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Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Signed
- location		December 11, 1997
Kyoto, Japan
Effective
- condition		February 16, 2005
55 parties and at least 55% CO2 1990 emissions by UNFCCC Annex I parties. Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar (IPA /kʲoːto / is a city in the central part of the island of Honshū, Japan. Events 1249 - Andrew of Longjumeau is dispatched by Louis IX of France as his ambassador to meet with the Khan of the Mongols Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries
Parties181 countries and the European Union (as of June 2008)


The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing greenhouse gases that cause climate change. Kyoto Protocol As of April 2008 178 states have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, aimed at In International politics, protocol is the Etiquette of Diplomacy and affairs of state Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences

It was adopted on 11 December 1997 by the 3rd Conference of the Parties, which was meeting in Kyoto, and it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries (IPA /kʲoːto / is a city in the central part of the island of Honshū, Japan. Events 1249 - Andrew of Longjumeau is dispatched by Louis IX of France as his ambassador to meet with the Khan of the Mongols Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. As of June 2008, 182 parties have ratified the protocol. Kyoto Protocol As of April 2008 178 states have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, aimed at Of these, 36 developed cg countries (plus the EU as a party in its own right) are required to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to the levels specified for each of them in the treaty (representing over 61. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in 6% of emissions from Annex I countries), [1][2] with three more countries intending to participate. [3] One hundred thirty-seven (137) developing countries have ratified the protocol, including Brazil, China and India, but have no obligation beyond monitoring and reporting emissions. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The United States has not ratified the treaty. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Among various experts, scientists, and critics, there is debate about the usefulness of the protocol, and there have been cost-benefit studies performed on its usefulness. Cost-benefit analysis is a term that refers both to a formal discipline used to help appraise or assess the case for a Project or proposal which itself is

Contents

Description

See also: Global warming

The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement made under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries Countries that ratify this protocol commit to reducing their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases (GHG), or engaging in emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these green house gases. In Political geography and International politics, a country is a Political division of a geographical entity Ratification is the act of giving official sanction or approval to a formal document such as a treaty or constitution A Treaty is an agreement under International law entered into by actors in international law namely States and International organizations. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Emissions trading (or emission trading) is an administrative approach used to control Pollution by providing economic Incentives for

The Kyoto Protocol now covers more than 170 countries globally but only 60% of countries in terms of global greenhouse gas emissions. Kyoto Protocol As of April 2008 178 states have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, aimed at As of December 2007, the US and Kazakhstan are the only signatory nations not to have ratified the act. Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol ends in 2012, and international talks began in May 2007 on a subsequent commitment period. [4]

At its heart, the Kyoto Protocol establishes the following principles:

In practice this means that Non-Annex I economies have no GHG emission restrictions, but when a greenhouse gas emission reduction project (a "Greenhouse Gas Project") is implemented in these countries the project will receive Carbon Credits, which can then be sold to Annex I buyers. Emissions trading --> This article deals with carbon credits for international trading and the scams associated with it

These Kyoto mechanisms are in place for two main reasons:

All the Annex I economies have established Designated National Authorities to manage their greenhouse gas portfolios under Kyoto. Countries including Japan, Canada, Italy, the Netherlands, Germany, France, Spain and many more are actively promoting government carbon funds and supporting multilateral carbon funds intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from Non-Annex I countries. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. These government organizations are working closely with their major utility, energy, oil & gas and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible.

Virtually all of the Non-Annex I countries have also set up their own Designated National Authorities to manage the Kyoto process (and specifically the "CDM process" whereby these host government entities decide which Greenhouse Gas Projects they do or do not wish to support for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board).

The objectives of these opposing groups are quite different. Annex I entities want Carbon Credits as cheaply as possible, whilst Non-Annex I entities want to maximize the value of Carbon Credits generated from their domestic Greenhouse Gas Projects.

