Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India. The Archaeological Survey of India is an Indian government agency in the Department of Culture that is responsible for archaeological studies and the preservation of

Lothal (Gujarātī: લોથલ, IPA: [ˈloːtʰəl], Eng: Mound of the Dead) was one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilization. Gujarati (ગુજરાતી Gujǎrātī ? The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin Located in the modern state of Gujarāt and dating from 2400 BCE, it is one of India's most important archaeological site that dates from that era. Gujarat (ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt, pronounced) is a state in western India. The 24th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2400 BC to 2301 BC India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Discovered in 1954, Lothal was excavated from February 13, 1955 to May 19, 1960 by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Events 1258 - Baghdad falls to the Mongols, and the Abbasid Caliphate is destroyed Year 1955 ( MCMLV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar) Events 1535 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail on his second voyage to North America with three ships 110 men and Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Archaeological Survey of India is an Indian government agency in the Department of Culture that is responsible for archaeological studies and the preservation of

Lothal's dock—the world's earliest—connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert of today was a part of the Arabian Sea. A dock (from Dutch 'dok' is a man-made feature involved in the handling of boats or ships The Sabarmati River is a river in Western India. It is approximately 371 km in length Harappa ( Urdu:, Hindi: हड़प्पा) is a City in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 35km (22 miles southwest Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. Saurashtra (also Soruth and Sorath) is a region of western India, located on the Arabian Sea coast of Gujarat state Kachchh (also spelled as Kutch) is a District of Gujarat state in western India. The Arabian Sea ( Arabic: بحر العرب transliterated: Baḥr al-'Arab Sanskrit: सिन्धु सागर transliterated: It was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa. A bead is a small decorative object that is pierced for threading or stringing A gemstone or gem, also called a precious or semi-precious stone, is a piece of attractive Mineral, which &mdash when cut and polished &mdash Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia (largely overlapping with the Middle East) is the southwestern portion of Asia. Lothal's people were responsible for the earliest-known portrayals of realism in art and sculpture, telling some of the most well-known fables of today. Realism in the Visual arts and Literature is the depiction of subjects as they appear in Everyday life, without embellishment or interpretation Its scientists used a shell compass and divided the horizon and sky into 8–12 whole parts, possibly pioneering the study of stars and advanced navigation—2000 years before the Greeks. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists The horizon ( Ancient Greek ὁ ὁρίζων, /ho horídzôn/ from ὁρίζειν, "to limit" is the apparent line that separates The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions The techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in metallurgy have stood the test of time for over 4000 years. Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their

Lothal is situated near the village of Saragwala in the Dholka taluka of Ahmedabad district. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Dholka is a city and a Municipality in Ahmedabad district in the state of Gujarat A tehsil ( Urdu: تحصیل) (or tahsil, tahasil, taluka, taluk, taluq, mandal) is an Administrative division Ahmedabad District is the 5th largest city of India in the central part of the state of Gujarat in western India and located on the bank of river Sabarmati It is at a distance of six kilometres (south-east) from the Lothal-Bhurkhi railway station on the Ahmedabad-Bhavnagar railway line. Ahmedabad (અમદાવાદ Amdāvād, Hindi: अहमदाबाद) is the largest city in Bhavnagar (ભાવનગર भावनगर) is a city in the Indian state of Gujarat. It is also connected by all-weather roads to the cities of Ahmedabad (85 km/53 mi), Bhavnagar, Rajkot and Dholka. The kilometre ( American spelling: kilometer) symbol km is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one thousand A mile is a unit of Length, usually used to measure Distance, in a number of different systems including Imperial units United States Rajkot (રાજકોટ राजकोट Rājkot) is the 4th largest city in the state of Gujarat, India. Nearest cities are Dholka and Bagodara. Resuming excavation in 1961, archaeologists unearthed trenches sunk on the northern, eastern and western flanks of the mound, bringing to light the inlet channels and nullah ("ravine", or "gully") connecting the dock with the river. The findings consist of a mound, a township, a marketplace and the dock. A mound is a general term for an artificial heaped Pile of Earth, Gravel, Sand, rocks A township (or Municipality) is a settlement which has the status and powers of a unit of local government A marketplace is the space actual or metaphorical in which a Market operates Adjacent to the excavated areas stands the Archaeological Museum, where some of the most prominent collections of Indus-era antiquities in modern India are displayed.

