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The League of Nations was an international organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 Throughout the world there are many cities that were once national Capitals but no longer have that status because the country ceased to exist the capital was moved or the capital English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. International Organization is a peer-reviewed Academic journal that covers the entire field of International affairs. thumb|200px|Sir Eric Drummond at work at the League of Nations Joseph Louis Anne Avenol ( June 9, 1879, Melle Deux-Sèvres, France&mdash September 2, 1952 thumb|Seán Lester --> Seán Lester ( September 28, 1888, Carrickfergus, County Antrim, Ireland The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate. Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Events 1303 - The University of Rome La Sapienza is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII. Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Palais des Nations (Palace of Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, was built between 1929 and 1938 as the headquarters of the League of Nations Geneva (Genève is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and is the most populous city of Romandy (the French -speaking Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation International Organization is a peer-reviewed Academic journal that covers the entire field of International affairs. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to the 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. Events 48 BC - Pompey the Great is assassinated on orders of King Ptolemy of Egypt after landing in Egypt. Year 1934 ( MCMXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western Book printed from Movable Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global quality of life. Arms control is an umbrella term for restrictions upon the development production stockpiling Proliferation, and usage of Weapons especially Weapons of mass War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Collective Security, according to Inis Claude's article "Collective Security as an Approach to Peace" is seen as a compromise between the concept of world government and a nation-state In Political geography and International politics, a country is a Political division of a geographical entity For Wikipedia's negotiation policy see WikipediaNegotiation. For other uses see Negotiation (disambiguation. Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting Negotiations between representatives of groups or states Quality of life is the degree of well-being felt by an individual or group of people The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift in thought from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and so depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to economic sanctions which the League ordered, or provide an army, when needed, for the League to use. A great power is a Nation or State that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale However, they were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could also hurt the League members imposing the sanctions and given the pacifist attitude following World War I, countries were reluctant to take military action. Benito Mussolini stated that "The League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out. "
After a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis Powers in the 1930s. The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries The onset of the Second World War suggested that the League had failed in its primary purpose, which was to avoid any future world war. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The United Nations replaced it after the end of the war and inherited a number of agencies and organizations founded by the League. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security
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Origins
The concept of a peaceful community of nations had been outlined as far back as 1795, when Immanuel Kant’s Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch[1] outlined the idea of a league of nations that would control conflict and promote peace between states. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg [2] international co-operation to promote collective security originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the Napoleonic War in the nineteenth century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war. Collective Security, according to Inis Claude's article "Collective Security as an Approach to Peace" is seen as a compromise between the concept of world government and a nation-state The Concert of Europe also known as the " Congress System " was the result of a custom following the era of Napoleon and the French Revolution adopted by The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions [3] [4] This period also saw the development of international law with the first Geneva conventions establishing laws about humanitarian relief during war and international Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The Geneva Conventions consist of four Treaties formulated in Geneva, Switzerland, that set the standards for International law for humanitarian The Hague Conventions were international treaties negotiated at the First and Second Peace Conferences at The Hague, Netherlands in 1899 and [5] The "Hague Confederation of States", as the Neo-Kantian pacifist Walther Schücking called this initiative, was to have been a universal alliance aiming at disarmament and the peaceful settlement of disputes through arbitration. [6] Following the failure of the Hague Peace Conferences, a third conference had been planned for 1915.
The idea for the League of Nations itself appears to have originated with the British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey. The Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, commonly referred to as the Foreign Secretary, is a member of the United Kingdom Government heading the Edward Grey 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon KG, PC, DL ( 25 April 1862 &ndash 7 September 1933) better It was enthusiastically adopted by the United States President Woodrow Wilson and his advisor Colonel Edward M. House as a means of avoiding any repetition of the bloodshed seen in World War I. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. Colonel ( RP ˈkɜnəl GA ˈkɜrnəl is a Military rank of a Commissioned officer, with corresponding ranks existing in almost every country Edward Mandell House (July 26 1858 &ndash March 28 1938 was an American diplomat politician and presidential advisor World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The League's creation was a centerpiece of Wilson's Fourteen Points for Peace,[7] specifically the final point: "A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. The Fourteen Points were listed in a speech delivered by President Woodrow Wilson of the United States to a joint session of the United "[8]
The Paris Peace Conference that sought a lasting peace after World War I approved the proposal to create the League of Nations (French: Société des Nations, German: Völkerbund) on January 25, 1919. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Events 41 - After a night of negotiation Claudius is accepted as Roman Emperor by the Senate Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common [9] The Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on June 28, 1919. The Covenant of the League of Nations is the Charter of the League of Nations. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common [10][11] Initially, the Charter was signed by 44 states, including 31 states which had taken part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict. A charter is the grant of authority or rights stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. The Triple Entente (" entente " — French for "agreement" was the name given to the loose alignment of the United Kingdom, the Despite Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919,[12] the United States neither ratified the Charter nor joined the League due to opposition in the U.S. Senate, especially influential Republicans Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts and William E. Borah of Idaho, together with Wilson's refusal to compromise. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Ratification is the act of giving official sanction or approval to a formal document such as a treaty or constitution The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives This article is about Henry Cabot Lodge (1850-1924 a US politician in the early twentieth century The Commonwealth of Massachusetts ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States. William Edgar Borah ( June 29, 1865 near Fairfield, Illinois &ndash January 19, 1940 Washington D The State of Idaho ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States of America.
The League held its first council meeting in Paris on January 16, 1920 six days after the Versailles Treaty came into force. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate. Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar [13] In November, the headquarters of the League moved to Geneva, where the first general assembly of the League was held on November 15, 1920[14] with representatives from 41 nations in attendance. Geneva (Genève is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and is the most populous city of Romandy (the French -speaking Events 655 - Battle of Winwaed: Penda of Mercia is defeated by Oswiu of Northumbria. Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar
David Kennedy, a professor at Harvard Law School, examined the League through the scholarly texts surrounding it, the establishing treaties, and voting sessions of the plenary. David Anthony Kennedy ( June 15, 1955 &ndash April 25, 1984) was born in Washington D Harvard Law School (also known as Harvard Law or HLS) is one of the professional Graduate schools of Harvard University. Kennedy suggests the League is a unique moment when international affairs was "institutionalized" as opposed to the pre-World War I methods of law and politics. [15]
Symbols
The League of Nations had neither an official flag nor logo. A flag is a piece of Cloth, often flown from a pole or mast, generally used Symbolically for signaling or identification A logo ( Greek el λογότυπος = el-Latn logotypos is a graphical element ( Ideogram, Symbol, Emblem, Icon, Sign) Proposals for adopting an official symbol were made during the League's beginning in 1920, but the member states never reached agreement. However, League of Nations organization used varying logos and flags (or none at all) in their own operations. An international contest was held in 1929 to find a design, which again failed to produce a symbol. [16] One of the reasons for this failure may have been the fear by the member states that the power of the supranational organization might supersede them.
Finally, in 1939, a semi-official emblem emerged: two five-pointed stars within a blue pentagon. The star (★ as an Ideograph, most commonly represents the astronomical Star for which it is named Regular pentagons The term pentagon is commonly used to mean a regular convex pentagon, where all sides are equal and all interior angles are equal (to The pentagon and the five-pointed stars were supposed to symbolize the five continents and the five races of mankind. A continent is one of several large Landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by Convention rather than any strict criteria with seven regions The historical definition of race was an immutable and distinct type or Species, sharing distinct racial characteristics such as constitution temperament In a bow on top and at the bottom, the flag had the names in English (League of Nations) and French (Société des Nations). English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people This flag was used on the building of the New York World's Fair in 1939 and 1940. The 1939-40 New York World's Fair, Flushing Meadows-Corona Park (also the location of the 1964-1965 New York World's Fair) was one of the largest [16]
Languages
The official languages of the League of Nations were French, English[17] and Spanish (from 1920). French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The League seriously considered adopting Esperanto as their working language and actively encouraging its use but neither option was ever adopted. is by far the most widely spoken constructed International auxiliary language in the world [18] In 1921, there was a proposal by Lord Robert Cecil to introduce Esperanto into state schools of member nations and a report was commissioned to investigate this. Edgar Algernon Robert Gascoyne-Cecil 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood CH, PC, QC ( 14 September 1864 &ndash 24 November [19] When the report was presented two years later it recommended the teaching of Esperanto in schools, a proposal that 11 delegates accepted. [18] The strongest opposition came from the French delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux, partially in order to protect the French Language which he argued was already the international language. Albert Auguste Gabriel Hanotaux, known as Gabriel Hanotaux, ( November 19, 1853 &ndash April 11, 1944) was a French [20] The opposition meant the report was accepted apart from the part that approved Esperanto in schools. [21]
Principal organs
- Further information: Permanent Court of International Justice, and Leaders of the League of Nations
The League had four principal organs, a secretariat (headed by the General Secretary and based in Geneva), a Council, an Assembly and a Permanent Court of International Justice. The Palais des Nations (Palace of Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, was built between 1929 and 1938 as the headquarters of the League of Nations The Permanent Court of International Justice, sometimes called the World Court, was the international court of the League of Nations, established in 1922 The leaders of the League of Nations consisted of a Secretary-General and a President of the General Assembly selected from member states. A secretary is either an administrative assistant in business office administration, or a certain type of mid- or high-level governmental position such as a See also General Secretary. A number of International organizations, Communist parties and other bodies use the title Secretary Geneva (Genève is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and is the most populous city of Romandy (the French -speaking The Permanent Court of International Justice, sometimes called the World Court, was the international court of the League of Nations, established in 1922 [22] The League also had numerous Agencies and Commissions. Authorization for any action required both a unanimous vote by the Council and a majority vote in the Assembly.
