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A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one language from another with little or no translation. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept whereby it is the meaning or idiom that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. In Linguistics, a calque (kælk or loan translation is a Word or Phrase borrowed from another Language by Literal, word-for-word This article is about meaning as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics An idiom is a Phrase whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal Definition, but refers instead to a figurative meaning that is known only Lexical items are single words or words that are grouped in a language's lexicon The word loanword is itself a calque of the German Lehnwort. In Linguistics, a calque (kælk or loan translation is a Word or Phrase borrowed from another Language by Literal, word-for-word The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. [1] Loanwords can also be called "borrowings".

Contents

Classes of borrowed words

Certain classes of words are more commonly borrowed than others, usually words for exotic concepts or ideas. What is "exotic" varies from language to language. Thus, English names for creatures not native to Great Britain are almost always loanwords, and most of the technical vocabulary referring to classical music is borrowed from Italian. Classical music is a broad term that usually refers to mainstream music produced in or rooted in the traditions of Western liturgical and Secular music Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy.

By contrast, function words such as pronouns, numbers, and words referring to universal concepts, are usually not borrowed, but have been in some cases.

Classification of borrowings

The studies by Werner Betz (1949, 1959), Einar Haugen (1950, also 1956), and Uriel Weinreich (1953) are regarded as the classical theoretical works on loan influence[2]. Einar Ingvald Haugen (ˈhaʊgən ( April 19, 1906 - June 20, 1994) was an American linguist and Professor at Uriel Weinreich (אוריאל ווײַנרײַך&lrm 1926 – 30 March 1967) was a linguist at Columbia University. The basic theoretical statements all depart from Betz’s nomenclature. Duckworth (1977) enlarges Betz’s scheme by the type “partial substitution” and supplements the system with English terms[3]:

  1. importation
    1. foreign word = non-integrated word from a foreign language, e. g. E café (from French); Sp. whisk(e)y (from English) (*the word whiskey in fact comes from the Irish phrase "uisce beatha" which means the water of life, "aqua vitae"); E weltanschauung (< G Weltanschauung); It. mouse ‘computer device’ (< E mouse ‘rodent; computer device’).
    2. loan word = integrated word from a foreign language, e. g. E music (from French "musique"); Sp. chófer (from French "chauffeur").
  2. partial substitution: composite words, in which one part is borrowed, another one substituted, e. g. OE Saturnes dæg ‘Saturday’ (< Lat. Saturni dies), G Showgeschäft ‘literally: show-business’ (< E show business), G Live-Sendung ‘literally: live-broadcast’ (< E live broadcast).
  3. substitution
    1. loan coinage
      1. loan formation
        1. loan translation = translation of the elements of the foreign word, e. g. OE Monan dæg ‘Monday’ (< Lat. Lunae dies), Fr. gratte-ciel and Sp. rasca·cielos ‘both literally: scrape-sky’ (< E skyscraper), E world view (< G Welt·anschauung), AmSp. manzana de Adán (< E Adam’s apple; vs. EurSp. nuez [de la garganta] ‘literally: nut [of the throat]’).
        2. loan rendering = translation of part of the elements of the foreign word, e. g. E brother·hood (< Lat. frater·nitas [= Lat. frater ‘brother’ + suffix]) .
      2. loan creation coinage independent of the foreign word, but created out of the desire to replace a foreign word, e. g. E brandy (< Fr. cognac).
    2. loan meaning = indigenous word to which the meaning of the foreign word is transferred, e. g. OE cniht ‘servant + disciple of Jesus’ (< Lat. discipulus ‘student, disciple of Jesus’), OE heofon ‘sky, abode of the gods + Christian heaven’ (< Lat. caelum ‘sky, abode of the gods, Christian heaven’), G Maus and Fr souris ‘rodent + computer device’ (< E mouse ‘rodent, computer device’).

On the basis of an importation-substitution distinction, Haugen (1950: 214f. ) distinguishes three basic groups of borrowings: “(1) Loanwords show morphemic importation without substitution. [. . . ]. (2) Loanblends show morphemic substitution as well as importation. [. . . ]. (3) Loanshifts show morphemic substitution without importation”. Haugen has later refined (1956) his model in a review of Gneuss’s (1955) book on Old English loan coinages, whose classification, in turn, is the one by Betz (1949) again.