Archaeology

Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin

The meaning of Lothal (a combination of Loth and (s) thal) in Gujarati to be the "the mound of the dead" is not unusual, as the name of the city of Mohenjodaro in Sindhi means the same. Gujarati (ગુજરાતી Gujǎrātī ? Mohenjo-daro (موئن جودڑو موئن جو دڙو मोहन जोदड़ो Mound of the Dead was one of the largest city-settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization Sindhi ( Arabic script: سنڌي Devanagari script: सिन्धी Sindhī) is the language of the Sindh region of South Asia People in villages neighbouring to Lothal had known of the presence of an ancient town and human remains. As recently as 1850, boats sailed up to the mound, and timber was shipped in 1942 from Broach to Saragwala via the mound. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> History Bharuch was once but a small village on the banks of the Narmada River but that rivers inland A silted creek connecting modern Bholad with Lothal and Saragwala represents the ancient flow channel of a river or creek. ^[1] When India was partitioned in 1947, most of the sites, including Mohenjodaro and Harappa, came to be located in the state of Pakistan. The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, Harappa ( Urdu:, Hindi: हड़प्पा) is a City in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 35km (22 miles southwest Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and The Archaeological Survey of India undertook a new program of exploration, and excavated many sites across Gujarat. Between 1954 and 1958, more than 50 sites were excavated in the Kutch {see also Dholavira}, and Saurashtra peninsulas, extending the limits of Harappan civilization by 500 kilometres (310 mi) to the river Kim, where the Bhagatrav site accesses the valley of the rivers Narmada and Tapti. Kachchh (also spelled as Kutch) is a District of Gujarat state in western India. Dholavira, an ancient metropolitan city, and locally known as Kotada Timba Prachin Mahanagar Dholavira, is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin Bhagatrav ( Sanskrit भगत्रव is an archaeological site belonging to the Indus valley civilization. The Narmada नर्मदा Gujarati નર્મદા or Nerbudda (Narbada is a river in central India and the fifth largest river in the Indian subcontinent The Tapti River (original name Tapi River) is a river in central India. Lothal stands 270 kilometres (170 mi) from Mohenjodaro, which is in Sindh. Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. ^[2] It has also been speculated that owing to the comparatively small dimensions of the main city, Lothal was not a large settlement at all, and its "dock" was perhaps an irrigation tank. ^[3] However, the ASI and other contemporary archaeologists assert that the city was a part of a major river system on the trade route of the ancient peoples from Sindh to Saurashtra in Gujarat. Cemeteries have been found which indicate that its people were probably of Dravidian, Proto-Australoid or Mediterranean physiques. Dravidian peoples refers to the peoples that natively speak languages belonging to the Dravidian language family. The Proto-Australoids were a hypothetical ancient Hunter-gatherer people descended from the first major wave of modern humans to leave Africa 100000 years ago Lothal provides with the largest collection of antiquities in the archaeology of modern India. ^[4] It is essentially a single culture site—the Harappan culture in all its variances is evidenced. An indigenous micaceous Red Ware culture also existed, which is believed to be autochthonous and pre-Harappan. The word "mica" is thought to be derived from the Latin word la micare, "glitteren" in reference to the brilliant appearance of this mineral (especially Two sub-periods of Harappan culture are distinguished: the same period (between 2400 and 1900 BCE) is identical to the exuberant culture of Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

To the northwest of Lothal lies the Kutch { see also Dholavira}peninsula, which was a part of the Arabian Sea until very recently in history. Kachchh (also spelled as Kutch) is a District of Gujarat state in western India. Dholavira, an ancient metropolitan city, and locally known as Kotada Timba Prachin Mahanagar Dholavira, is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites The Arabian Sea ( Arabic: بحر العرب transliterated: Baḥr al-'Arab Sanskrit: सिन्धु सागर transliterated: Owing to this, and the proximity of the Gulf of Khambhat, Lothal's river provided direct access to sea routes. The Gulf of Khambhat ( formerly known as the Gulf of Cambay) is an inlet of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India, in the state of Although now sealed off from the sea, Lothal's topography and geology reflects its maritime past.

After the core of the Indus civilization had decayed in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, Lothal seems not only to have survived but to have thrived for many years. The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin But its constant threats, tropical storms and floods, caused immense destruction, which destabilized the culture and ultimately caused its end. Topographical analysis also shows signs that at about the time of its demise, the region suffered from aridity or weakened monsoon rainfall. Topography ( topo-, "place" and graphia, "writing" is the study of Earth 's Surface features or those of Planets In general terms the Climate of a local or region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available Water, to the extent of hindering A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months Thus the cause for the abandonment of the city may have been changes in the climate as well as natural disasters, as suggested by environmental magnetic records. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of ^[5] Lothal is based upon a mound that was a salt marsh inundated by tide. A salt marsh is a type of Marsh that is a transitional intertidal between land and salty or Brackish water (e Remote sensing and topographical studies published by Indian scientists in the Journal of the Indian Geophysicists Union in 2004 revealed an ancient, meandering river adjacent to Lothal, 30 kilometres (19 mi) in length according to satellite imagery—an ancient extension of the northern river channel bed of a tributary of the Bhogavo river. Satellite imagery consists of photographs of Earth or other planets made by means of Artificial satellites. Small channel widths (10–300 m/30–1000 ft) when compared to the lower reaches (1. 2–1. 6 km/0. 75–1. 0 mi) suggest the presence of a strong tidal influence upon the city—tidal waters ingressed up to and beyond the city. Upstream elements of this river provided a suitable source of freshwater for the inhabitants. Freshwater is a word that refers to bodies of water such as Ponds lakes rivers and streams containing low concentrations of dissolved Salts and other Total dissolved ^[5]

History

Before the arrival of Harappan people (c. Harappa ( Urdu:, Hindi: हड़प्पा) is a City in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 35km (22 miles southwest 2400 BCE), Lothal was a small village next to the river providing access to the mainland from the Gulf of Khambhat. The Gulf of Khambhat ( formerly known as the Gulf of Cambay) is an inlet of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India, in the state of The indigenous peoples maintained a prosperous economy, attested by the discovery of copper objects, beads and semi-precious stones. Ceramic wares were of fine clay and smooth, micaceous red surface. The word "mica" is thought to be derived from the Latin word la micare, "glitteren" in reference to the brilliant appearance of this mineral (especially A new technique of firing pottery under partly-oxidising and reducing conditions was improved by them—designated black-and-red ware, to the micaceous Red Ware. Pottery is the Ceramic ware made by potters It also refers to a group of materials that includes Earthenware, Stoneware Harappans were attracted to Lothal for its sheltered harbour, rich cotton and rice-growing environment and bead-making industry. The beads and gems of Lothal were in great demand in the west. The settlers lived peacefully with the Red Ware people, who adopted their lifestyle—evidenced from the flourishing trade and changing working techniques—Harappans began producing the indigenous ceramic goods, adopting the manner from the natives. ^[6]

Town planning

City Plan of Lothal.