Objectives

Kyoto is intended to cut global emissions of greenhouse gases.
Kyoto is intended to cut global emissions of greenhouse gases. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared

The objective is to achieve "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. "[6]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted an average global rise in temperature of 1. Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature 4°C (2. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. 5°F) to 5. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 8°C (10. 4°F) between 1990 and 2100. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 [7]

Proponents also note that Kyoto is a first step[8][9] as requirements to meet the UNFCCC will be modified until the objective is met, as required by UNFCCC Article 4. 2(d). [10]

Status of the agreement

Participation in the Kyoto Protocol: green indicates states parties, yellow indicates states with ratification pending, and red indicates those that signed but declined ratification of the treaty.
Participation in the Kyoto Protocol: green indicates states parties, yellow indicates states with ratification pending, and red indicates those that signed but declined ratification of the treaty.

The treaty was negotiated in Kyoto, Japan in December 1997, opened for signature on March 16, 1998, and closed on March 15, 1999. (IPA /kʲoːto / is a city in the central part of the island of Honshū, Japan. Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) The agreement came into force on February 16, 2005 following ratification by Russia on November 18, 2004. Events 1249 - Andrew of Longjumeau is dispatched by Louis IX of France as his ambassador to meet with the Khan of the Mongols Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Events 326 - The old St Peter's Basilica is consecrated 1302 - Pope Boniface VIII issues the Papal bull "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " As of April 2008, a total of 178 countries and other governmental entities have ratified the agreement (representing over 61. 6% of emissions from Annex I countries). [1][2]

According to article 25 of the protocol, it enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Parties included in Annex I, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession. " Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause was reached on May 23, 2002 when Iceland ratified. Events 1430 - Siege of Compiègne: Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians while leading an army to relieve Compiègne See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective February 16, 2005. Events 326 - The old St Peter's Basilica is consecrated 1302 - Pope Boniface VIII issues the Papal bull "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 1249 - Andrew of Longjumeau is dispatched by Louis IX of France as his ambassador to meet with the Khan of the Mongols Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.


Details of the agreement

According to a press release from the United Nations Environment Programme:

"The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement under which industrialized countries will reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5. The UN Environment Programme (or UNEP) coordinates United Nations environmental activities assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared 2% compared to the year 1990 (but note that, compared to the emissions levels that would be expected by 2010 without the Protocol, this limitation represents a 29% cut). The goal is to lower overall emissions of six greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons, and perfluorocarbons - averaged over the period of 2008-2012. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Methane is a Chemical compound with the molecular formula. It is the simplest Alkane, and the principal component of Natural gas. Nitrous oxide, commonly known as " laughing gas," is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula N 2 O. Sulfur hexafluoride is an Inorganic compound with the formula. The haloalkanes (also known as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides) are a group of Chemical compounds consisting of Alkanes such as Methane Perfluorocarbons (PFCs are compounds derived from Hydrocarbons by replacement of Hydrogen Atoms by Fluorine atoms National limitations range from 8% reductions for the European Union and some others to 7% for the US, 6% for Japan, 0% for Russia, and permitted increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland. [11]

It is an agreement negotiated as an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, which was adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992). Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries Rio de Janeiro ("River of January" ˈhiw dʒi ʒʌˈnejɾu in Brazilian Portuguese, /ˈriːoʊ di ʒəˈnɛroʊ/ in English is the second largest city of Brazil All parties to the UNFCCC can sign or ratify the Kyoto Protocol, while non-parties to the UNFCCC cannot. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC (COP3) in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. (IPA /kʲoːto / is a city in the central part of the island of Honshū, Japan. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics.

Most provisions of the Kyoto Protocol apply to developed countries, listed in Annex I to the UNFCCC. Emission figures exclude international aviation and shipping.

Common but differentiated responsibility

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change agreed to a set of a "common but differentiated responsibilities. " The parties agreed that:

  1. the largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases has originated in developed countries;
  2. per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low, and
  3. the share of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to meet their social and development needs. [12]

In other words, China, India, and other developing countries were not included in any numerical limitation of the Kyoto Protocol because they were not the main contributors to the greenhouse gas emissions during the pre-treaty industrialization period. However, even without the commitment to reduce according to the Kyoto target, developing countries do share the common responsibility that all countries have in reducing emissions.