Weinreich (1953: 47ff. ) differentiates between two mechanisms of lexical interference, namely those initiated by simple words and those initiated by compound words and phrases. Weinreich (1953: 47) defines simple words “from the point of view of the bilinguals who perform the transfer, rather than that of the descriptive linguist. Accordingly, the category ‘simple’ words also includes compounds that are transferred in unanalysed form”. After this general classification, Weinreich then resorts to Betz’s (1949) terminology.

Models that try to integrate borrowing in an overall classification of vocabulary change, or onomasiological change, have recently been proposed by Peter Koch (2002) and Joachim Grzega (2003, 2004). Onomasiology (from ὀνομαζω (onomazō — to name which in turn is from ὀνομα — name is a branch of Linguistics concerned with the question "how do you

Beyond words

Idiomatic expressions and phrases, sometimes translated word-for-word, can be borrowed, usually from a language that has "prestige" at the time. An idiom is a Phrase whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal Definition, but refers instead to a figurative meaning that is known only Often, a borrowed idiom is used as a euphemism for a less polite term in the original language. A euphemism is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener or in the case of doublespeak In English, this has usually been Latinisms from the Latin language and Gallicisms from French. This page lists direct English Translations of common Latin phrases, such as veni vidi vici and Et cetera. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. A Gallicism can be a mode of speech peculiar to the French; a French Idiom; in general a French mode or Custom French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people If the phrase is translated word-for-word, it is known as a calque. In Linguistics, a calque (kælk or loan translation is a Word or Phrase borrowed from another Language by Literal, word-for-word

Loanwords in English

See also: Lists of English words of international origin

English has many loanwords. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States In 1973, a computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd edition) was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff. Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. Their estimates for the origin of English words were as follows:

However, if the frequency of use of words is considered, words from Old and Middle English occupy the vast majority.

The reasons for English's vast borrowing include:

This lack of restrictions makes it comparatively easy for the English language to incorporate new words. However, the English pronunciations of loanwords often differ from the original pronunciations to such a degree that a native speaker of the language it was borrowed from is not able to recognize it as a loanword when spoken.

English often borrows words from the cultures and languages of the British Colonies. For example there are at least 20 words from Hindi, including syce/sais, dinghy, chutney, pundit, wallah, pajama/pyjamas, bungalow and jodhpur. A dinghy is a type of small Boat, often carried or towed by a larger vessel Chutney ( Hindi: चटनी Urdu: چٹنی) (British spelling or chatni is a term for a variety of sweet and spicy Condiments, usually Kids in pajamasjpg|thumb| Boys in pyjamas]] Pajamas or pyjamas (see also spelling differences) is a word with several different related meanings in A bungalow (બંગલો baṅglo, बंगला baṅglā) is a type of single-storey House that originated in India. Jodhpur (जोधपुर is the second largest City in the Indian State of Rajasthan. Other examples include trek, aardvark, laager and veld from Afrikaans, shirang, amok (Malay) and sjambok (Malay via Afrikaans). The Aardvark ( Orycteropus afer) ("Digging foot" is a medium-sized burrowing nocturnal Mammal native to Africa. The term Veld, or Veldt, refers primarily (but not exclusively to the wide open rural spaces of South Africa or southern Africa and in particular to certain Afrikaans is an Indo-European language, derived from 17th century Dutch and classified as Low Franconian Germanic, mainly spoken in Running amok, sometimes referred to as simply amok (also spelled amuck or amuk) is derived from the Malay / Indonesian /Filipino word The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the The sjambok or litupa is the traditional heavy Leather whip of South Africa, sometimes seen as synonymous with Apartheid but actually