A flood destroyed village foundations and settlements (c. 2350 BCE). Harappans based around Lothal and from Sindh took this opportunity to expand their settlement and create a planned township on the lines of greater cities in the Indus valley. ^[7] Lothal planners engaged themselves to protect the area from consistent floods. The town was divided into blocks of 1–2-metre-high (3–6 ft) platforms of sun-dried bricks, each serving 20–30 houses of thick mud and brick walls. The city was divided into a citadel, or acropolis and a lower town. A citadel is a fortress for protecting a Town, sometimes incorporating a Castle. Acropolis (Gr akros akron edge extremity + polis city pl acropoleis The rulers of the town lived in the acropolis, which featured paved baths, underground and surface drains (built of kiln-fired bricks) and a potable water well. Public baths originated from a communal need for cleanliness Often the term public is misleading to some people as they will have restrictions based upon who can use the facility The lower town was subdivided into two sectors — the north-south arterial street was the main commercial area — flanked by shops of rich and ordinary merchants and craftsmen. The residential area was located to either side of the marketplace. The lower town was also periodically enlarged during Lothal's years of prosperity.

Lothal engineers accorded high priority to the creation of a dockyard and a warehouse to serve the purposes of naval trade. Shipyards and dockyards are places which repair and build ships These can be Yachts military A warehouse is a commercial Building for Storage of Goods. Warehouses are used by Manufacturers Importers Exporters While the consensus view amongst archaeologists identifies this structure as a "dockyard," it has also been suggested that owing to small dimensions, this basin may have been an irrigation tank and canal. ^[3] The dock was built on the eastern flank of the town, and is regarded by archaeologists as an engineering feat of the highest order. It was located away from the main current of the river to avoid silting, but provided access to ships in high tide as well. Silt is Soil or rock derived Granular material of a Grain size between sand and clay The warehouse was built close to the acropolis on a 3. 5-metre-high (10. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International 5 ft) podium of mud bricks. The rulers could thus supervise the activity on the dock and warehouse simultaneously. Facilitating the movement of cargo was a mud-brick wharf, 220 metres (720 ft) long, built on the western arm of the dock, with a ramp leading to the warehouse. A wharf is a landing place or Pier where ships may tie up and load or unload A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit ^[8] There was an important public building opposite to the warehouse whose superstructure has completely disappeared. Throughout their time, the city had to brace itself through multiple floods and storms. Dock and city peripheral walls were maintained efficiently. The town's zealous rebuilding ensured the growth and prosperity of the trade. However, with rising prosperity, Lothal's people failed to upkeep their walls and dock facilities, possibly as a result of over-confidence in their systems. A flood of moderate intensity in 2050 BCE exposed some serious weaknesses in the structure, but the problems were not addressed properly. ^[9]

Economy and urban culture

An ancient well, and the city drainage canals.

The uniform organization of the town and its institutions give evidence that the Harappans were a very disciplined people. ^[10] Commerce and administrative duties were performed according to standards laid out. Municipal administration was strict — the width of most streets remained the same over a long time, and no encroached structures were built. Householders possessed a sump, or collection chamber to deposit solid waste in order to prevent the clogging of city drains. A sump is a low space that collects any often-undesirable liquids such as water or chemicals Drains, manholes and cesspools kept the city clean and deposited the waste in the river, which was washed out during high tide. A new provincial style of Harappan art and painting was pioneered — new approaches included realistic portrayals of animals in their natural surroundings, including the portrayal of stories and folklore. Fire-altars were built in public places. Metalware, gold and jewellery and tastefully decorated ornaments attest to the culture and prosperity of the people of Lothal.

Most of their equipment—metal tools, weights, measures, seals, earthenware and ornaments—were of the uniform standard and quality found across the Indus civilization. Lothal was a major trade centre, importing en masse raw materials like copper, chert and semi-precious stones from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and mass distributing to inner villages and towns. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Chert (ˈtʃɝt is a fine-grained Silica -rich Microcrystalline, Cryptocrystalline or Microfibrous Sedimentary rock that may contain Mohenjo-daro (موئن جودڑو موئن جو دڙو मोहन जोदड़ो Mound of the Dead was one of the largest city-settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization It also produced large quantities of bronze celts, fish-hooks, chisels, spears and ornaments. Celt tool Transyslvaniajpg|right|thumb|250px|Celts from Transylvania Lothal exported its beads, gemstones, ivory and shells. The stone blade industry catered to domestic needs—fine chert was imported from the Sukkur valley or from Bijapur in modern Karnataka. Sukkur ( Urdu:سکھر Sindhi:سکر formerly Aror ( Sanskrit: अरोड Urdu: اروڑ is the third largest Bijapur (ವಿಜಾಪುರ Vijapur is a district headquarters of the Bijapur District in the state of Karnataka. Karnataka (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ pronounced) is a state in the southern part of India Bhagatrav supplied semi-precious stones while chank shell came from Dholavira and Bet Dwarka. Bhagatrav ( Sanskrit भगत्रव is an archaeological site belonging to the Indus valley civilization. Dholavira, an ancient metropolitan city, and locally known as Kotada Timba Prachin Mahanagar Dholavira, is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Dwarka, also spelled Dvarka, Dwaraka, and Dvaraka, is a city and a Municipality An intensive trade network gave the inhabitants great prosperity—it stretched across the frontiers to Egypt, Bahrain and Sumer. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Kingdom of Bahrain (in مملكة البحرين,, literally Kingdom of the Two Seas) is an Island country in the Persian Gulf Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar ^[9]One of the evidence of trade in Lothal is the discovery of typical Persian gulf seals, a circular button seal^{The rise of civilization in India and Pakistan by Bridget and F. Raymond Allchin. Bridget Allchin (Born 1927 in Oxford) is an archaeologist who specializes in South Asian archaeology p. 187}

Declining years

The bathroom-toilet structure of houses in Lothal.