Secretariat and Assembly
The staff of the League's secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the civil service for the League. See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis The League of Nations' Assembly was a meeting of all the Member States, with each state allowed up to three representatives and one vote. [23] The Assembly met in Geneva and, after its initial sessions in 1920,[24] sessions were held once a year in September. [23]
Council
The League Council acted as a type of executive body directing the Assemblies business. In Political science and Constitutional law, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the State. [25] The Council began with four permanent members (the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan) and four non-permanent members,[26] which were elected by the Assembly for a three year period. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The first four non-permanent members were Belgium, Brazil, Greece and Spain. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The United States was meant to be the fifth permanent member, but the United States Senate voted on March 19, 1920 against the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles, thus preventing American participation in the League. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Ratification is the act of giving official sanction or approval to a formal document such as a treaty or constitution The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. This prompted the United States to go back to policies of isolationism. Isolationism is a Foreign policy which combines a non-interventionist military policy and a political policy of Economic nationalism ( Protectionism
The initial composition of the Council was subsequently changed a number of times. The number of non-permanent members was first increased to six on September 22, 1922, and then to nine on September 8, 1926. Events 66 - Emperor Nero creates the Legion I Italica. 1236 - The Lithuanians Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 70 - Roman forces under Titus sack Jerusalem. 1264 - The Statute of Kalisz Year 1926 ( MCMXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Germany also joined the League and became a fifth permanent member of the Council on the latter date, taking the Council to a total of fifteen members. The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 When Germany and Japan later both left the League, the number of non-permanent seats was eventually increased from nine to eleven. The Council met on average five times a year, and in extraordinary sessions when required. In total, 107 public sessions were held between 1920 and 1939.
Other bodies
The League oversaw the Permanent Court of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international problems. These were the Disarmament Commission, the Health Organization, the International Labour Organization, the Mandates Commission, the International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation (ancestor of the UNESCO), the Permanent Central Opium Board, the Commission for Refugees, and the Slavery Commission. Arms control is an umbrella term for restrictions upon the development production stockpiling Proliferation, and usage of Weapons especially Weapons of mass The International Labour Organization United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( According to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Several of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the Second World War. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including In addition to the International Labour Organization, the Permanent Court of International Justice became a UN institution as the International Court of Justice, and the Health Organization was restructured as the World Health Organization. See also International Commission of Jurists The International Court of Justice (known colloquially as the World Court or ICJ; Cour
The League's health organization had three bodies, a Health Bureau, containing permanent officials of the League, an executive section the General Advisory Council or Conference consisting of medical experts, and a Health Committee. The Committee's purpose was to conduct inquiries, oversee the operation of the League's health work, and get work ready to be presented to the Council. [27] This body focused on ending leprosy, malaria and yellow fever, the latter two by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes. Leprosy (from the Greek lepi (λέπι meaning scales on a fish or Hansen's disease, is a chronic disease caused by the bacterium Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Yellow fever (also called yellow jack, black vomit or sometimes American Plague) is an acute viral disease Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs The Health Organization also worked successfully with the government of the Soviet Union to prevent typhus epidemics including organising a large education campaign about the disease. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria [28]
In 1919 the International Labour Organization was created as part of the Versailles Treaty and became part of the League's operations. Kamerun was an African colony of the German Empire from 1884 to 1916 in the region of today's Republic of Cameroon. [29] This body's first director was Albert Thomas. Albert Thomas was the first Minister of Armament for the French Third Republic during World War I. [30] It successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint,[31] and convinced several countries to adopt an eight-hour work day and forty-eight hour working week. Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Paint is any Liquid, liquifiable or mastic composition which after application to a substrate in a thin layer is converted to an opaque Solid The 8-hour day movement or 40-hour week movement (aka the Short-time movement) had its origins in the Industrial Revolution in Britain, where It also worked to end child labour, increase the rights of women in the workplace, and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen. Child labor is the employment of Children at regular and sustained labour Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Shipping is physical process of Transporting goods and Cargo. [29] The organization continued to exist after the end of the League, becoming an agency of the United Nations in 1946. [32]
The League wanted to regulate the drugs trade and established the Permanent Central Opium Board to supervise the statistical control system introduced by the second International Opium Convention that mediated the production, manufacture, trade and retail of opium and its by-products. The International Opium Convention, signed at The Hague on January 23, 1912, was the first international drug control treaty Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( The Board also established a system of import certificates and export authorizations for the legal international trade in narcotics. International trade is exchange of Capital, Goods, and Services across International borders or Territories. The term narcotic (ναρκωτικός is believed to have been coined by the Greek physician Galen to refer to agents that benumb or deaden causing loss [33]
The Slavery Commission sought to eradicate slavery and slave trading across the world, and fought forced prostitution. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history Prostitution is the act of performing Sexual activity in exchange for Money. [34] Its main success was through pressing the countries who administered mandated countries to end tackle slavery in those countries. The League also secured a commitment from Ethiopia, as a condition of joining the League in 1926, to end slavery and worked with Liberia to abolish forced labour and inter-tribal slavery. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Liberia, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the west coast of Africa, bordered by Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations especially in modern or early modern history in which people are employed against their will [34] It succeeded in gaining the emancipation of 200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone and organized raids against slave traders in its efforts to stop the practice of forced labour in Africa. Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. An indentured servant is a form of Debt bondage worker The Laborer is under Contract of an Employer for some period of time usually three to It also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers constructing the Tanganyika railway from 55% to 4%. Tanganyika is the name of an East African territory lying between the largest of the African great lakes Lake Victoria, Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika Records were kept to control slavery, prostitution, and the trafficking women and children. [35] Led by Fridtjof Nansen the Commission for Refugees looked after the interests of refugees including overseeing their repatriation and, when necessary resettlement. Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen (October 10 1861 – May 13 1930 was a Norwegian Explorer, Scientist and Diplomat. [36] At the end of the First World War there were two to three million ex-prisoners of war dispersed throughout Russia[36], within two years of the commission's foundation, in 1920, it had helped 425,000 of them return home. [37] It established camps in Turkey in 1922 to deal with a refugee crisis in that country and to help prevent disease and hunger. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches It also established the Nansen passport as a means of identification for stateless peoples. Nansen passports were internationally recognized identity cards first issued by the League of Nations to stateless Refugees. A stateless person is someone with no Citizenship or Nationality. [38]
The Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women sought to make an inquiry into the status of women all over the world. Formed in April 1938, dissolved in early 1939. Committee members included Mme. P. Bastid (France), M. de Ruelle (Belgium), Mme. Anka Godjevac (Yugoslavia), Mr. HC Gutteridge (United Kingdom), Mlle. Kerstin Hesselgren (Sweden),[39] Ms. Dorothy Kenyon (United States), M. Paul Sebastyen (Hungary) and Secretariat Mr. McKinnon Wood (United Kingdom).
Members
- See also: League of Nations members
Of the 42 founder members, 23 (or 24, counting Free France) remained members until the League of Nations was dissolved in 1946. The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces In the founding year six other states joined, only two of which remained members throughout its existence. An additional 15 countries joined in later years.