English also acquires loanwords in which foreign sounds are part of the foreign pronunciation. For example, the Hawaiian word ʻaʻā is used by geologists to specify lava that is relatively thick, chunky, and rough. The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical Lava is molten rock expelled by a Volcano during an eruption When first expelled from a volcanic vent it is a Liquid at Temperatures The Hawaiian spelling indicates the two glottal stops in the word, but the usual English pronunciation, [ˈɑ. This article is about the sound in spoken language For the letter see Glottal stop (letter. ɑ], does not contain the glottal stop. In addition, the English spelling usually removes the okina and macron diacrtic[4]. Encoding and displaying the Polynesian glottal Old conventions In plain ASCII the glottal is sometimes represented by the apostrophe character (' A macron, from Greek el μακρόv ( makrón) meaning "long" is a Diacritic ¯ placed over or under a Vowel which was originally

Affixes

The majority of English affixes, such as "un-", "-ing", and "-ly", were present in older forms in Old English. However, a few English affixes are borrowed. For example, the agentive suffix -er, which is very prolific, is borrowed ultimately from Latin. An agentive ending in the English language is the use of the suffix -er, -or, -ist, or -ian at the end of a verb in order The English verbal suffix -ize comes from Greek -ιζειν via Latin -izare.

Other languages

Direct loans, expressions translated word-by-word, or even grammatical constructions and orthographical conventions from English are called anglicisms. An anglicism, as most often defined is a word borrowed from English into another language Similarly, loans from Swedish - like the word smörgåsbord - are called sveticisms or svecisms. Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the Smörgåsbord is a Swedish word which refers to a type of Scandinavian meal served Buffet -style in Swedish cuisine. In French, the result of perceived over-use of English loanwords and expressions is called franglais. Franglais, or Frenglish, a Portmanteau combining the French words " français " (" French " and " anglais " English loanwords in French include 'le weekend', 'le job' (in France) or 'la job' (in Canada) and 'le biftek' (beefsteak). This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page This has so outraged French purists that various French institutions spend much time and energy to keep the language pure. Denglisch is English influence on German. Denglisch, sometimes spelled Denglish, (also Gerglish or Angleutsch) is a Portmanteau of the words Deutsch and English The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Another popular term is Spanglish, the English influence on the Spanish language and Dunglish the English influence on the Dutch language. Spanglish espanglish, espaninglish, el Spanish broken, ingléspañol, ingleñol Dunglish is a Portmanteau of Dutch and English, a name for Dutch English.

During the Ottoman period, Turkish literature became heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic borrowings. The Ottoman Turks were the subdivision of the Ottoman Muslim Millet that dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. Turkish literature (Türk edebiyatı or Türk yazını is the collection of written and oral texts composed in the Turkish language, either in its Ottoman Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language During more than 600 years of the Ottoman Empire, the literary and official language of the empire was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic, which is now called Ottoman Turkish, considerably differing from the everyday spoken Turkish of the time. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Ottoman Turkish (Osmanlıca or tr ''Osmanlı Türkçesi'' Ottoman Turkish ota-Latn ''lisân-ı Osmânî'' is the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the Many Turkish, Persian and Arabic words were also loaned to other languages of the empire, such as Bulgarian and Serbian. Bulgarian (български език IPA: ɛzˈik is an Indo-European language, a member of the Slavic linguistic group Serbian (sr-Cyrl српски језик sr-Latn ''srpski jezik'' is a South Slavic language, After the empire fell in World War I and the Republic of Turkey was founded, the Turkish language underwent an extensive language reform led by the newly founded Turkish Language Association, during which many loanwords were replaced with equivalent words derived from Turkic roots. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Language reform is a type of Language planning by massive change to a Language. The Turkish Language Association (Türk Dil Kurumu - TDK is the official regulatory body of the Turkish language, founded on July 12, 1932 and This selective list of replaced loanwords in Turkish includes Ottoman Turkish Loanwords mostly of Arabic and Persian, but also French The Turkic languages constitute a Language family of some thirty languages spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the The language reform was a part of the ongoing cultural reform of the time, in turn a part in the broader framework of Atatürk's Reforms, and included the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet. Atatürk's Reforms ( Turkish: Atatürk Devrimleri or Atatürk İnkılapları) were a series of significant political legal cultural social and economic The Turkish alphabet is a variant of the Latin alphabet used for writing the Turkish language, consisting of 29 letters a certain number of which ( Ç, Turkish also has many loanwords derived from French, such as pantalon for 'trousers' and komik for 'funny' (from Fr. comique), all of them pronounced very similarly (except for the French pronunciation of the letter 'r').