While the wider debate over the end of Indus civilization continues, archaeological evidence gathered by the ASI appears to point to natural catastrophes, specifically floods and storms as the source of Lothal's downfall. The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin A powerful flood submerged the town and destroyed most of the houses, with the walls and platforms heavily damaged. The acropolis and the residence of the ruler were levelled (2000-1900 BCE), and inhabited by common tradesmen and newly built makeshift houses. The worst consequence was the shift in the course of the river, cutting off access to the ships and dock. ^[11] Despite the ruler leaving the city, the leaderless people built a new but shallow inlet to connect the flow channel to the dock for sluicing small ships into the basin. Large ships were moored away. Houses were rebuilt, yet without removal of flood debris, which made them poor-quality and susceptible to further damage. Public drains were replaced by soakage jars. The citizens did not undertake encroachments, and rebuilt public baths and maintained fire worship. However, with a poorly organised government, and no outside agency or central government, the public works could not be properly repaired or maintained. The heavily damaged warehouse was never repaired properly, and stocks were stored in wooden canopies, exposed to floods and fire. The economy of the city was transformed. Trade volumes reduced greatly, though not catastrophically, and resources were available in lesser quantities. Independent businesses caved, allowing a merchant-centric system of factories to develop where hundreds of craftsmen worked for the same supplier and financier. The bead factory had ten living rooms and a large workplace courtyard. The coppersmith's workshop had five furnaces and paved sinks to enable multiple artisans to work. ^[12]

The declining prosperity of the town, paucity of resources and poor administration increased the woes of a people pressured by consistent floods and storms. Increased salinity of soil made the land inhospitable to life, including crops. This is evidenced in adjacent cities of Rangpur, Rojdi, Rupar and Harappa in Punjab, Mohenjo-daro and Chanhudaro in Sindh. Rangpur is an archaeological site in Gujarat, India. Lying on the tip between the Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kutch, it belongs to the period Rojdi is an archaeological site belonging to the Indus valley civilization. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Rupnagar is a town and a Municipal council in Rupnagar district in the Indian Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c Mohenjo-daro (موئن جودڑو موئن جو دڙو मोहन जोदड़ो Mound of the Dead was one of the largest city-settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization Chanhudaro (also Chanhu Daro is an Archaeological site belonging to the Jhukar phase of Indus valley civilization. Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. A massive flood (c. 1900 BCE) completely destroyed the flagging township in a single stroke. Archaeological analysis shows that the basin and dock were sealed with silt and debris, and the buildings razed to the ground. The flood affected the entire region of Saurashtra, Sindh and south Gujarat, and affected the upper reaches of the Indus and Sutlej, where scores of villages and townships were washed away. Gujarat (ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt, pronounced) is a state in western India. The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd The Sutlej River (alternatively spelled as Satluj River (ਸਤਲੁਜ शतद्रु or सुतुद्री, ستلج and सतलुज is the longest The population fled to inner regions. ^[13]

Later Harappan culture

Archaeological site of Lothal.

Archaeological evidence shows that the site continued to be inhabited, albeit by a much smaller population devoid of urban influences. The few people who returned to Lothal could not reconstruct and repair their city, but surprisingly continued to stay and preserved religious traditions, living in poorly-built houses and reed huts. That they were the Harappan peoples is evidenced by the analyses of their remains in the cemetery. While the trade and resources of the city were almost entirely gone, the people retained several Harappan ways in writing, pottery and utensils. About this time ASI archaeologists record a mass movement of refugees from Punjab and Sindh into Saurashtra and to the valley of Sarasvati (1900-1700 BCE). The Sarasvati River ( Sanskrit: sa सरस्वती नदी sárasvatī nadī) is one of the chief Rigvedic rivers mentioned in ancient Hindu ^[14] Hundreds of ill-equipped settlements have been attributed to this people as Late Harappans—a completely de-urbanised culture characterised by rising illiteracy, undiversified economy, unsophisticated administration and poverty. The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BCE in and around the Punjab region which is located on the Though Indus seals went out of use, the system of weights with an 8. 573 gram (0. For other uses of the words gram or gramme see Gram (disambiguation. 3024 oz avoirdupois) unit was retained. The avoirdupois (ˌævərdəˈpɔɪz French avwaʀdypwɑ system is a system of weights (or properly Mass) based on a pound of sixteen Ounces Between 1700 and 1600 BCE, trade would revive again. In Lothal, Harappan ceramic works of bowls, dishes and jars were mass-produced. Merchants used local materials such as chalcedony instead of chert for stone blades. Chalcedony is a Cryptocrystalline form of Silica, composed of very fine intergrowths of the minerals Quartz and Moganite. Chert (ˈtʃɝt is a fine-grained Silica -rich Microcrystalline, Cryptocrystalline or Microfibrous Sedimentary rock that may contain Truncated sandstone weights replaced hexahedron chert weights. The sophisticated writing was simplified by exempting pictorial symbols, and the painting style reduced itself to wavy lines, loops and fronds. The term Indus script (Harappan script refers to short strings of symbols associated with the Harappan civilization ( Indus Valley

Civilization

The people of Lothal made significant and often unique contributions to human civilization in the Indus era, in the fields of city planning, art, architecture, science, engineering and religion. Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Their work in metallurgy, seals, beads and jewellery was the basis of their prosperity. Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their A seal can mean a wax seal bearing an impressed figure or an embossed figure in paper with the purpose of authenticating a document but the term can also mean any device for A bead is a small decorative object that is pierced for threading or stringing Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones

Science and engineering

A block of bricks placed in the main drainage canal with four holes, from which the net to filter out solid waste was installed.