Financial commitments

The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. This was originally agreed in the UNFCCC. Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries

Emissions trading

Main article: Emissions trading

Kyoto is a 'cap and trade' system that imposes national caps on the emissions of Annex I countries. Emissions trading (or emission trading) is an administrative approach used to control Pollution by providing economic Incentives for On average, this cap requires countries to reduce their emissions 5. 2% below their 1990 baseline over the 2008 to 2012 period. Although these caps are national-level commitments, in practice most countries will devolve their emissions targets to individual industrial entities, such as a power plant or paper factory. One example of a 'cap and trade' system is the 'EU ETS'. The European Union Emission Trading System (EU ETS is the largest multi-national Emissions trading scheme in the world and is a major pillar of EU climate policy Other schemes may follow suit in time.

This means that the ultimate buyers of credits are often individual companies that expect their emissions to exceed their quota (their Assigned Allocation Units, AAUs or 'allowances' for short). Emissions trading --> This article deals with carbon credits for international trading and the scams associated with it Typically, they will purchase credits directly from another party with excess allowances, from a broker, from a JI/CDM developer, or on an exchange.

National governments, some of whom may not have devolved responsibility for meeting Kyoto obligations to industry, and that have a net deficit of allowances, will buy credits for their own account, mainly from JI/CDM developers. These deals are occasionally done directly through a national fund or agency, as in the case of the Dutch government's ERUPT programme, or via collective funds such as the World Bank’s Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF). The PCF, for example, represents a consortium of six governments and 17 major utility and energy companies on whose behalf it purchases Credits.

Since allowances and carbon credits are tradeable instruments with a transparent price, financial investors can buy them on the spot market for speculation purposes, or link them to futures contracts. The spot market or cash market is a Commodities or Securities market in which goods are sold for Cash and delivered immediately In Finance, a futures contract is a standardized Contract, traded on a Futures exchange, to buy or sell a certain Underlying instrument A high volume of trading in this secondary market helps price discovery and liquidity, and in this way helps to keep down costs and set a clear price signal in CO2 which helps businesses to plan investments. This market has grown substantially, with banks, brokers, funds, arbitrageurs and private traders now participating in a market valued at about $60 billion in 2007[13]. Emissions Trading PLC, for example, was floated on the London Stock Exchange's AIM market in 2005 with the specific remit of investing in emissions instruments. The London Stock Exchange or LSE is a Stock exchange located in London, England.

Although Kyoto created a framework and a set of rules for a global carbon market, there are in practice several distinct schemes or markets in operation today, with varying degrees of linkages among them.

Kyoto enables a group of several Annex I countries to join together to create a market-within-a-market. The EU elected to be treated as such a group, and created the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). The European Union Emission Trading System (EU ETS is the largest multi-national Emissions trading scheme in the world and is a major pillar of EU climate policy The EU ETS uses EAUs (EU Allowance Units), each equivalent to a Kyoto AAU. The scheme went into operation on 1 January 2005, although a forward market has existed since 2003. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

The UK established its own learning-by-doing voluntary scheme, the UK ETS, which ran from 2002 through 2006. This market existed alongside the EU's scheme, and participants in the UK scheme have the option of applying to opt out of the first phase of the EU ETS, which lasts through 2007.

The sources of Kyoto credits are the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) projects. CDM directs here For other uses see CDM (disambiguation. The Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM) is an arrangement under the Joint implementation ( JI) is one of three Flexibility mechanisms set forth in the Kyoto Protocol to help countries with binding Greenhouse gas emissions The CDM allows the creation of new carbon credits by developing emission reduction projects in Non-Annex I countries, while JI allows project-specific credits to be converted from existing credits within Annex I countries. CDM projects produce Certified Emission Reductions (CERs), and JI projects produce Emission Reduction Units (ERUs), each equivalent to one AAU. Kyoto CERs are also accepted for meeting EU ETS obligations, and ERUs will become similarly valid from 2008 for meeting ETS obligations (although individual countries may choose to limit the number and source of CER/JIs they will allow for compliance purposes starting from 2008). CERs/ERUs are overwhelmingly bought from project developers by funds or individual entities, rather than being exchange-traded like allowances.