The Italian government has recently expressed its displeasure over the borrowing of English words and syntax in Italian. English words are often used where they are more convenient than a longer Italian expression, as in "computer" for elaboratore elettronico or "week-end" for finesettimana; but also where equally convenient Italian words already exist, as in "fashion" for moda and "meeting" for conferenza.

Words are occasionally borrowed with a different meaning than the meaning in the source language. Among the most well-known examples of this is the German word Handy, which is a borrowing of the English adjective handy, but means mobile phone and is thus a noun. Conversely, in English the prefix über-, taken from German, is used in a way that it is rarely used in German. Über or ueber ( comes from the German language. It is a Cognate of both Latin super and Greek ὑπέρ ( hyper) as well as

Japanese contains a tremendous amount of loanwords (gairaigo). Gairaigo (外来語 is Japanese for " loan word " or "borrowed word" and indicates a Transliteration (or "transvocalization" Ignoring ancient influence from China, recently most Gairaigo has come from English, though there have been significant borrowings from Dutch, German and other languages. There are almost always significant pronunciation shifts (machine -> mashin). Longer terms often are shortened (word processor -> wapuro). In some cases the original meaning shifts considerably though unexpected logical leaps (smorgasboard -> baikingu (Viking): the word smorgasboard is of Norse origin). In other cases the words are borrowed and used in totally inexplicable contexts, with words picked seemingly at random. This is often the case in the names of small businesses, or in artistic works as seen in many anime and manga series such as Bubblegum Crisis. (anime in Japanese, ˈmɑŋgə is the Japanese word for Comics (sometimes called komikku コミック and print Cartoons In their modern form manga date from shortly is a Cyberpunk -style anime set in a future post-disaster Tokyo, called "Megatokyo" Gairaigo is such a large part of the modern Japanese vocabulary that there are specialized dictionaries for it.

Reborrowing

Main article: Reborrowing

It is possible for a word to travel from one language to another and then back to the original language in a different form, a process called reborrowing. Reborrowing is the process where a word travels from one language to another and then back to the originating language in a different form or with a different meaning A specific example of this is the French "le biftek", which is borrowed from the English "beefsteak", while the English "beef" is originally from the French "le bœuf".

Another example of this is found in Northern Africa where the Spanish word "Zapato" is used for the word shoe. However, the word "Zapato" came from the Arabic word for shoe: "Sabbat" (سباط) which was borrowed by the Spanish when the Islamic Arabs were living in Andalusia (modern day Spain).

Literature

See also

References

  1. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
  2. ^ Cf. A hybrid word is a word which etymologically has one part derived from one language and another part derived from a different language This selective list of replaced loanwords in Turkish includes Ottoman Turkish Loanwords mostly of Arabic and Persian, but also French A semantic loan is a process of borrowing semantic meaning (rather than Lexical items from another Language, very similar to the formation of Sino-Japanese or Kango (ja [[wikt漢語 漢語]] in Japanese, refers to that portion of the Japanese vocabulary that originated in the Sino-Korean or hanja-eo refers to the set of words in the Korean language vocabulary that originated from or were influenced by the Chinese language. Sino-Vietnamese ( Hán Việt; 漢越) are the elements in the Vietnamese language derived from Chinese. the two survey articles by Oksaar (1996: 4f. ), Stanforth (2002) and Grzega (2003, 2004).
  3. ^ The following comments and examples are taken from Grzega, Joachim (2004), Bezeichnungswandel: Wie, Warum, Wozu?, Heidelberg: Winter, p. 139, and Grzega, Joachim (2003), “Borrowing as a Word-Finding Process in Cognitive Historical Onomasiology”, Onomasiology Online 4: 22-42.
  4. ^ Elbert, Samuel H. (1986). Hawaiian Dictionary, revised and enlarged edition, University of Hawaiʻi Press, 389. ISBN 0824807030.  

External links

Dictionary

loanword

-noun

  1. A word directly taken into one language from another one with little or no translation.
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