A thick ring-like shell object found with four slits each in two margins served as a compass to measure angles on plane surfaces or in the horizon in multiples of 40 degrees, up to 360 degrees. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Such shell instruments were probably invented to measure 8–12 whole sections of the horizon and sky, explaining the slits on the lower and upper margins. Archaeologists consider this as evidence that the Lothal experts had achieved something 2,000 years before the Greeks: an 8–12 fold division of horizon and sky, as well as an instrument for measuring angles and perhaps the position of stars, and for navigation. ^[15] Lothal contributes one of three measurement scales that are integrated and linear (others found in Harappa and Mohenjodaro). An ivory scale from Lothal has the smallest-known decimal divisions in Indus civilization. The scale is 6 millimetres (0. 2 inches) thick, 15 mm (0. 6 inches) broad and the available length is 128 mm (5. 0 inches), but only 27 graduations are visible over 46 mm (1. 8 inches), the distance between graduation lines being 1. 70 mm (0. 067 inches) (the small size indicates use for fine purposes). The sum total of ten graduations from Lothal is approximate to the angula in the Arthashastra. The Arthashastra ( IAST: Arthaśāstra) is a Treatise on statecraft, economic policy and Military strategy which ^[16] The Lothal craftsmen took care to ensure durability and accuracy of stone weights by blunting edges before polishing. ^[17]

For their renowned draining system, Lothal engineers provided corbelled roofs, and an apron of kiln-fired bricks over the brick face of the platform where the sewerage entered the cesspool. In Architecture a corbel (or console) is a piece of stone jutting out of a wall to carry any superincumbent weight Wooden screens inserted in grooves in the side drain walls held back solid waste. The well is built of radial bricks, 2. 4 metres (7. 9 ft) in diameter and 6. 7 metres (22 ft) deep. It had an immaculate network of underground drains, silting chambers and cesspools, and inspection chambers for solid waste. The extent of drains provided archaeologists with many clues regarding the layout of streets, organization of housing and baths. On average, the main sewer is 20–46 cm (7. 8–18. 1 inches) in depth, with outer dimensions of 86 × 68 × 33 cm (34 × 27 × 13 in). Lothal brick-makers used a logical approach in manufacture of bricks, designed with care in regards to thickness of structures. They were used as headers and stretchers in same and alternate layers. Archaeologists estimate that in most cases, the bricks were in ratio 1:0. 5:0. 25 on three sides, in dimensions which were integral multiples of large graduations of Lothal scale of 25 mm (1. 0 in). ^[18]

Religion and disposal of the dead

Joint burials in the cemetery.

The people of Lothal worshipped a fire god, speculated to be the horned deity depicted on seals named Atha (Athar) and Arka, which is also evidenced by the presence of private and public fire-altars where sacrifices of animals and cattle were apparently conducted. Archaeologists have discovered gold pendants, charred ashes of terra-cotta cakes and pottery, bovine remains, beads and other signs that may indicate the practice of the Gavamayana sacrifice, associated with the ancient Vedic religion. This article discusses the historical religious practices in the Vedic time period see Hinduism and Indian religions for details ^[19] Animal worship is also evidenced, but not the worship of the Mother Goddess that is evidenced in other Harappan cities—experts consider this a sign of the existence of diversity in religious traditions. A mother goddess is a Goddess, often portrayed as the Earth Mother who serves as a general Fertility deity the bountiful embodiment of the Earth. Harappa ( Urdu:, Hindi: हड़प्पा) is a City in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 35km (22 miles southwest However, it is believed that a sea goddess, perhaps cognate with the general Indus-era Mother Goddess, was worshipped. Today, the local villagers likewise worship a sea goddess, Vanuvati Sikotarimata, suggesting a connection with the ancient port's traditions and historical past as an access to the sea. ^[20][21] But the archaeologists also discovered that the practice had been given up by 2000 BCE (determined by the difference in burial times of the carbon-dated remains). Radiocarbon dating is a Radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring Radioisotope Carbon-14 (14C to determine the age of It is suggested that the practice occurred only on occasion. It is also considered that given the small number of graves discovered—only 17 in an estimated population of 15,000—the citizens of Lothal also practiced cremation of the dead. Cremation is the act of reducing a Corpse by burning, generally in a crematorium furnace or crematory fire Post-cremation burials have been noted in other Indus sites like Harappa, Mehi and Damb-Bhuti. ^[22] The mummified remains of an Assyrian and an Egyptian corpse were also discovered at the mound. A mummy is a Corpse whose Skin and Flesh have been preserved by either intentional or Incidental exposure to Chemicals extreme Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now

Metallurgy and jewellery

A carved stone tool, possibly a chisel-head. A chisel is a Tool with a characteristically shaped Cutting edge (such that wood chisels have lent part of their name to a particular grind) of blade on

Lothali copper is unusually pure, lacking the arsenic typically used by coppersmiths across the rest of the Indus valley. Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 The city imported ingots from probable sources in the Arabian peninsula. An ingot is a material usually metal that is cast into a shape suitable for further processing Workers mixed tin with copper for the manufacture of celts, arrowheads, fishhooks, chisels, bangles, rings, drills and spearheads, although weapon manufacturing was minor. Celt tool Transyslvaniajpg|right|thumb|250px|Celts from Transylvania They also employed advanced metallurgy in following the cire perdue technique of casting, and used more than one-piece moulds for casting birds and animals. ^[23] They also invented new tools such as curved saws and twisted drills unknown to other civilizations at the time. ^[24]