Since the creation of Kyoto instruments is subject to a lengthy process of registration and certification by the UNFCCC, and the projects themselves require several years to develop, this market is at this point largely a forward market where purchases are made at a discount to their equivalent currency, the EUA, and are almost always subject to certification and delivery (although up-front payments are sometimes made). According to IETA, the market value of CDM/JI credits transacted in 2004 was EUR 245 m; it is estimated that more than EUR 620 m worth of credits were transacted in 2005.

Several non-Kyoto carbon markets are in existence or being planned, and these are likely to grow in importance and numbers in the coming years. These include the New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme, the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative and Western Climate Initiative in the United States, the Chicago Climate Exchange and the State of California’s recent initiative to reduce emissions. The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme (also known as GGAS) which commenced on 1 January, 2003, is a mandatory Greenhouse gas Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI, or ReGGIe) is a regional initiative by states in the Northeastern United States region to reduce Greenhouse The Western Climate Initiative or WCI is an initiative&mdashstarted by states and provinces along the western rim of North America &mdashto combat Climate change Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX is North America ’s only voluntary legally binding Greenhouse gas (GHG reduction and trading system for emission sources The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 is an environmental Law in California, signed into law by Governor of California Arnold

These initiatives, taken together may create a series of partly-linked markets, rather than a single carbon market. The common theme across most of them is the adoption of market-based mechanisms centered on carbon credits that represent a reduction of CO2 emissions. The fact that some of these initiatives have similar approaches to certifying their credits makes it conceivable that carbon credits in one market may in the long run be tradeable in other schemes. This would broaden the current carbon market far more than the current focus on the CDM/JI and EU ETS domains. An obvious precondition, however, is a realignment of penalties and fines to similar levels,since these create an effective ceiling for each market.

Revisions

The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties (COP). COP6 attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union on the one hand (which favoured a tougher agreement) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia on the other (which wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible). Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries

In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6bis) was held in Bonn where the required decisions were adopted. Bonn is the 19th largest city in Germany. Located about 20 kilometres south of Cologne on the river Rhine in the Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union) managed to get Japan and Russia in as well by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending

COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the protocol. Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Marrakesh or Marrakech ( Amazigh: Murakush, Arabic مراكش Murrakush) known as the "Red City"

The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from November 28 to December 9, 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). Montreal, or Montréal in French ( pronounced in French, in English) is the largest city in the Canadian province of Quebec For the town in Argentina, see 28 de Noviembre. Events Events 536 - Byzantine General Belisarius enters Rome while the Ostrogothic garrison peacefully leaves the city Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. See United Nations Climate Change Conference. Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries

The 3rd of December 2007, Australia ratified the protocol during the first day of the COP13 in Bali.

Enforcement

If the Enforcement Branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required to make up the difference plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under an emissions trading program. [14]


Australia

Despite Australia being one of the biggest emitters on a per capita basis[15][16], the country was granted a limitation of an 8% increase. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. This was because of considerations specified in Article 4, section 8(h) of the Convention.

The Australian Prime Minister at the time, John Howard (Liberal Party), declined to ratify the Agreement, arguing that the protocol would cost Australians jobs,[17] due to countries with booming economies and massive populations such as China and India not having any reduction obligations. See also Howard Government John Winston Howard AC (born 26 July 1939 was the 25th Prime Minister of Australia from 11 March The Liberal Party of Australia is an Australian political party. Further, it was claimed that Australia was already doing enough to cut emissions; having pledged $300 million to reduce Greenhouse gas emissions over three years.

Australia's new government formed by the Australian Labor Party after the November 2007 election fully supports the protocol[18] and Prime Minister Kevin Rudd signed the instrument of ratification immediately after assuming office on 3 December 2007, just before the meeting of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change [19]; it took effect in March, 2008. Federal elections for the Parliament of Australia were held on Saturday 24 November 2007 after a 6-week campaign in which 13 Kevin Michael Rudd (born 21 September 1957 is the 26th and current Prime Minister of Australia and federal leader of the Centre-left Australian Labor Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place at the Bali International Conference Centre Nusa Dua, in Bali, Indonesia, between December [20] When still in Opposition, Kevin Rudd commissioned Professor Ross Garnaut to report into the economic issues of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition, commonly known as The Opposition, in Australia fulfils the same function as the Official opposition Dr Ross Garnaut (born July 28, 1946, Perth Western Australia) AO BA (ANU PhD (ANU is a professor of Economics at the Australian The Garnaut Climate Change Review was a study by Professor Ross Garnaut, commissioned by Prime Minister of Australia, Kevin Rudd and by the Australian Garnaut's report is due to be handed to the Australian Government in September 2008, with a draft in June 2008. This article describes the federal government of Australia See Australian governments for other jurisdictions