The League’s greatest extent was from the 28 September 1934 (when Ecuador joined) to the 23 February 1935 (when Paraguay withdrew) with 58 members. Events 48 BC - Pompey the Great is assassinated on orders of King Ptolemy of Egypt after landing in Egypt. Year 1934 ( MCMXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. Events 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western Book printed from Movable Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only At this time, only Costa Rica (22 January 1925), Brazil (14 June 1926), the Empire of Japan (27 March 1933) and Germany (19 September 1933) had withdrawn and only Egypt was left to join (on the 26 May 1937). Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in Events 565 - Eutychius is deposed as Patriarch of Constantinople by John Scholasticus. Year 1925 ( MCMXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Events 1276 - While taking exile in Fuzhou in southern China, away from the advancing Mongol invaders, the remnants of the Year 1926 ( MCMXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku Events 196 BC - Ptolemy V ascends to the throne of Egypt. 1309 - Pope Clement V excommunicates Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Events 335 - Dalmatius is raised to the rank of Caesar by his uncle Constantine I. Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Events 451 - The Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sassanid Empire takes place Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was the only (founding) member to leave the league but return to it later. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia (Serbo-Croato-Slovene ie Serbo-Croatian, Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, Slovene: Kraljevina Jugoslavija
The Soviet Union, only became a member on September 18, 1934,[40] when it joined to antagonise Germany (which had left the year before),[41] and was expelled from the League on December 14, 1939,[40] for aggression against Finland. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Events 96 - Nerva is proclaimed Roman Emperor after Domitian is assassinated Year 1934 ( MCMXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1287 - St Lucia's flood: The Zuider Zee sea wall in the Netherlands collapses killing over 50000 people Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Winter War (Talvisota Советско-финляндская война - official Зимняя война - unofficial Vinterkriget began when the [41] In expelling the Soviet Union, the League broke its own norms. Only 7 out of 15 members of the Council voted for the expelling (United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Egypt, South African Union and the Dominican Republic), which was not a majority of votes as was required by the Charter to do so. Three of these members were chosen as members of the Council the day before the voting (South African Union, Bolivia and Egypt). [41] This was one of the League's final acts before it practically ceased functioning[42] owing to the Second World War. [43]
Egypt was the last state to join (26 May 1937). This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Events 451 - The Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sassanid Empire takes place Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The first member to withdraw or leave from the League after its founding was Costa Rica on the 22 January 1925 (having joined on 16 December 1920, this also makes it the member to have most quickly withdrawn or left after its joining); the last member to leave or withdraw from the League before its dissolution was Luxembourg on 30 August 1942. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in Events 565 - Eutychius is deposed as Patriarch of Constantinople by John Scholasticus. Year 1925 ( MCMXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 755 - An Lushan revolts against Chancellor Yang Guozhong at Fanyang, initiating the An Shi Rebellion Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Luxembourg (Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Grand-Duché de Luxembourg Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small Landlocked country in Western Europe, bordered by Events 1363 - Beginning date of the Battle of Lake Poyang; the forces of two Chinese rebel leaders— Chen Youliang and Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Brazil was the first founding member to leave (14 June 1926) and Haiti was the last (April 1942). |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Events 1276 - While taking exile in Fuzhou in southern China, away from the advancing Mongol invaders, the remnants of the Year 1926 ( MCMXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Haiti ( English: ˈheɪ·tiː or haɪ·ˈjiː·tiː French Haïti a·i·ti Haitian Creole: April holidays and events National Poetry Month - in United States National Sexual Assault Awareness Month - in United Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Iraq, which joined in 1932, was the first member of the league which had previously been a League of Nations Mandate. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. A League of Nations mandate refers to a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I. [44]
Mandates
League of Nations Mandates were established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. A League of Nations mandate refers to a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I. These territories were former colonies of the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire that were placed under the supervision of the League following World War I. This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The Permanent Mandates Commission supervised League of Nations Mandates, and also organised plebiscites in disputed territories so that residents could decide which country they would join. A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita There were three Mandate classifications, A Mandates were mainly applied to parts of the old Ottoman Empire territorys which had:
reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory. [45]
– Article 22, The Covenant of the League of Nations
The B Mandates were applied to the former German Colonies that the League took responsibility for after the First World War. The German colonial empire was an overseas area formed in the late 19th century as part of the Hohenzollern dynasty's German Empire. This was a territory that the League said was:
at such a stage that the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms traffic and the liquor traffic, and the prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training of the natives for other than police purposes and the defence of territory, and will also secure equal opportunities for the trade and commerce of other Members of the League. [45]
– Article 22, The Covenant of the League of Nations
Areas in South-West Africa and certain of the South Pacific Islands were administrated by League members under a C Mandate. South-West Africa (Afrikaans Suidwes-Afrika; German Südwestafrika) was the name of what is today the Republic of Namibia. Classified as territory:
which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population. "[45]
– Article 22, The Covenant of the League of Nations
The territories were governed by "Mandatory Powers", such as the United Kingdom in the case of the Mandate of Palestine and the Union of South Africa in the case of South-West Africa, until the territories were deemed capable of self-government. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Palestine Mandate, was a set of protocols or articles that formed a multilateral legal and administrative agreement } The Union of South Africa is the historic predecessor to the present-day state of the Republic of South Africa. South-West Africa (Afrikaans Suidwes-Afrika; German Südwestafrika) was the name of what is today the Republic of Namibia. There were fourteen mandate territories divided up among the six Mandatory Powers of the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, New Zealand, Australia and Japan. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. In practice, the Mandatory Territories were treated as colonies and were regarded by critics as spoils of war. With the exception of Iraq, which joined the League on October 3, 1932, these territories did not begin to gain their independence until after the Second World War, a process that did not end until 1990. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Year 1932 ( MCMXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Following the demise of the League, most of the remaining mandates became United Nations Trust Territories. Trust Territories were the successors of the remaining League of Nations mandates and came into being when the League of Nations ceased to exist in 1946
In addition to the Mandates, the League itself governed the Saarland for 15 years, before it was returned to Germany following a plebiscite, and the free city of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) from 15 November 1920 to 1 September 1939. Saarland (ˈzaːɐ̯lant in German; French: Sarre) is one of the 16 federal states (German Bundesländer) of Germany. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Free City of Danzig ( German: Freie Stadt Danzig; Polish: Wolne Miasto Gdańsk) was an autonomous Baltic Sea port and Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Events 655 - Battle of Winwaed: Penda of Mercia is defeated by Oswiu of Northumbria. Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Events 462 - Possible start of first Byzantine indiction cycle. Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Resolving territorial disputes
The aftermath of World War One left many issues to be settled between nations, including the exact position of national boundaries and which country a particular region would become part of. Most of these questions were handled by the victorious Allied Powers in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council. The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The Allies only tended to refer matters they did not want to deal with to the League. This meant during the first three years of the 1920s the League played little part in resolving the turmoil that resulted from the war. The questions the League considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties. [46]
The Allied Powers referred the problem of Upper Silesia to the League after they had been unable to resolve the territorial dispute. Upper Silesia (Horní Slezsko Oberschlesien Latin: Silesia Superior; Górny Śląsk Silesian: Gůrny Ślůnsk) is the southeastern part [47] After the First World War Poland laid claim to Upper Silesia that had been part of Prussia. The Second Polish Republic or interwar Poland is the Republic of Poland between World War I and World War II. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The Treaty of Versailles had recommended a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should be part of Germany or Poland. A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 Complaints about the attitude of the German authorities led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings (1919 and 1920). Riots are a form of Civil disorders characterized by disorganized groups lashing out in a sudden and intense rash of Violence, Vandalism or other The Silesian Uprisings (Aufstände in Oberschlesien Powstania śląskie were a series of three armed uprisings of the Poles and Polish Silesians A plebiscite took place on 20 March 1921 with 59. Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden. Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar 6% (around 500,000) of the votes cast were for joining Germany, but Poland claimed the conditions surrounding it had been unfair. This result led to the Third Silesian Uprising in 1921. The Silesian Uprisings (Aufstände in Oberschlesien Powstania śląskie were a series of three armed uprisings of the Poles and Polish Silesians [48] The League was asked to settle the matter on 12 August 1921. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar The Council agreed and created a commission with representatives from Belgium, Brazil, China and Spain to study the situation. [49] The committee recommended that Upper Silesian was divided between Poland and Germany according to the preferences shown in the plebiscite and that the two sides should decide the details of the interaction between the two areas. For example, if goods should pass freely over the border due to the economic and industrial interdependency of the two areas. [50] In November 1921 a conference was held in Geneva to negotiate a convention between Germany and Poland. A final settlement was reached, after five meetings, in which most of the area was given to Germany but with the Polish section containing the majority of its mineral resources and much of its industry. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific When this agreement became public in May 1922 there was resentment and bitterness expressed in Germany, but the treaty was still ratified by both countries. The settlement produced peace in the area lasting until the run up to the Second World War. [51]
The frontiers of Albania had not been set during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, being left to the League to be decided, but had not yet been determined by September 1921. This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics. This created an unstable situation with Greek troops repeatedly crossing into Albanian territory on military operations in the south and Yugoslavian forces engaged, after clashes with Albanian tribesmen, far into the northern part of the country. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία See also Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia ( Serbo-Croatian The League sent a commission of representatives from various powers to the region and in November 1921 the League decided that the frontiers of Albania should be the same as they had been in 1913 with three minor changes that favoured Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav forces withdrew a few weeks later, albeit under protest. [52]
The borders of Albania again become the cause of international conflict when Italian General Enrico Tellini and four of this assistants were ambushed and killed on 24 August 1923 while marking out the new newly decided border between Greece and Albania. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The Corfu Incident was a diplomatic emergency in 1923 between Greece and Italy under the newly empowered dictator Benito Mussolini. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar 's General Gaius Scribonius Curio is defeated in the Second Battle of the Bagradas River Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Italian leader Benito Mussolini was incensed, and demanded that a commission should be set up to investigate the incident and that its enquires should be completed within five days. Whatever the results of the enquiry Mussolini insisted that the Greek government should pay Italy fifty million lira reparations. The lira (plural lire) was the Currency of Italy between 1861 and 2002 The Greeks said they would not pay unless it was proved that the crime was committed by Greeks. [53]
Mussolini sent a warship to Corfu, part of Greece, that shelled the island and Italian forces occupied Corfu on 31 August 1923. A warship is a Ship that is built and primarily intended for Combat. Corfu (Κέρκυρα Kérkyra, ˈkʲe̞ɾkʲiɾa Κέρκυρα or Κόρκυρα Corcyra Corfù is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea The Corfu Incident was a diplomatic emergency in 1923 between Greece and Italy under the newly empowered dictator Benito Mussolini. Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This contravened the League's covenant and so Greece appealed to the League to deal with the situation. However, the Allies had appointed General Tellini through the Conference of Ambassadors and Musollini insisted that they should deal with the dispute. This meant that the League Council examined the dispute but then passed their opinion to the Council of Ambassadors to make the final decision. The conference accepted most of the League's recommendations forcing Greece to pay fifty million lira to Italy even though those who committed the crime were never discovered. The lira (plural lire) was the Currency of Italy between 1861 and 2002 [54]Mussolini was able to leave Corfu in triumph. By bowing to the pressure of a large country, the League again set a dangerous and damaging example.