Lothal was one of the most important centres of production for shell-working, owing to the abundance of chank shell of high quality found in the Gulf of Kutch and near the Kathiawar coast^[25] Gamesmen, beads, unguent vessels, chank shells, ladles and inlays were made for export and local consumption. The Gulf of Kutch is an inlet of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India, in the state of Gujarat. Kathiawar or Kathiawad ( Gujarati: કાઠીયાવાડ; kaʈʰijaʋaɽ is a Peninsula in western India. An unguent is a soothing topical preparation spread on Wounds burns, Rashes abrasions or other topical injuries Components of stringed musical instruments like the plectrum and the bridge were made of shell. Often called a pick or plec, a plectrum is a small flat tool used to pluck or strum a stringed instrument. A bridge is a device for supporting the strings on a Stringed instrument and transmitting the Vibration of those strings to some other structural component ^[26] An ivory workshop was operated under strict official supervision, and the domestication of elephants has been suggested. An ivory seal, and sawn pieces for boxes, combs, rods, inlays and ear-studs were found during excavations. ^[26] Lothal produced a large quantity of gold ornaments—the most attractive item being microbeads of gold in five strands in necklaces, unique for being less than 0. 25 millimetres (0. 010 inches) in diameter. Cylindrical, globular and jasper beads of gold with edges at right angles resemble modern pendants used by women in Gujarat in plaits of hair. Gujarat (ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt, pronounced) is a state in western India. A large disc with holes recovered from a sacrificial altar is compared to the rukma worn by Vedic priests. Studs, cogwheel and heart-shaped ornaments of fainence and steatite were popular in Lothal. Soapstone (also known as steatite or soaprock) is a Metamorphic rock, a talc- Schist. A ring of thin copper wire turned into double spirals resembles the gold-wire rings used by modern Hindus for weddings. ^[27]

Art

Pieces of red clay pottery. Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and

The discovery of etched carnelian beads and non-etched barrel beads in Kish and Ur (modern Iraq), Jalalabad (Afghanistan) and Susa (Iran) attest to the popularity of the Lothal-centric bead industry across West Asia. Carnelian, sometimes spelled cornelian, is a red or reddish-brown variant of Chalcedony. Ur ( Sumerian:urim; Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, and was a city in ancient Sumer. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Jalalabad (Jalalkot ( Pashto: جلالکوټ، جلال اباد) is a city in eastern Afghanistan. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. ^[28] The lapidaries show a refined taste in selecting stones of variegated colours, producing beads of different shapes and sizes. A lapidary (the word means "concerned with stones" is an Artisan who practices the craft of working forming and finishing stone, Mineral, The methods of Lothal bead-makers were so advanced that no improvements have been noted over 4,000 years—modern makers in the Khambhat area follow the same technique. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Khambhat, formerly known as Cambay, is a city and a Municipality in Anand district Double-eye beads of agate and collared or gold-capped beads of jasper and carnelian beads are among those attributed as uniquely from Lothal. This article is about the semi-precious stone For other uses see Agate (disambiguation. JasPer is a project to create a reference implementation of the codec specified in the JPEG-2000 Part-1 standard (ie It was very famous for micro-cylindrical beads of steatite (chlorite). Soapstone (also known as steatite or soaprock) is a Metamorphic rock, a talc- Schist. ^[29]

Painted jar with decorated leaves and deer.

Lothal has yielded 213 seals, third in importance amongst all Indus sites, considered masterpieces of glyptic art and calligraphy. Calligraphy (from Greek kallos "beauty" + graphẽ "writing" is the art of writing (Mediavilla 1996 17 Seal-cutters preferred short-horned bulls, mountain goats, tigers and composite animals like the elephant-bull for engravings. There is a short inscription of intaglio in almost every seal. Intaglio, when used in the context of Jewellery, refers to incised (negative image-making and is the opposite of Cameo. Stamp seals with copper rings inserted in a perforated button were used to sealing cargo, with impressions of packing materials like mats, twisted cloth and cords—a fact verified only at Lothal. Quantitative descriptions, seals of rulers and owners were stamped on goods. A unique seal found here is from Bahrain—circular, with motif of a dragon flanked by jumping gazelles. The Kingdom of Bahrain (in مملكة البحرين,, literally Kingdom of the Two Seas) is an Island country in the Persian Gulf ^[30]

Lothal offers two new types of potter work—a convex bowl with or without stud handle, and a small jar with flaring rim, both in the micaceous Red Ware period—not found in contemporary Indus cultures. The word "mica" is thought to be derived from the Latin word la micare, "glitteren" in reference to the brilliant appearance of this mineral (especially Lothal artists introduced a new form of painting closely linked to modern realism. Realism in the Visual arts and Literature is the depiction of subjects as they appear in Everyday life, without embellishment or interpretation ^[31] Paintings depict animals in their natural surroundings. Indeed, upon one large vessel, the artist depicts birds—with fish in their beaks—resting in a tree, while a fox-like animal stands below. This scene bears resemblance to the story of the crow and cunning fox in Panchatantra. The Panchatantra (also spelled Pañcatantra, in Sanskrit: पञ्चतन्त्र 'Five Principles' or Kalīleh o Demneh ^[32] Artistic imagination is also suggested via careful portrayals—for example, several birds with legs aloft in the sky suggest flight, while half-opened wings suggest imminent flight. On a miniature jar, the story of the thirsty crow and deer is depicted—of how the deer could not drink from the narrow-mouth of the jar, while the crow succeeded by dropping stones in the jar. The features of the animals are clear and graceful. Movements and emotions are suggested by the positioning of limbs and facial features—in a 15 × 5 cm (6 × 2 in) jar without overcrowding. ^[33]

A complete set of terra-cotta gamesmen, comparable to modern chessmen, has been found in Lothal—animal figures, pyramids with ivory handles and castle-like objects (similar to the chess set of Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt). Hatshepsut (or Hatchepsut, hætˈʃɛpsʊt meaning Foremost of Noble Ladies, was the fifth Pharaoh of the eighteenth dynasty of ^[34] The realistic portrayal of human beings and animals suggests a careful study of anatomical and natural features. The bust of a male with slit eyes, sharp nose and square-cut beard is reminiscent of Sumerian figures, especially stone sculptures from Mari. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of In images of men and women, muscular and physical features are sharp, prominently marked. Terra-cotta models also identify the differences between species of dogs and bulls, including those of horses. Animal figures with wheels and a movable head were used as toys.