Analysis has projected Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions at 109% of the 1990 emissions level over the period 2008–12, calculated including the effects of Land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF). Land use, land-use change and Forestry (LULUCF all have impacts on the global Carbon cycle and as such these activities can add or remove Carbon dioxide This is slightly above its 108% Kyoto Protocol limitation. As of 2007, the UNFCCC is reporting that Australia's 2004 greenhouse gas emissions were at 125. 6% of 1990 levels, calculated without the LULUCF correction. http://unfccc.int/files/inc/graphics/image/gif/graph3_2007_ori.gif

The previous Australian Government, along with the United States, agreed to sign the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate at the ASEAN regional forum on 28 July 2005. Aims US President George W Bush called it a "new results-oriented partnership" that he said "will allow our nations to develop and accelerate deployment The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, commonly referred to as ASEAN, ˈɑːsiːɑːn AH-see-ahn in English (the Official language Events 1540 - Thomas Cromwell is executed at the order of Henry VIII of England on charges of Treason. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Furthermore, the Australian state of New South Wales (NSW) commenced The NSW Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme (GGAS). [21] This mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme commenced on 1 January 2003 and is currently being trialled by the state government in NSW alone. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Uniquely this scheme allows Accredited Certificate Providers (ACP) to trade emissions from householders in the state. As of 2006 the scheme is still in place despite the outgoing Prime Minister's clear dismissal of emissions trading as a credible solution to climate change. See also Howard Government John Winston Howard AC (born 26 July 1939 was the 25th Prime Minister of Australia from 11 March Following the example of NSW, the National Emissions Trading Scheme (NETS) has been established as an initiative of State and Territory Governments of Australia, all of which have Labor Party governments. [22] The focus of NETS is to bring into existence an intra-Australian carbon trading scheme and to coordinate policy developments to this end. According to the Constitution of Australia,[23] environmental matters are under the jurisdiction of the States, and the NETS is intended to facilitate ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by the incoming Labor Government. The Constitution of Australia is the law under which the Australian Commonwealth Government operates

Greenpeace have called Clause 3. Greenpeace, originally known as the Greenpeace Foundation, was founded in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada in 1972 7 of the Kyoto Protocol the "Australia Clause", as Australia was the major beneficiary. The clause allows for Annex 1 countries with high rates of land clearing in 1990 to consider that year a base level. Greenpeace argues that Australia had extremely high levels of land clearing in 1990, and that this meant that Australia's "baseline" was unusually high compared to other countries. [24]

Canada

On December 17, 2002, Canada ratified the treaty that came into force in February 2005, requiring it to reduce emissions to 6% below 1990 levels during the 2008-2012 commitment period. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page At that time, numerous polls showed support for the Kyoto protocol at around 70%. [25][26] Despite strong public support, there was still some opposition, particularly by the Canadian Alliance, precursor to the governing Conservative Party, some business groups,[27] and energy concerns, using arguments similar to those being used in the US. The Canadian Alliance (in French Alliance Canadienne) formally the Canadian Reform Conservative Alliance (or in French Alliance réformiste-conservateur The Conservative Party of Canada ( Parti conservateur du Canada) colloquially known as the " Tories " is a conservative In particular, there was a fear that since US companies would not be affected by the Kyoto Protocol that Canadian companies would be at a disadvantage in terms of trade. In 2005, the result was limited to an ongoing "war of words", primarily between the government of Alberta (Canada's primary oil and gas producer) and the federal government. Alberta (ælˈbɝtə is one of Canada's prairie provinces. It became a province on September 1 1905 As of 2003, the federal government claimed to have spent or committed 3. 7 billion dollars on climate change programmes. [28] By 2004, CO2 emissions had risen to 27% above 1990 levels (which compares unfavorably to the 16% increase in emissions by the United States during that time). [29]