As the League developed its role expanded and by the middle of the 1920s it became the centre of international activity. This change can be seen in the relationship between the League and non-members, for example, the United States and Russia increasingly worked with the League. During the second half of the 1920s France, the UK and Germany were all using the League of Nations as the focus of their diplomatic activity and each of their foreign secretaries attending League meetings at Geneva during this period. They also used the League's machinery to try to improve relations and settle their differences. [55]
Åland Islands
Åland is a collection of around 6,500 islands midway between Sweden and Finland. The Åland Crisis was one of the first issues the new League of Nations had to arbitrate "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. The islands are exclusively Swedish speaking, but in 1809 Sweden had lost both Finland and the Åland islands to Imperial Russia. Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya When Finland in December 1917, during the turmoil of the Russian October Revolution, declared independence, most of the Ålanders wished the islands to become part of Sweden again;[56] Finland, however, felt that the islands were part of their new nation, as the Russians had included them in the Grand Duchy of Finland formed in 1809. The October Revolution (Октябрьская революция Oktyabrskaya revolyutsiya) also known as the Soviet Revolution The Grand Duchy of Finland (Magnus Ducatus Finlandiæ Великое княжество Финляндское ' Velikoe knjažestvo finljandskoe) was the Predecessor By 1920 the dispute had escalated to the level that meant there was a danger of war between them. The British government referred the problem with the League's Council, but Finland did not let the League intervene as they viewed it was an internal matter. The League created a small panel to decide if the League should investigate the matter and, once it was decided it should be, a neutral commission was created. [56] In June 1921 the League announced its decision, that the islands should remain a part of Finland, but with protection of the islanders guaranteed, including demilitarization. With Sweden's reluctant agreement, this became the first European international agreement concluded directly through the League. [57]
Memel
The port city of Memel (now Klaipėda) and the surrounding area, whose population was mostly Germany, was under Allied control after the end of the World War I. Klaipėda ( ˈklaɪpɛdə Memel is a City in Lithuania situated at the mouth of the Curonian Lagoon where it flows into the Baltic Sea Klaipėda ( ˈklaɪpɛdə Memel is a City in Lithuania situated at the mouth of the Curonian Lagoon where it flows into the Baltic Sea The Klaipėda Region (Klaipėdos kraštas or Memel Territory (Memelland or Memelgebiet Territoire de Memel was defined by the Treaty of Versailles The area had been awarded to Lithuania by Article 99 of the Treaty of Versailles but the French and Polish governments favoured turning Memel into an international city. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the By 1923 control of the area had still not been transferred to Lithuania and this prompted Lithuanian forces to invade in January 1923 and seize the port. After the Allies failed to reach agreement with Lithuania they referred the matter to the League of Nations. In December 1923 the League Council appointed a commission of inquiry who, after investigating chose to cede the Memel to Lithuania and give the area autonomous rights. This was approved by the League Council on 14 March 1924 and then by the Allied Powers and Lithuania. Events 1489 - The Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to Venice. Year 1924 ( MCMXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [58]
Mosul
The League resolved a dispute between Iraq and Turkey over the control of the former Ottoman province of Mosul in 1926. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches For the village in Azerbaijan see Mosul Azerbaijan. Mosul (الموصل Al Mūṣul, Kurdish: Mosul/Ninawa, Musul According to the British, who were awarded a League of Nations A-mandate over Iraq in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other hand, the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 A League of Nations commission of inquiry with Belgian, Hungarian and Swedish members was sent to the region in 1924 to study the case and found that the people of Mosul did not want to be part of Turkey or Iraq but if they had to choose would pick Iraq. [59] In 1925 the commission recommended the region was kept as part of Iraq, under the condition that the British would hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to assure the autonomous rights of the Kurdish population. The League Council adopted the recommendation and it decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq. Events 755 - An Lushan revolts against Chancellor Yang Guozhong at Fanyang, initiating the An Shi Rebellion Year 1925 ( MCMXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Although Turkey had accepted the League of Nations arbitration in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, it rejected the League's decision questioning the Council's authority. The Treaty of Lausanne ( July 24, 1923) was a Peace treaty signed in Lausanne that settled the Anatolian part of the Partitioning The matter was referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice which ruled that when the Council made a unanimous decision it must be accepted. Nonetheless, the UK, Iraq and Turkey ratified a treaty on 5 June 1926, that mostly followed the decision of the League Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq. Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem Year 1926 ( MCMXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. However, it was agreed that Iraq could still apply for League membership within 25 years and that if successful the mandate would end. [60] [61]
Vilna
After World War I, Poland and Lithuania both regained their independence but there was disagreement about the frontiers between the countries. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the [62] During the Polish-Soviet War Lithuania signed a peace treaty with the Soviet Union that laid out Lithuania's frontiers. This agreement gave control of the city of Vilna (Lithuanian Vilnius, Polish Wilno), the old Lithuanian capital, to Lithuania which became the country's seat of government. Lithuanian ( lietuvių kalba) is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognised as one of the official languages of the European Union. Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. [63] This heightened tension between Lithuania and Poland led to fears that they would go to war and on 7 October 1920 the League negotiated an armistice but this did not last long. Events 3761 BC - The epoch (origin of the modern Hebrew calendar ( Proleptic Julian calendar) Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar [64] The majority of the population of the city of Vilna during the inter-war era were Polish and on 9 October 1920 General Zeligowski with a Polish military force took the city and claimed that the Government of Central Lithuania was now under their protection. Events 768 - Carloman I and Charlemagne are crowned Kings of The Franks. Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Lucjan Żeligowski (1865-1947 was a Polish General, and veteran of World War I, the Polish-Soviet War and World War II. [65]
Lithuania requested the League's assistance and in response the League Council called for Poland's withdrawal from the area. The Polish Government indicated they would comply with the League but did not leave and the Polish troops in the city were instead reinforced. [66] This prompted the League to decide that the future of Vilna should be determined by its residents in a plebiscite and that the Polish forces should withdraw and be replaced by an international force organised by the League. Several League nations, included France and the UK, started preparing troops to be sent to the area as part of the international force. At the end of 1920 hostilities between Poland and Lithuania again increased but at the beginning of 1921 Poland started looking for a peaceful settlement. The Poles agreed to support the League's plan for the area, withdraw their troops and co-operate with the plebiscite. However, the League now faced opposition from Lithuania and the Soviet Union, who did not approve of the proposed presence of an international force in Lithuania. This meant in March 1921 the League abandoned the idea of both a plebiscite and an international force, and returned to attempting to facilitate a negotiated settlement between the two sides. [67] Vilna and the surrounding area were formally annexed by Poland in March 1922 and on 14 March 1923 the Allied Conference set down the frontier between Lithuania and Poland leaving Vilna within Poland. Events 1489 - The Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to Venice. Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [68] Lithuanian authorities did not accept this and officially remained in a state of war with Poland until 1927. [69] It was not until the 1938 Polish ultimatum that Lithuania resolved diplomatic relations with Poland, ended the state of war and thus de facto accepted the borders of its neighbour. The 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania was an Ultimatum delivered to Lithuania by Poland on March 17 1938 [70]
Colombia and Peru
There were several border conflicts between Colombia and Peru in the early part of the 20th century and in 1922 the countries agreed the Salomón-Lozano Treaty to try and resolve these conflicts. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. The Salomón-Lozano Treaty was signed in July 1922 by representatives of Colombia and Peru. [71] As part of this treaty the border town Leticia and its surrounding area were ceded from Peru to Colombia, giving Columbia access to the Amazon River. Leticia is a City in the Republic of Colombia. capital of the department of Amazonas, and Colombia's southernmost town (4 The Amazon River (Rio Amazonas Río Amazonas of South America is the largest river in the world by volume with a total river flow greater than the next top ten largest rivers [72] An armed Peruvian takeover of Leticia occurred on 1 September 1932. Events 462 - Possible start of first Byzantine indiction cycle. Year 1932 ( MCMXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. This was organised by business leaders from the Peruvian rubber and sugar industries who had lost land when the area was given to Columbia. [73] At first the Peruvian Government did not recognise the military takeover but Peru's President Luis Cerro decided to resist a Columbian re-occupation and the Peruvian Army occupied Leticia. Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro ( August 12, 1889, Piura &ndash April 30, 1933, Lima) was a high-ranking Peruvian army officer This resulted in an armed conflict between the two nations. [74] After months of diplomatic wrangling, the two nations accepted mediation by the League of Nations, with their representatives presenting their cases before the League's Council. A provisional peace agreement, signed by both parties in May 1933, provided for the League to assume control of the disputed territory while bilateral negotiations proceeded. [75] In May 1934, a final peace agreement was signed, resulting in the return of Leticia to Colombia, a formal apology from Peru for the 1932 invasion, demilitarization of the area around Leticia, free navigation on the Amazon River and Río Putumayo, and a pledge of non aggression. The Amazon River (Rio Amazonas Río Amazonas of South America is the largest river in the world by volume with a total river flow greater than the next top ten largest rivers The Içá or Putumayo River is one of the tributaries of the Amazon River, west of and parallel to the Yapura.
Saar
Saar was a province, formed from parts of Prussia and the Rhenish Palatinate, that was established and placed under League control by the Treaty of Versailles. Saarland (ˈzaːɐ̯lant in German; French: Sarre) is one of the 16 federal states (German Bundesländer) of Germany. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The Palatinate (Pfalz Pfälzer dialect Palz) historically also Rhenish Palatinate (palatinatum Renensis Rheinpfalz is a region in south-western Germany The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule to determine whether the region should belong to Germany or France. When the referendum was held in 1935 90. 3% votes were in favour of becoming part of Germany and it became part of Germany again. [76] [77]
Peace and security
In addition to territorial disputes, the League also tried to intervene in other conflicts between (and even within) nations. Among its successes were its attempts to combat the international trade in opium and sexual slavery, and its work to alleviate the plight of refugees, particularly in Turkey in the period to 1926. Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( Sexual slavery refers to the organised coercion of persons into various different sexual practices forced Prostitution single-owner sexual slavery According to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race One of its innovations in this latter area was its 1922 introduction of the Nansen passport, which was the first internationally recognized identity card for stateless refugees. Nansen passports were internationally recognized identity cards first issued by the League of Nations to stateless Refugees. Many of the League's successes were accomplished by its various agencies and commissions.