Excavated Lothal

The dock, with a canal opening to allow water to flow into the river, thereby maintaining a stable water level.

On plan, Lothal stands 285 metres (935 ft) north-to-south and 228 metres (748 ft) east-to-west. At the height of its habitation, it covered a wider area since remains have been found 300 metres (1000 ft) south of the mound. Due to the fragile nature of unbaked bricks and frequent floods, the superstructures of all buildings have receded. Dwarfed walls, platforms, wells, drains, baths and paved floors are visible. ^[35] But thanks to the loam deposited by persistent floods, the dock walls were preserved beyond the great deluge (c. Loam is Soil composed of Sand, Silt, and Clay in relatively even concentration (about 40-40-20% concentration respectively considered  1900 BCE). The absence of standing high walls is attributed to erosion and brick robbery. The ancient nullah, the inlet channel and riverbed have been similarly covered up. The flood-damaged peripheral wall of mud-bricks is visible near the warehouse area. The remnants of the north-south sewer are burnt bricks in the cesspool. Cubical blocks of the warehouse on a high platform are also visible. ^[35]

The ASI has covered the peripheral walls, the wharf and many houses of the early phase with earth to protect from natural phenomena, but the entire archaeological site is nevertheless facing grave concerns about necessary preservation. Salinity ingress and prolonged exposure to the rain and sun are gradually eating away the remains of the site. Salinity is the Saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of Water. But there are no barricades to prevent the stream of visitors from trudging on the delicate brick and mud work. Stray dogs throng the mound unhindered. Heavy rain in the region has damaged the remains of the sun-dried mud brick constructions. Stagnant rain water has lathered the brick and mud work with layers of moss. Due to siltation, the dockyard’s draft has been reduced by 3–4 metres (10–13 ft) and saline deposits are decaying the bricks. Silt is Soil or rock derived Granular material of a Grain size between sand and clay Officials blame the salinity on capillary action and point out that cracks are emerging and foundations weakening even as restoration work slowly progresses. Capillary action, capillarity, capillary motion, or wicking is the ability of a substance to draw another substance into it ^[36]

Dock and warehouse

The main well.

The dock was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering. The Sabarmati River is a river in Western India. It is approximately 371 km in length Hydrography focuses on the measurement of physical characteristics of Waters and marginal land This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships. ^[37] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks. This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary. The Gulf of Khambhat ( formerly known as the Gulf of Cambay) is an inlet of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India, in the state of The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south arms of average 21. 8 metres (71. 5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft). ^[38] Another assessment is that the basin could have served as an irrigation tank, for the estimated original dimensions of the "dock" are not large enough, by modern standards, to house ships and conduct much traffic. ^[3]

The original height of the embankments was 4. 26 metres (13. 98 ft). (Now it is 3. 35 metres (10. 99 ft). ) The main inlet is 12. 8 metres (42. 0 ft) wide, and another is provided on the opposite side. To counter the thrust of water, offsets were provided on the outer wall faces. When the river changed its course in 2000 BCE, a smaller inlet, 7 metres (23 ft) wide was made in the longer arm, connected to the river by a 2 kilometre (3. 2 mi) channel. At high tide a flow of 2. 1–2. 4 metres (6. 9–7. 9 ft) of water would have allowed ships to enter. Provision was made for the escape of excess water through the outlet channel, 96. 5 metres (317 ft) wide and 1. 7 metres (5. 6 ft) high in the southern arm. The dock also possessed a lock-gate system—a wooden door could be lowered at the mouth of the outlet to retain a minimum column of water in the basin so as to ensure floatation at low tides. ^[39] Central to the city's economy, the warehouse was originally built on sixty-four cubical blocks, 3. 6 metres (11. 8 ft) square, with 1. 2-metre (3. 9-ft) passages, and based on a 3. 5-metre-high (11. 5 ft) mud-brick podium. The pedestal was very high to provide maximum protection from floods. Brick-paved passages between blocks served as vents, and a direct ramp led to the dock to facilitate loading. The warehouse was located close to the acropolis, to allow tight supervision by ruling authorities. Despite elaborate precautions, the major floods that brought the city's decline destroyed all but twelve blocks, which became the make-shift storehouse. ^[40]