In January 2006, a Conservative minority government under Stephen Harper was elected, who previously has expressed opposition to Kyoto, and in particular to the plan to participate in international emission trading. WikipediaManual of Style (biographies#Honorific prefixes --> Stephen Joseph Harper PC Rona Ambrose, who replaced Stéphane Dion as the environment minister, has since endorsed some types of emission trading, and indicated interest in international trading. Ronalee "Rona" Ambrose, PC, MP (born March 15, 1969 in Valleyview Alberta) is Canada's current Minister of Intergovernmental Stéphane Maurice Dion PC not change it to "Liberal"! --> MP [30] On April 25, 2006, Ambrose announced that Canada would have no chance of meeting its targets under Kyoto, and would look to participate in U. Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. S. sponsored Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate. Aims US President George W Bush called it a "new results-oriented partnership" that he said "will allow our nations to develop and accelerate deployment "We've been looking at the Asia-Pacific Partnership for a number of months now because the key principles around [it] are very much in line with where our government wants to go," Ambrose told reporters. [31] On May 2, 2006, it was reported that environmental funding designed to meet the Kyoto standards had been cut, while the Harper government develops a new plan to take its place. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. [32] As the co-chair of UN Climate Change Conference in Nairobi in November 2006, Canada and its government received criticism from environmental groups and from other governments for its climate change positions. [33] On January 4, 2007, Rona Ambrose moved from the Ministry of the Environment to become Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs. Events 46 BC - Titus Labienus defeats Julius Caesar in the Battle of Ruspina. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The Environment portfolio went to John Baird, the former President of the Treasury Board. John Russell Baird, PC, MP (born May 26 1969 is a Canadian politician

Canada's federal government has introduced legislation to set mandatory emissions targets for industry, but it will not take effect until an estimated 2050. The government has since begun working with opposition parties to improve the legislation.

A private member's bill,[34] was put forth by Pablo Rodriguez, Liberal, aiming to force the government to "ensure that Canada meets its global climate change obligations under the Kyoto Protocol. A Private Member's Bill is a proposed Law introduced by a backbench member of Parliament, whether from the government or the opposition side to that Pablo Rodriguez (born June 21, 1967) is a Canadian politician The Liberal Party of Canada ( Parti libéral du Canada) colloquially known as the Grits (originally " Clear Grits " is a major Canadian political " With the support of the Liberals, the New Democratic Party and the Bloc Québécois, and with the current minority situation, the bill passed the House of Commons on 14 February 2007 with a vote of 161-113,[35] and is now being considered by the Senate. Principles policies and electoral achievement The NDP grew from populist, agrarian and democratic socialist roots The Bloc Québécois ( BQ) is a federal political party in Canada that defines itself as devoted to both the protection of Quebec's interests on a federal The House of Commons (Chambre des communes is a component of the Parliament of Canada, along with the Sovereign (represented by the Governor General) and Events 842 - Charles the Bald and Louis the German swear the Oaths of Strasbourg in the French and German Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The Senate of Canada (Le Sénat du Canada is a component of the Parliament of Canada, along with the sovereign (represented by the governor general If passed, the bill would give the government 60 days to form a detailed plan of action. The government has flatly refused to abide by the bill, which may spark a constitutional crisis, lawsuit, or non-confidence motion once the bill becomes law, as is expected. A constitutional crisis is a severe breakdown in the orderly operation of Government. In law a lawsuit is a civil action brought before a Court in which the party commencing the action the Plaintiff, seeks a legal or equitable remedy A motion of no confidence (also vote of no confidence, censure motion, no-confidence motion, or confidence motion) is a Parliamentary motion [36]

In May 2007 Friends of the Earth sued the Canadian federal government for failing to meet its Kyoto Protocol obligations to cut greenhouse gas emissions linked to global warming. Friends of the Earth (HK is not a member of Friends of the Earth International This was based on a clause in the Canadian Environmental Protection Act that requires Ottawa to "prevent air pollution that violates an international agreement binding on Canada". [37] Canada's obligation to the treaty began in 2008.