Greece and Bulgaria
After an incident between sentries on the border between Greece and Bulgaria in October 1925, fighting began between the two countries. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian [78] Three days after the initial incident Greek troops invaded Bulgaria. Bulgaria ordered its troops to provide only token resistance, and evacuated between ten thousand and fifteen thousand people from the border region, trusting the League to settle the dispute. [79] The League did indeed condemn the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria. Greece complied, but complained about the disparity between their treatment and that of Italy (see Corfu, above). Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest
Liberia
Following rumours of forced labor and American accusations of slave trading the Liberian government asked the League to launched an investigation. Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations especially in modern or early modern history in which people are employed against their will The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history Liberia, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the west coast of Africa, bordered by Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire The commission created to investigate was jointly appointed by the League, the United States of America and Liberia carried out the investigation,[80] concentrating particularly on the alleged use of forced labor on the massive Firestone rubber plantation. The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company was founded by Harvey Firestone in 1900 to supply pneumatic tires for wagons buggies and other forms of wheeled transportation In 1930, a report by the League confirmed slavery and forced labor was taking place. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another The report implicated many government officials in the selling of contract labor and recommended these were replaced by Europeans or Americans. The Liberian government outlawed forced labor and slavery and asked for American help, this created anger within Leberia and led to the resignation of President Charles D.B. King, his vice-president. Charles Dunbar Burgess King (1875 - 1961 was a politician in Liberia of Freetown Creole descent (both of King's parents were ethnic Krios) [80] The League followed with a threat to establish a trusteeship over Liberia unless reforms were carried out, which became the central focus of President Edwin Barclay. Edwin James Barclay (1882-1955 was a Liberian politician A member of the True Whig political party he served as the 18th President of the country from 1930
Mukden Incident
The Mukden Incident, also known as the "Manchurian Incident" or the "Far Eastern Crisis", was one of the League's major setbacks and acted as the catalyst for Japan's withdrawal from the organization. Shenyang ( Ch: 沈阳 pinyin Shěnyáng, or Mukden ( in Manchu) is a Sub-provincial city and capital of Liaoning Events 96 - Nerva is proclaimed Roman Emperor after Domitian is assassinated Year 1931 ( MCMXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. On September 18, 1931, near Mukden (now Shenyang) in southern Manchuria, a section of railroad owned by Japan 's South Manchuria For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Under the terms of an agreed lease, Japan had the right to station its troops in the area around the South Manchurian Railway, a major trade route between the two countries, in the Chinese region of Manchuria. The was a company founded in the Empire of Japan in 1906 after the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905 and operated within China in the Japanese-controlled South Manchuria China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast [81] In September, 1931, the Japanese army claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway. Sabotage is a deliberate action aimed at weakening an enemy oppressor or employer through subversion obstruction disruption and/or destruction However, the railway had been blown up by officers and troops of the Japanese Kwantung Army,[82] [83] as a pretext for an invasion of Manchuria. The, also known as the Guandong Army ( 관동군 was an Army group of the Imperial Japanese Army in the early twentieth century [82] [84] In apparent retaliation, the Japanese army, acting contrary to the civilian government's orders,[83] occupied the entire region of Manchuria, which they renamed Manchukuo, and set up a puppet government on 9 March 1932 with Pu Yi, the former emperor of China as its executive head. Manchukuo (ja [[wikt満州国 満州国]] Manshūkoku lit "State of Manchuria " was a Puppet state in Manchuria and eastern Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia. Year 1932 ( MCMXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. Puyi ( ( February 7, 1906 &ndash October 17, 1967) of the Manchu Aisin-Gioro ruling family was the last Emperor [85] This new country was recognised internationally only by Italy and Germany; the rest of the world still saw Manchuria as legally part of China. In 1932, Japanese air and sea forces bombarded the Chinese city of Shanghai, sparking the short war of the January 28 Incident. Shanghai ( 上[[wikt 海|海]] is the largest city in China in terms of population and one of the largest urban areas in the world with over 20 million The January 28 Incident ( January 28 – March 3 1932) was a short war between the armies of the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan
The Chinese government asked the League of Nations for help, but the long voyage by ship for League officials to investigate the matter themselves delayed matters. When they arrived, the officials were confronted with Chinese assertions that the Japanese had invaded unlawfully, while the Japanese claimed they were acting to keep peace in the area. Despite Japan's high standing in the League, the subsequent Lytton Report declared Japan to be in the wrong and demanded Manchuria be returned to the Chinese. was a report generated by a League of Nations commission in December 1931 to try to determine the causes of the Manchurian Incident which led to the Empire of Japan However, before the report was voted upon by the Assembly, Japan announced its intention to push further into China. The report passed 42-1 in the Assembly in 1933 (only Japan voted against), and Japan withdrew from the League.
According to the Covenant of the League of Nations, the League should now have placed economic sanctions against Japan, or gathered an army and declared war. However, neither event took place. Economic sanctions had been rendered almost useless due to the United States Congress voting against joining the League, despite Woodrow Wilson's keen involvement in drawing up the Treaty of Versailles and his wish for America to join the League. Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. Any economic sanctions the League now placed on its member states would be ineffective, as a state barred from trading with other member states could simply turn and trade with America. On the other hand, the reason why the League did not assemble an army was because the self-interest of many of its member states: countries such as the UK and France were too preoccupied with their own affairs, such as keeping control of their extensive colonies, especially after the turmoil of World War I. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Japan was therefore left to keep control of Manchuria, until the Soviet Union's Red Army took over the area and returned it to China at the end of World War II. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including
Chaco War
The League failed to prevent the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay in 1932 over the arid Gran Chaco region of South America. The Chaco War (1932&ndash1935 was fought between Bolivia and Paraguay over control of a great part of the Gran Chaco region of South America The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only The Gran Chaco ( Quechua chaqu, "hunting land" dubbed by some as "the last South American frontier" is a sparsely populated hot and South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Although the region was sparsely populated, it gave control of the Paraguay River[86] which would have given one of the two landlocked countries access to the Atlantic Ocean, and there was also speculation, later proved incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum. The Paraguay River ( Río Paraguay in Spanish, Rio Paraguai in Portuguese) is a major River in south central South America A landlocked country is commonly defined as one enclosed or nearly enclosed by land Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit [87] Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all-out war in 1932, when the Bolivian army attacked the Paraguayan fort of Carlos Antonio López at Pitiantuta. [88] Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations, but the League did not take action when the Pan-American conference offered to mediate instead. The war was a disaster for both sides, causing 57,000 casualties for Bolivia, whose population was around three million, and 36,000 dead for Paraguay whose population was approximately one million. [89] It also brought both countries to the brink of economic disaster. By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935,[90] Paraguay had seized control over most of the region. Events 1381 - Peasants' Revolt: in England, rebels arrive at Blackheath. Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This was recognized in a 1938 truce by which Paraguay was awarded three-quarters of the Chaco Boreal.
Italian invasion of Abyssinia, 1935–1936
In October 1935, Italian leader Benito Mussolini sent 400,000 troops to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia). The Abyssinia Crisis was a diplomatic crisis during the interwar period originating in the conflict between Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Ethiopia NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page [91] General Pietro Badoglio led the campaign from November 1935, ordering the bombing and use of chemical weapons, for example, (mustard gas) and poisoning of water supplies, against targets including undefended villages and medical facilities. Pietro Badoglio 1st Duke of Addis Abeba ( 28 September 1871 &ndash 1 November 1956) was an Italian soldier and politician Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. The sulfur mustards, of which mustard gas ( Bis (2-chloroethyl sulfide is a member are a class of related Cytotoxic, Vesicant Chemical [92][91] The modern Italian Army defeated the poorly armed Abyssinians, and captured Addis Ababa in May 1936, forcing Emperor Haile Selassie to flee. The Italian Army (Esercito Italiano is the ground defense force of the Military of Italy. Addis Ababa (sometimes spelled Addis Abeba, the spelling used by the official Ethiopian Mapping Authority Amharic Haile Selassie I ( Ge'ez: am ኃይለ፡ ሥላሴ "Power of the Trinity " 23 July 1892 &ndash 27 August 1975 born Tafari Makonnen, was [93]
The League of Nations condemned Italy's aggression and imposed economic sanctions in November 1935, but the sanctions were largely ineffective since they did not ban oil or close the Suez Canal which was owned by the UK and France. [94] As Stanley Baldwin, the British Prime Minister, later observed, this was ultimately because no one had the military forces on hand to withstand an Italian attack. On 9 October 1935, the United States (a non-League member) refused to cooperate with any League action. Events 768 - Carloman I and Charlemagne are crowned Kings of The Franks. Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. It had embargoed exports of arms and war material to neither combatant (in accordance with its new Neutrality Act) on 5 October and later (29 February 1936) endeavoured (with uncertain success) to limit exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels. Events 869 - The Fourth Council of Constantinople is convened to decide about what to do about Patriarch Photius of Constantinople Leap years Although the modern calendar counts a year as 365 days a complete revolution around the sun takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [95] The League sanctions were lifted on 4 July 1936, but by that point they were a dead letter in any event. Events 836 - Pactum Sicardi, peace between the Principality of Benevento and the Duchy of Naples Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [96]
In December 1935, the Hoare-Laval Pact was an attempt by the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Hoare and the French Prime Minister Laval to end the conflict in Abyssinia by drawing up a plan to partition Abyssinia into two parts, an Italian sector and an Abyssinian sector. The Hoare-Laval Pact was a December 1935 proposal by British Foreign Secretary, Samuel Hoare and French Prime Minister The Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, commonly referred to as the Foreign Secretary, is a member of the United Kingdom Government heading the Mussolini was prepared to agree to the Pact; however, news of the Pact was leaked and both the British and French public venomously protested against the Pact, describing it as a sell-out of Abyssinia. Hoare and Laval were forced to resign their positions, and both the British and French government disassociated with them respectively. [97] In June, 1936, the Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie I spoke to the Assembly of the League of Nations to appeal for their help in protecting his country, there was no precedent for a head of state addressing the Assembly in person. Haile Selassie I ( Ge'ez: am ኃይለ፡ ሥላሴ "Power of the Trinity " 23 July 1892 &ndash 27 August 1975 born Tafari Makonnen, was [98]
