Carolina Press, Columbia 1989.
• R. V. Bhasin, "Mahabharata" published by National Publications, India, 2007.
• Majumdar, R. C. (general editor) (1951). Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (December 4 1888- February 12 1980 was an Indian Historian and Vice-Chancellor of Dacca University. The History and Culture of the Indian People: (Volume 1) The Vedic Age. The History and Culture of the Indian People is a series of eleven volumes on the history of India, from prehistoric times to the establishment of the modern state in 1947 London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. .  
• Krishna Chaitanya (K. K. Nair), The Mahabharata, A Literary Study, Clarion Books, New Delhi 1985.
• Th. Oberlies, 'Ritual an und unter der Oberfläche des Mahabharata', in: Neue Methoden der Epenforschung (ed. H. L. C. Tristram), Freiburg (1998).
• H. Oldenberg, Das Mahabharata, Göttingen (1922).
• M. Mehta, The problem of the double introduction to the Mahabharata, JAOS 93 (1973), 547-550.
• C. Z. Minkowski, Janamehayas Sattra and Ritual Structure, JAOS 109 (1989), 410-420.
• C. Z. Minkowski, 'Snakes, Sattras and the Mahabharata', in: Essays on the Mahabharata, ed. A. Sharma, Leiden (1991), 384-400.
• Bruce M. Sullivan, Seer of the Fifth Veda, Krsna Dvaipayana Vyasa in the Mahabharata, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 1999.
• Nicholas Sutton, Religious Doctrines in the Mahabharata, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 2000.
• N. B. Utgikar, The mention of the Mahabharata in the Ashvalayana Grhya Sutra, Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, Poona (1919), vol. 2, Poona (1922), 46-61.
• M. Witzel, Epics, Khilas and Puranas: Continuities and Ruptures, Proceedings of the Third Dubrovnik International Conference on the Sanskrit Epics and Puranas, ed. Michael Witzel (born July 18, 1943 at Schwiebus, Germany now Poland is Wales Professor of Sanskrit at Harvard University, United P. Koskiallio, Zagreb (2005), 21-80.
• Gupta, S. P. and K. S. Ramachandran (ed. ), Mahabharata: myth and reality. Agam Prakashan, New Delhi 1976.
• Pargiter, F. E. , Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, London 1922. Repr. Motilal Banarsidass 1997.
• Majumdar, R. C. and A. D. Pusalker (ed. ), The History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol I. "The Vedic Age", Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951.

External links

Original text online (Sanskrit)

• MahabharataOnline.com - Mahabharata Translations, Simple narrations, Stories and Scriptures
• etext (metrical), entered by Muneo Tokunaga
• GRETIL etext (Muneo Tokunaga)
• Mahābhārata online
• [2] (parallel in Devanāgarī and transliterated) at The Internet Sacred Text Archive
• Clay Sanskrit Library publishes classical Indian literature, including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, with facing-page text and translation. Also offers searchable corpus and downloadable materials.

textual resources

• Reading Suggestions J. F. Fitzgerald, University of Tennessee
• Mahabharata Resources Page at its new home Resources on Mahabharata
• Mahabharata based graphic novel

Kisari Mohan Ganguli translation (English)

• at sacred-texts.com
• at bharatadesam.com
• The Mahabharata >> 18 Parvas in English

Articles on the Mahabharata

• Mahabharata and Sindhu- Sarasvathi tradition, a paper by Subhash kak (pdf)
• Ramayana and Mahabharata in Indonesia - discusses the Indonesian versions

Movies

• The Mahabharata at the Internet Movie Database 1989 movie directed by Peter Brook
• Kalyug at the Internet Movie Database 1980 movie directed by Shyam Benegal. Peter Stephen Paul Brook CH, CBE (born 21 March 1925) is a British theatre and Film director and innovator Shyam Benegal ( శ్యాం బెనెగల్‌) (born 14 December, 1934in Andhra pradesh) is a prolific Indian director and screenwriter The movie is loosely based on the story of the Mahabharata and reinterprets the struggle for the kingdom in an industrial age, with two family factions fighting for the control of an industrial conglomerate.