Regardless of the national position, some individual provinces are pursuing policies to restrain emissions, including Quebec[38] and British Columbia and Manitoba as part of the Western Climate Initiative. Quebec (kwɨˈbɛk British Columbia (ˌbrɪtɨʃ kəˈlʌmbiə ( BC) ( (la Colombie-Britannique C Manitoba (English ˌmænɨˈtoʊbə French /manitoba/ is a province of Canada, spanning 647797 square kilometres (250116  sq mi of North America The Western Climate Initiative or WCI is an initiative&mdashstarted by states and provinces along the western rim of North America &mdashto combat Climate change

People's Republic of China

See also: Energy policy of China

In 2004 the total greenhouse gas emissions from the People's Republic of China were about 54% of the USA emissions. The energy policy in China is the sum up of different aspects of Energy policy of the People's Republic of China. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES [39] However, China is now building on average one coal-fired power plant every week, and plans to continue doing so for years. [40][41] Various predictions see China overtaking the US in total greenhouse emissions between late 2007 and 2010,[42][43][44] and according to many other estimates, this already occurred in 2006. [45][46][47]

The Chinese government insists that the gas emissions level of any given country is a multiplication of its per capita emission and its population. Because China has put into place population control measures while maintaining low emissions per capita, it claims it should therefore in both of the above aspects be considered a contributor to the world's environment. The one-child policy is the Population control policy (or planned birth policy of the People's Republic of China (PRC In addition, the country's energy intensity - measured as energy consumption per unit of GDP - was lowered by 47 per cent between 1991 and 2005; from 1950 to 2002, China’s carbon dioxide emissions from fossil sources accounted for only 9. Energy intensity is a measure of the energy efficiency of a nation's economy. 33% of the global total in the same period, and in 2004, its per-capita emission of carbon dioxide from fossil sources was 3. 65 tons, which is 87% of the world average and 33 per cent of that of Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development countries. [48]

In June of 2007, China unveiled a 62-page climate change plan and promised to put climate change at the heart of its energy policies but insisted that developed countries had an “unshirkable responsibility” to take the lead on cutting greenhouse gas emissions and that the "common but differentiated responsibility" principle, as agreed up in the UNFCCC should be applied. Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries [49][50]

In response to critics of the nation's energy policy, China responded that those criticisms were unjust[51], while studies of carbon leakage suggest that nearly a quarter of China's emissions result from exports for consumption by developed countries[52]. Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in Carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy

European Union

See also: Energy policy of the European Union

On May 31, 2002, all fifteen then-members of the European Union deposited the relevant ratification paperwork at the UN. Although the European Union has legislated in the area of energy policy for many years and evolved out of the European Coal and Steel Community, the concept of introducing a Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in The EU produces around 22% of global greenhouse gas emissions, and has agreed to a cut, on average, by 8% from 1990 emission levels. Emission standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of Pollutants that can be released into the environment On 10 January 2007, the European Commission announced plans for a European Union energy policy that included a unilateral 20% reduction in GHG emissions by 2020. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The European Commission (formally the Commission of the European Communities) is the executive branch of the European Union. Although the European Union has legislated in the area of energy policy for many years and evolved out of the European Coal and Steel Community, the concept of introducing a

The EU has consistently been one of the major nominal supporters of the Kyoto Protocol, negotiating hard to get wavering countries on board.

In December 2002, the EU created an emissions trading system in an effort to meet these tough targets. The European Union Emission Trading System (EU ETS is the largest multi-national Emissions trading scheme in the world and is a major pillar of EU climate policy Quotas were introduced in six key industries: energy, steel, cement, glass, brick making, and paper/cardboard. There are also fines for member nations that fail to meet their obligations, starting at €40/ton of carbon dioxide in 2005, and rising to €100/ton in 2008. Current EU projections suggest that by 2008 the EU will be at 4. 7% below 1990 levels.