Acropolis and Lower town

Lothal's acropolis was the town centre, its political and commercial heart, measuring 127. 4 metres (418 ft) east-to-west by 60. 9 metres (200 ft) north-to-south. Apart from the warehouse, it was the residence of the ruling class. There were three streets and two lanes running east-west, and two streets running north-south. The four sides of the rectangular platform on which houses were built are formed by mud-brick structures of 12. 2–24. 4 metre (40–80 ft) thickness and 2. 1–3. 6 metres (6. 9–11. 8 ft) high. ^[41] The baths were primarily located in the acropolis—mostly two-roomed houses with open courtyards. The bricks used for paving baths were polished to prevent seepage. The pavements were lime-plastered and edges were wainscoted (wooden panels) by thin walls. The ruler's residence is 43. 92 square metres (472. 8 sq ft) in area with a 1. 8-square-meter-bath (19 sq ft) equipped with an outlet and inlet. The remains of this house give evidence to a sophisticated drainage system. The Lower town marketplace was on the main north-south street 6–8 metres (20–26 ft) wide. Built in straight rows on either side of the street are residences and workshops, although brick-built drains and early period housing has disappeared. The street maintained a uniform width and did not undergo encroachment during the reconstructive periods after deluges. There are multiple two-roomed shops and workplaces of coppersmiths and blacksmiths. ^[42]

The bead factory, which performs a very important economic function, possesses a central courtyard and eleven rooms, a store and a guardhouse. There is a cinder dump, as well as a double-chambered circular kiln, with stoke-holes for fuel supply. Four flues are connected with each other, the upper chamber and the stoke hold. A flue is a duct, Pipe, or Chimney for conveying Exhaust gases from a Fireplace, Furnace, Water heater, The mud plaster of the floors and walls are vitrified owing to intense heat during work. The remnants of raw materials such as reed, cow dung, sawdust and agate are found, giving archaeologists hints of how the kiln was operated. ^[43] A large mud-brick building faces the factory, and its significance is noted by its plan. Four large rooms and a hall, with an overall measurement of 17. 1 × 12. 8 metres (56 × 42 ft). The hall has a large doorway, and a fire-altar is posed on a raised floor in the southern corner of the building. A square terra-cotta stump in the centre is associated with the place of worship found in the sister site of Kalibangan (in Rajasthan), making this a primary centre of worship for Lothal's people. Kalibangān (काली बंगा is a town located at on the left or southern banks of the Ghaggar ( Ghaggar-Hakra River) identified by some scholars with Rājasthān ( Devanāgarī: राजस्थान raːdʒəst̪ʰaːn is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area ^[44]

Notes

History of South Asia (Indian Subcontinent)
Stone Age	70,000–3300 BCE
• Mehrgarh Culture	• 7000–3300 BCE
Indus Valley Civilization	3300–1700 BCE
Late Harappan Culture	1700–1300 BCE
Vedic period	1500–500 BCE
Iron Age	1200–300 BCE
• Maha Janapadas	• 700–300 BCE
• Magadha Empire	• 545 BCE - 550
• Maurya Empire	• 321–184 BCE
Middle Kingdoms	250 BCE–1279 CE
• Chola Empire	• 250 BCE–1070 CE
• Satavahana	• 230 BCE–220 CE
• Kushan Empire	• 60–240 CE
• Gupta Empire	• 280–550 CE
• Pala Empire	• 750–1174 CE
• Chalukya Dynasty	• 543–753 CE
• Rashtrakuta	• 753–982 CE
• Western Chalukya Empire	• 973–1189 CE
• Hoysala Empire	1040–1346
• Kakatiya Empire	1083–1323
Islamic Sultanates	1206–1596
• Delhi Sultanate	• 1206–1526
• Deccan Sultanates	• 1490–1596
Ahom Kingdom	1228–1826
Vijayanagara Empire	1336–1646
Mughal Empire	1526–1858
Maratha Empire	1674–1818
Sikh Confederacy	1716–1799
Sikh Empire	1801–1849
British East India Company	1757–1858
British Raj	1858–1947
Modern States	1947–present
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References

• S. R. Rao, Lothal (published by the Director General, Archaeological Survey of India, 1985)
• A.S. Khadikar, N. Basaviah, T. K. Gundurao and C. Rajshekhar Paleoenvironments around the Harappan port of Lothal, Gujarat, western India, in Journal of the Indian Geophysicists Union (2004)
• Lawrence S. Leshnik, The Harappan "Port" at Lothal: Another View American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 70, No. 5 (Oct., 1968), pp. 911–922
• Robert Bradnock, Rajasthan and Gujarat Handbook: The Travel Guide ISBN 1-900949-92-X
• S. Shikaripur Ranganatha Rao (born 1922 is an Indian Archeologist who led teams credited with the discovery of a number of Harappan sites including the famous The Archaeological Survey of India is an Indian government agency in the Department of Culture that is responsible for archaeological studies and the preservation of R. Rao, Lothal and the Indus Civilisation ISBN 0210222786
• S. R. Rao, Lothal: A Harappan Port Town (1955 – 1962) (Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India) ASIN: B0006E4EAC
• Sir John Marshall, Mohenjo-daro and Indus Civilisation I–III (1932)
• Dennys Frenez & Maurizio Tosi The Lothal Sealings: Records from an Indus Civilization Town at the Eastern End of the Maritime Trade Circuits across the Arabian Sea, in M. Perna (Ed. ), Studi in Onore di Enrica Fiandra. Contributi di archeologia egea e vicinorientale, Naples 2005, pp. 65-103.
• S. P. Gupta (ed. Swaraj Prakash Gupta (1931-2007 was a well-known Indian Archaeologist and art historian. ), The Lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilization (1995), Kusumanjali Prakashan, Jodhpur
• Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilization (1998) Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-577940-1

External links

• Pictures of Lothal Remains
• Lothal
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• Lothal and Mohenjodaro
• An invitation to the Indus Civilization (Tokyo Metropolitan Museum)
• Ancient Civilizations Timeline
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• Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India
• Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. Jodhpur (जोधपुर is the second largest City in the Indian State of Rajasthan. Dr Jonathan Mark Kenoyer (born May 28, 1952, in Shillong, India) is an American Archaeologist and Professor of Anthropology Archived from the original on 2007-01-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC
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