As was the case with Japan, the vigour of the major powers in responding to the crisis in Abyssinia was tempered by their perception that the fate of this poor and far-off country, inhabited by non-Europeans, was not a central interest of theirs. In addition, it showed how the League could be influenced by the self-interest of its members. [99] One of the reasons why the sanctions were not very harsh was that both the UK and France feared the prospect of driving Mussolini and Hitler into an alliance. [100]
Spanish Civil War
On 17 July 1936, a coup d'état was attempted by the Spanish Army leading to a prolonged armed conflict between Spanish Republicans, the left-wing government of Spain, and Nationalists, right-wing rebels who included most officers of the Spanish Army. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of Events 180 - Twelve inhabitants of Scillium in North Africa are executed for being Christians Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Second Spanish Republic was the system of government in Spain between April 14 1931, when King Alfonso XIII left the country The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation The Spanish Army ( Ejército de Tierra in Spanish; literally "Land Army" is one of oldest active armies in the world and a branch of the Spanish [101] Alvarez del Vayo, the Spanish minister of foreign affairs, appealed to the League in September 1936 for arms to defend its territorial integrity and political independence. Julio Álvarez del Vayo ( Villaviciosa de Odón, Madrid, 1890 - Geneve, Switzerland, 1975 was a Spanish Socialist However, the League could not itself intervene in the Spanish Civil War nor prevent foreign intervention in the conflict. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of Hitler and Mussolini continued to aid General Franco’s Nationalist insurrectionists, and the Soviet Union aided the Spanish loyalists. Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde (born December 4, 1892 in Ferrol, died November 20, 1975 in Madrid The League did attempt to ban the intervention of foreign national volunteers. The International Brigades were Republican Military units in the Spanish Civil War, formed of many non-state sponsored volunteers of different countries
Disarmament and failures en route to World War II
Article eight of the League's covenant gave the League the task of reducing "armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations"[102] A significant amount of the League's time and energy was devoted to disarmament despite many of the governments involved being uncertain that disarmament to the extent laid out in the Leagues covenant could be achieved or was even desirable. The Allied Powers were also under obligation from the Treaty of Versailles to attempt to disarm and the disarmament imposed on the defeated countries had been described as the first step towards world wide disarmament. The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. [103] The League's covenant gave the task of creating a disarmament plan for each state to the League Council but the Council devolved this responsibility to a Preparatory Commission that was set-up to prepare for the World Disarmament Conference. The Disarmament Conference of 1932-34 (sometimes World Disarmament Conference or Geneva Disarmament Conference) was an effort by member states of the League of [104]
The Disarmament Commission obtained initial agreement from France, Italy, Japan, and the UK to limit the size of their navies. The Kellogg-Briand Pact, facilitated by the commission in 1928, failed in its objective of outlawing war. The Kellogg-Briand Pact, also known as the Pact of Paris, after the city where it was signed on August 27, 1928, was an international treaty "providing Ultimately, the Commission failed to halt the military buildup during the 1930s by Germany, Italy and Japan. The League was powerless and mostly silent in the face of major events leading to World War II such as Hitler's remilitarisation of the Rhineland, occupation of the Sudetenland and Anschluss of Austria, which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. The Remilitarization of the Rhineland by the German Army took place on 7 March 1936 when German forces entered the Rhineland. Sudetenland ( Czech and Polish: Sudety) is the German name used in English in the first half of the 20th century for the western regions of The ( German: "link-up" also known as the, was the 1938 Annexation of Austria into Greater Germany by the Nazi Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich In fact, League members themselves rearmed. As with Japan, both Germany in 1933 – using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext – and Italy, in 1937, simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgement. The Disarmament Conference of 1932-34 (sometimes World Disarmament Conference or Geneva Disarmament Conference) was an effort by member states of the League of The League commissioner in Danzig was unable to deal with German claims on the city, a significant contributing factor in the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded Finland. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Winter War (Talvisota Советско-финляндская война - official Зимняя война - unofficial Vinterkriget began when the
General weaknesses
the sign reads "This League of Nations Bridge was designed by the President of the U. S. A"
Cartoon from Punch magazine, December 10 1920, satirising the gap left by the U. Punch was a British weekly Magazine of Humour and Satire published from 1841 to 1992 and from 1996 to 2002 S. A when they did not join the League of Nations.
The onset of the Second World War suggested that the League had failed in its primary purpose, which was to avoid any future world war. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including There were a variety of reasons for this failure many connected to general weaknesses within the organisation. The origins of the League as an organisation created by the Allied Powers as part of the peace settlement at the end of the first world war led to it being viewed as a "League of Victors". The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. [105] [106] It also tied the League to the Treaty of Versailles so that when the Treaty became discredited and unpopular this reflected on the League of Nations. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. The other problem created at its inception was the position that the United States of America was supposed to play in the League, not only in terms of helping to ensure world peace and security but also in financing the League. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The U. S. President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League's formation and strongly influenced the form it took but the United States Senate voted not to join on November 19, 1919. Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives Events 1095 - The Council of Clermont, called by Pope Urban II to discuss sending the First Crusade to the Holy Land Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common [107] Had the United States been a member of the League it would have also have provided backup to France and the United Kingdom, possibly making France feel more secure and so encouraging France and the UK cooperate more regarding Germany and so made the rise to power of the NAZI party less likely. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German [108] However, some historians, for example Ruth Henig, have also argued that if America has been a member of the League its reluctance to engage in war with European states and to enact economic sanctions may have hampered the ability of the League to deal with international incidents. Ruth Beatrice Henig Baroness Henig CBE, DL (born Ruth Beatrice Munzer on 10 November 1943) is a British academic An international incident is a seemingly relatively small or limited action or clash that results in a wider dispute between two or more Nation-states. [108] The structure of government in America may also have made its membership problematic as its representatives at the League could not have made decisions on behalf of the United States executive branch without this having already been approved by the legislative branches. The federal government of the United States is the central United States Governmental body established by the United States Constitution. In Political science and Constitutional law, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the State. The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses [109]
Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their time as part of the League was short. In January 1920, when the League began, Germany was not permitted to join, due to strong dislike of the country after World War I. Soviet Russia was also banned from the League, as their communist views were not welcomed by the victors of World War I. The League was further weakened when critical powers left in the 1930s. Japan began as a permanent member of the Council, but withdrew in 1933 after the League voiced opposition to its invasion of the Chinese territory of Manchuria. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast [110] Italy also began as a permanent member of the Council but withdrew in 1937. The League had accepted Germany as a member in 1926, deeming it a "peace-loving country", but Adolf Hitler pulled Germany out when he came to power in 1933. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately [111]
The Rabbit. "My offensive equipment being practically nil, it remains for me to fascinate him with the power of my eye. "
Cartoon from Punch magazine, July 28 1920, satirising the perceived weakness of the League. Punch was a British weekly Magazine of Humour and Satire published from 1841 to 1992 and from 1996 to 2002
The League, like the modern United Nations, lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they were very reluctant to do. Power in international relations is defined in several different ways [112] The League's two most important members, the UK and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League. Immediately after World War I, pacifism was a strong force both in the populations and the governments of the two countries. The British Conservatives were especially tepid on the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of the organization. The Conservative Party (officially the Conservative and Unionist Party) is a Political party in the United Kingdom. On 23 June 1936, in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy's war of conquest against Abyssinia, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin told the House of Commons that collective security "failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions . Events 1180 - First Battle of Uji, starting the Genpei War in Japan 1305 - The Flemish Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the political leader of the United Kingdom Stanley Baldwin 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley, KG, PC (3 August 1867 &ndash 14 December 1947 was a British Conservative politician statesman and major The House of Commons' is the Lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords Collective Security, according to Inis Claude's article "Collective Security as an Approach to Peace" is seen as a compromise between the concept of world government and a nation-state . . [T]he real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war . . . [I]f collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every country is to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is an essential part of collective security. "[113] Moreover, the League's advocacy of disarmament for the UK and France (and other members) whilst at the same time advocating collective security meant that the League was unwittingly depriving itself of the only forceful means by which its authority would be upheld. This was because if the League was to force countries to abide by international law it would primarily be the Royal Navy and the French Army which would do the fighting. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) The French Army, officially the Armée de Terre (Land Army is the land-based component of the French Armed Forces and its largest Furthermore, the UK and France were not powerful enough to enforce international law across the globe, even if they wished to do so. For its members, League obligations meant there was a danger that states would get drawn into international disputes which did not directly affect their respective national interests. Ultimately, the UK and France both abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of appeasement in the face of growing German militarism under Adolf Hitler. Collective Security, according to Inis Claude's article "Collective Security as an Approach to Peace" is seen as a compromise between the concept of world government and a nation-state Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately [114]
The League's supposed neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision. The League required a unanimous vote of its nine (later fifteen) member Council to enact a resolution; conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. It was also slow in coming to its decisions. Certain decisions required unanimous consent of the entire Assembly.
Another important weakness grew from the contradiction between the idea of collective security, that formed the basis of the League, and international relations between individual states. Collective Security, according to Inis Claude's article "Collective Security as an Approach to Peace" is seen as a compromise between the concept of world government and a nation-state [115] The collective security system the League used meant that nations were required to act against states they considered friends, and in a way that might endanger their national interests, to support states that they had no normal affinity with. This article is about the generic foreign affairs term See The National Interest for the political journal [115] This weakness was exposed during the Abyssinia Crisis when the UK and France had to balance attempts to maintain the security they had attempted to create for themselves in Europe "in order to defend against the enemies of internal order"[116], in which Italy support played a pivotal role, with their obligations to the Abyssinia as a member of the League of Nations. The Abyssinia Crisis was a diplomatic crisis during the interwar period originating in the conflict between Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Ethiopia [117] On 23 June 1936, in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy's war of conquest against Abyssinia, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin told the House of Commons that collective security "failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions . Events 1180 - First Battle of Uji, starting the Genpei War in Japan 1305 - The Flemish Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the political leader of the United Kingdom Stanley Baldwin 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley, KG, PC (3 August 1867 &ndash 14 December 1947 was a British Conservative politician statesman and major The House of Commons' is the Lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords Collective Security, according to Inis Claude's article "Collective Security as an Approach to Peace" is seen as a compromise between the concept of world government and a nation-state . . [T]he real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war . . . [I]f collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every country is to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is an essential part of collective security. "[118]
When the British Cabinet discussed the concept of the League during the Great War, Maurice Hankey, the Cabinet Secretary, circulated a memorandum on the subject. Maurice Pascal Alers Hankey 1st Baron Hankey, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, PC ( 1 April 1877 &ndash 26 January 1963 A Cabinet Secretary is almost always a senior official (almost always a civil servant who provides services and advice to a Cabinet of Ministers. He started by saying: "Generally it appears to me that any such scheme is dangerous to us, because it will create a sense of security which is wholly fictitious". [119] He attacked the British pre-war faith in the sanctity of treaties as delusional and concluded by claiming:
"It [a League of Nations] will only result in failure and the longer that failure is postponed the more certain it is that this country will have been lulled to sleep. It will put a very strong lever into the hands of the well-meaning idealists who are to be found in almost every Government, who deprecate expenditure on armaments, and, in the course of time, it will almost certainly result in this country being caught at a disadvantage". [119]
The Foreign Office minister Sir Eyre Crowe also wrote a memorandum to the British Cabinet claiming that "a solemn league and covenant" would just be "a treaty, like other treaties": "What is there to ensure that it will not, like other treaties, be broken?". Sir Eyre Alexander Barby Wichart Crowe, GCB, GCMG ( 30 July, 1864 &ndash 28 April, 1925) was a British Diplomat Crowe went on to express scepticism of the planned "pledge of common action" against aggressors because he believed the actions of individual states would still be determined by national interests and the balance of power. He also criticised the proposal for League economic sanctions because it would ineffectual and that "It is all a question of real military preponderance". Universal disarmament was a practical impossibility, Crowe warned. [119]
Demise and legacy
As the situation in Europe deteriorated into war, the Assembly transferred enough power to the Secretary General on 30 September 1938 and 14 December 1939 to allow the League to continue to legally exist and to carry on reduced operations. Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the Year 1938 ( MCMXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1287 - St Lucia's flood: The Zuider Zee sea wall in the Netherlands collapses killing over 50000 people Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [43] Afterwards, the headquarters of the League, the Palace of Peace, remained unoccupied for nearly six years until the Second World War ended. The Palais des Nations (Palace of Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, was built between 1929 and 1938 as the headquarters of the League of Nations [120] The final meeting of the League of Nations was held in April 1946 in Geneva. Delegates from 43 nations attended the assembly. Their first act was to close the twentieth meeting, adjourned on 14 December 1939, and to open the twenty-first. Events 1287 - St Lucia's flood: The Zuider Zee sea wall in the Netherlands collapses killing over 50000 people Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This session concerned itself with liquidating the League: the Palace of Peace was given to the UN, reserve funds were returned to the nations that had supplied them, and the debts of the League were settled. [121] Robert Cecil is said to have summed up the feeling of the gathering[121] during a speech to the final assembly when he said:
Let us boldly state that aggression wherever it occurs and however it may be defended, is an international crime, that it is the duty of every peace-loving state to resent it and employ whatever force is necessary to crush it, that the machinery of the Charter, no less than the machinery of the Covenant, is sufficient for this purpose if properly used, and that every well-disposed citizen of every state should be ready to undergo any sacrifice in order to maintain peace . Robert Cecil may refer to Robert Cecil 1st Earl of Salisbury (1563&ndash1612 statesman spymaster and minister to Elizabeth I of England and James I of England . . I venture to impress upon my hearers that the great work of peace is resting not only on the narrow interests of our own nations, but even more on those great principles of right and wrong which nations, like individuals, depend.
The League is dead. Long live the United Nations
The motion that dissolved the League passed unanimously: "The League of Nations shall cease to exist except for the purpose of the liquidation of its affairs. "[122] The motion also set the date for the end of the League as the day after the session was closed. On 19 April 1946 the President of the Assembly, Carl J. Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Hambro of Norway, declared "the twenty-first and last session of the General Assembly of the League of Nations closed. " [123] As a result, the League of Nations ceased to exist on 20 April 1946. Events 1303 - The University of Rome La Sapienza is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII. Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [124]
At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied Powers agreed to create a new body to replace the League: the United Nations. The Tehran Conference ( Codenamed EUREKA) was the meeting of Joseph Stalin, Franklin D The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Many League bodies, such as the International Labour Organization, continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the UN[32] and the League's assets of $22,000,000 were assigned to the U. The International Labour Organization N. [123]
The structure of the United Nations was intended to make it more effective than the League. The principal Allies in World War II (the UK, the USSR, France, the U.S., and China) became permanent members of the UN Security Council; these new "Great Powers" gained significant international influence, mirroring the League Council. In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Decisions of the UN Security Council are binding on all members of the UN; however, unanimous decisions are not required, unlike the League Council. Permanent members of the UN Security Council are also given a shield to protect their vital interests, which has prevented the UN acting decisively in many cases. Similarly, the UN does not have its own standing armed forces, but the UN has been more successful than the League in calling for its members to contribute to armed interventions, such as during the Korean War and the peacekeeping mission in the former Yugoslavia. The Korean War refers to a period of military conflict between North Korean and South Korean regimes with major hostilities lasting from June 25 1950 until the Peacekeeping, as defined by the United Nations, is "a way to help countries torn by conflict create conditions for sustainable peace The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( Serbo-Croatian, Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, Slovene, Macedonian: The UN has in some cases been forced to rely on economic sanctions. The UN has also been more successful than the League in attracting members from the nations of the world, making it more representative.
See also
- Article X of the Covenant of the League of Nations
- Atlantic Charter
- Interwar period
- Minority Treaties
- Neutrality Acts
- Palais des Nations, built as the League's headquarters. Article X of the Covenant of the League of Nations Text of Article X The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external The Atlantic Charter was negotiated at the Atlantic Conference (codenamed Riviera) by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U Minority Treaties refer to the treaties regarding the protection of ethnic minorities signed during or shortly after the Paris Peace Conference between The Neutrality Acts were a series of laws that were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia The Palais des Nations (Palace of Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, was built between 1929 and 1938 as the headquarters of the League of Nations
Notes
- ^ Kant, Immanuel. Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch. Mount Holyoke College. Retrieved on 2008-05-16. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1204 - Baldwin IX Count of Flanders is crowned as the first Emperor of the Latin Empire.
- ^ Skirbekk and Gilje 2001, p. 288
- ^ Reichard 2006, p. 9
- ^ Rapoport 1995, pp. 498-500
- ^ Bouchet-Saulnier, Brav, and Olivier 2007, pp. 14-134
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 10
- ^ Kawamura 2000, p. 135
- ^ Wilson, Woodrow (8 January 1918). Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points. The Avalon Project. Retrieved on 2008-04-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer
- ^ Magliveras 1999, p. 8
- ^ Magliveras 1999, pp. 8–12
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 35–36
- ^ Levinovitz and Ringertz 2001, p. 170
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 51
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 67
- ^ Kennedy 1987
- ^ a b League of Nations. FOTW Flags Of The World website (2005-07-09). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Retrieved on 2008-05-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John
- ^ Burkman 1995
- ^ a b Kontra et. al. 1999, p. 32
- ^ Forster 1982, p. 173
- ^ Forster 1982, pp. 171–76
- ^ Forster 1982, p. 175
- ^ Meyer and Prugl 1999, p. 20
- ^ a b Organization and establishment:The main bodies of the League of Nations. The United Nations Office at Geneva. Retrieved on 2008-05-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine.
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 72
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 48
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 42–48
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 182
- ^ Baumslag 2005, p. 8
- ^ a b Northedge 1986, pp. 179–80
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 53
- ^ Frowein and Rüdiger 2000, p. 167
- ^ a b Origins and history. International Labour organization. Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
- ^ McAllister 1999, pp. 76–77
- ^ a b Northedge 1986, pp. 185–86
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 166
- ^ a b Northedge 1986, p. 77
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 59
- ^ Torpey 2000, p. 129
- ^ For a full biography, see sv:Kerstin Hesselgren (in Swedish).
- ^ a b Scott 1973, pp. 312, 398
- ^ a b c (Russian) Igor Pychalov. Velikaja obolgannaja vojna
- ^ (Russian) Лига наций Лига наций
- ^ a b Magliveras 1999, p. 31
- ^ Tripp 2002, p. 75
- ^ a b c League of Nations (1924). The Covenant of the League of Nations:Article 22. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Retrieved on 2006-04-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy.
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 70–72
- ^ Scott 1973, pp. 82–83
- ^ Osmanczyk and Mango 2002, p. 2568
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 88
- ^ Scott 1973, pp. 83
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 88
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 103–105
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 86
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 87
- ^ Henig 1973, p. 170.
- ^ a b Scott 1973, p. 60
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 77–78
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 107
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 133
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 107-108
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 131-135
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 78
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 61
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 78
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 78
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 62
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 63
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 78-79
- ^ Bell 2007, p. 29
- ^ Crampton 1996, p. 93
- ^ Osmanczyk and Mango 2002, p. 1314
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 249
- ^ Bethell 1991, pp. 414-415
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 250
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 251
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 72-73
- ^ Churchill 1986, p. 98
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 112
- ^ Scott 1973, pp. 126-127
- ^ a b Miers 2003, p. 188
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 138
- ^ a b Iriye 1987, p. 8
- ^ a b Scott 1973, p. 208
- ^ Nish 1977, p. 176-178
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 139
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 242-243
- ^ Levy 2001, pp. 21-22
- ^ Bethell 1991, p. 495
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 248
- ^ Scheina 2003, p. 103
- ^ a b Northedge 1986, pp. 222–25
- ^ Hill and Garvey 1995, p. 629
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 221
- ^ Baer 1976, p. 245
- ^ Baer 1976, p. 71
- ^ Baer 1976, p. 298
- ^ Baer 1976, pp. 121-55
- ^ Haile Selassie I. Haile Selassie I ( Ge'ez: am ኃይለ፡ ሥላሴ "Power of the Trinity " 23 July 1892 &ndash 27 August 1975 born Tafari Makonnen, was Appeal to The League of Nations:June 1936, Geneva, Switzerland. Black King. Retrieved on 2008-06-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- ^ Baer 1976, p. 303
- ^ Baer 1976, p. 77
- ^ Lannon 2002, pp. 25-29
- ^ League of Nations (1924). The Covenant of the League of Nations:Article 8. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Retrieved on 2006-05-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1521 - Edward Stafford 3rd Duke of Buckingham, is executed for Treason.
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 113 and 123
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 114
- ^ For example Georgy Chicherin cited in Gorodetsky 1994, p. Georgy Vasilyevich Chicherin (Георгий Васильевич Чичерин ( 7 July 1936) was a Marxist revolutionary and a Soviet politician 26
- ^ Raffo 1974, p. 1
- ^ Knock 1995, p. 263
- ^ a b Henig 1973, p. 175
- ^ Henig 1973, p. 176
- ^ McDonough 1997, p. 62
- ^ McDonough 1997, p. 69
- ^ McDonough 1997, pp. 54-5
- ^ Library of Congress (1944). Events Leading Up to World War II. Library of Congress, p. 97.
- ^ McDonough 1997, p. 74
- ^ a b Northedge 1986, p. 253
- ^ Northedge 1986, p. 254
- ^ Northedge 1986, pp. 253-254
- ^ Library of Congress (1944). Events Leading Up to World War II. Library of Congress, p. 97.
- ^ a b c Barnett 1972, p. 245.
- ^ Scott 1973, p. 399
- ^ a b Scott 1973, p. 404
- ^ Motion of the League of Nations, quoted in Scott 1973, p. 404
- ^ a b "League of Nations Ends, Gives Way to New U. N. ", Syracuse Herald-American, April 20, 1946, p. Events 1303 - The University of Rome La Sapienza is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII. Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. 12
- ^ The end of the League of Nations. The United Nations Office at Geneva. Retrieved on 2008-05-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine.
References
- Baer, George W. (1976). Test Case: Italy, Ethiopia, and the League of Nations. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press. ISBN 0817965912.
- Barnett, Correlli (1972). The Collapse of British Power. London: Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0413275806.
- Baumslag, Naomi (2005). Murderous Medicine: Nazi Doctors, Human Experimentation, and Typhus. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-0275983123.
- Bell, P. M. H. (2007). The Origins of the Second World War in Europe. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 978-1-4058-4028-6.
- Bethell, Leslie (1991). The Cambridge History of Latin America: Volume VIII 1930 to the Present. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521266521.
- Bouchet-Saulnier, Françoise; Brav, Laura and Olivier, Clementine (2007). The Practical Guide to Humanitarian Law. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0742554961.
- Burkman, Thomas W. (Summer 1995). "Japan and the League of Nations: an Asian power encounters the European Club". World Affairs 158 (1): 45–57.
- Churchill, Winston (1986). The Second World War: Volume I The Gathering Storm. London: Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 039541055X.
- Crampton, Ben (1996). Atlas of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415164613.
- Forster, Peter (1982). The Esperanto Movement. The Hague: Mouton. ISBN 9789027933997.
- Frowein, Jochen A. ; Wolfrum Rüdiger (2000). Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 9041114033.
- Henig (ed. ), Ruth B. (1973). The League of Nations. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. ISBN 9780050025925.
- Gorodetsky, Gabriel (1994). Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917-1991: A Retrospective. Routledge. ISBN 0714645060.
- Hill, Robert; Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (1995). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520072084.
- Iriye, Akira (1987). The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific. Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited. ISBN 0-582-49349-8.
- Kawamura, Noriko (2000). Turbulence in the Pacific: Japanese-U. S. Relations During World War I. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-0275968533.
- Kennedy, David (April 1987). "The Move to Institutions" (PDF). Cardozo Law Review 8 (5): 841–988.
- Knock, Thomas J. (1995). To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691001502.
- Kontra, Miklós; Robert Phillipson, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, and Tibor Varady (1999). Language, a Right and a Resource: Approaching Linguistic Human Rights. Budapest: Central European University Press. ISBN 9789639116634.
- League of Nations Information Section (1939). The Essential Facts About the League of Nations. Geneva: League of Nations. OCLC 220743559. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose
- Lannon, Frances (2002). The Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1841763691.
- Levinovitz, Agneta Wallin and Ringertz, Nils (2001). The Nobel Prize: The First 100 Years. World Scientific. ISBN 981024665X.
- Levy, Marcela López (2001). Bolivia:Oxfam Country Profiles Series. London: Oxfam Publishing. ISBN 0855984554.
- Magliveras, Konstantinos D (1999). Exclusion from Participation in International Organisations: The Law and Practice behind Member States' Expulsion and Suspension of Membership. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 9041112391.
- McAllister, William B (1999). Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century: An International History. Routledge. ISBN 0415179904.
- McDonough, Frank (1997). The Origins of the First and Second World Wars. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521568617.
- Meyer, Mary K. and Prugl, Elisabeth (1999). Gender Politics in Global Governance. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0847691616.
- Miers, Suzanne (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. AltaMira Press. ISBN 0759103402.
- Nish, Ian (1977). Japanese foreign policy 1869-1942:Kasumigaseki to Miyakezaka. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0415273757.
- Northedge, FS (1986). The League of Nations: Its Life and Times, 1920–1946. New York: Holmes & Meier. ISBN 0-7185-1316-9.
- Osmanczyk, Edmund Jan and Mango, Anthony (2002). Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements. ISBN 0415939240.
- Raffo, P. (1974). The League of Nations. London: The Historical Association.
- Rapoport, Anatol (1995). The Origins of Violence: Approaches to the Study of Conflict. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1560007834.
- Reichard, Martin (2006). The EU-NATO relationship: a legal and political perspective. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. . ISBN 0754647595.
- Scheina, Robert L. (2003). Latin America's Wars:Volume 2 The Age of the Professional Soldier, 1900-2001. Potomac Books Inc. . ISBN 1574884522.
- Scott, George (1973). The Rise and Fall of the League of Nations. London: Hutchinson & Co LTD. ISBN 0-09-117040-0.
- Skirbekk, Gunnar; Gilje, Nils (2001). History of Western Thought: From Ancient Greece to the Twentieth Century. Routledge. ISBN 0415220734.
- Torpey, John (2000). The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship and the State. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521634938.
- Tripp, Charles (2002). A History of Iraq. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052152900X.
Further reading
- Bassett, John Spencer. The League of Nations: A Chapter in World Politics 1930
- Egerton, George W. ; Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations: Strategy, Politics, and International Organization, 1914–1919 University of North Carolina Press, 1978
- Gill, George, (1996) The League of Nations from 1929 to 1946: From 1929 to 1946 . Avery Publishing Group. ISBN 0-89529-637-3
- Kelly, Nigel and Lacey, Greg (2001) "Modern World History" Heinemann Educational Publishers, Oxford
- Kennedy, Paul. The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations (2006)
- Kuehl, Warren F. and Lynne K. Dunn; Keeping the Covenant: American Internationalists and the League of Nations, 1920–1939 1997
- Malin, James C. The United States after the World War 1930. pp 5–82. online
- Marbeau, M. (2001). "La Société des Nations". Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-051635-1
- Pfeil, A (1976). "Der Völkerbund".
- Walters, F. P. , A History of the League of Nations 2 vol Oxford University Press. 1952
- Walsh, Ben (1997). Modern World History. John Murray (Publishers) Ltd. . ISBN 0-7195-7231-2.
- Woodrow Wilson, compiled with his approval by Hamilton Foley; Woodrow Wilson's Case for the League of Nations, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1923 contemporary book review
- Zimmern, Alfred ; The League of Nations and the Rule of Law, 1918–1935 1936
External links
- Covenant of the League of Nations, yale. edu
- League of Nations Photo archive, indiana. edu
- League of Nations chronology
- Proposed flags for the League, atlasgeo. span. ch
- Background of the League of Nations, revision-notes. co. uk
- League of Nations timeline, worldatwar. net
- Table of Assemblies Dates of each annual assembly, links to list of members of each country's delegation
- Wilson's Final Address in Support of the League of Nations Speech made 25 September 1919
- Haile Selassie's 1936 speech to the conference after the Italian invasion of Ethiopia
- Senator Henry Cabot Lodge speaks out against the League of Nations August 1919 speech
- History (1919–1946) from the United Nations Office at Geneva
Events 303 - On a voyage preaching the Gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens, France Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The United Nations Office at Geneva ( UNOG) is the second-biggest of the four major office sites of the United Nations
Dictionary
League of Nations
-proper noun
- An international organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the First World War. Its goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global quality of life. The predecessor of the United Nations.
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