Transport CO2 emissions in the EU grew by 32% between 1990 and 2004. The share of transport in CO2 emissions was 21% in 1990, but by 2004 this had grown to 28%.

The position of the EU is not without controversy in Protocol negotiations, however. One criticism is that, rather than reducing 8%, all the EU member countries should cut 15% as the EU insisted a uniform target of 15% for other developed countries during the negotiation while allowing itself to share a big reduction in the former East Germany to meet the 15% goal for the entire EU. Also, emission levels of former Warsaw Pact countries who now are members of the EU have already been reduced as a result of their economic restructuring. The Warsaw Pact (see Nomenclature) was an organization of Communist states in Central and Eastern Europe. This may mean that the region's 1990 baseline level is inflated compared to that of other developed countries, thus giving European economies a potential competitive advantage over the U. S.

Both the EU (as the European Community) and its member states are signatories to the Kyoto treaty. The European Community (EC is one of the Three pillars of the European Union (EU created under the Maastricht Treaty (1992
Greece, however was excluded from the Kyoto Protocol on Earth Day (April 22, 2008) due to unfulfilled commitment of creating the adequate mechanisms of monitoring and reporting emissions, which is the minimum obligation, and delivering false reports by having no other data to report.

Germany

Germany has reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 17. 2% between 1990 and 2004. [53] On June 28, 2006, the German government announced it would exempt its coal industry from requirements under the EU internal emission trading system. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Claudia Kemfert, an energy professor at the German Institute for Economic Research in Berlin said, "For all its support for a clean environment and the Kyoto Protocol, the cabinet decision is very disappointing. The energy lobbies have played a big role in this decision. "[54]

United Kingdom

The energy policy of the United Kingdom fully endorses goals for carbon dioxide emissions reduction and has committed to proportionate reduction in national emissions on a phased basis. For energy use in practice see Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom The current Energy Policy of the United Kingdom is set This is a list of sovereign states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity The United Kingdom is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol.

On March 13, 2007, a draft Climate Change Bill was published after cross-party pressure over several years, led by environmental groups. The Climate Change Bill, published on 13 March 2007 is a Draft law aimed at moving the United Kingdom to a Low-carbon economy and society Informed by the Energy White Paper 2003,[55] The Bill aims to put in place a framework to achieve a mandatory 60% cut in the UK's carbon emissions by 2050 (compared to 1990 levels), with an intermediate target of between 26% and 32% by 2020. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared [56] If approved, the United Kingdom is likely to become the first country to set such a long-range and significant carbon reduction target into law.

The UK currently appears on course to meet its Kyoto limitation for the basket of greenhouse gases, assuming the Government is able to curb rising carbon dioxide emissions between now (2007) and the period 2008-2012. For Government policy see Energy policy of the United Kingdom Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom has been receiving increased [57] Although the UK's overall greenhouse gas emissions have fallen, annual net carbon dioxide emissions have risen by around 2% since The Labour Party came to power in 1997. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single [57] As a result it now seems highly unlikely that the Government will be able to honour its manifesto pledge to cut carbon dioxide emissions by 20% from 1990 levels by the year 2010,[57] unless immediate and drastic action is taken under after the passing of the Climate Change Bill. The Climate Change Bill, published on 13 March 2007 is a Draft law aimed at moving the United Kingdom to a Low-carbon economy and society

France

In 2004, France shut down its last coal mine, and now gets 80% of its electricity from nuclear power[58] and therefore has relatively low CO2 emissions

Norway

Between 1990 and 2006, Norway's carbon emissions increased by almost 8%. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional [59] As well as directly reducing their own greenhouse gas emissions, Norway's idea for carbon neutrality, is that they will finance reforestation in China, which is still legal under the Kyoto protocol.

India

India signed and ratified the Protocol in August, 2002. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Since India is exempted from the framework of the treaty, it is expected to gain from the protocol in terms of transfer of technology and related foreign investments. At the G-8 meeting in June 2005, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh pointed out that the per-capita emission rates of the developing countries are a tiny fraction of those in the developed world. Manmohan Singh (ਮਨਮੋਹਨ ਸਿੰਘ (born 26 September 1932 is the 17th Following the principle of common but differentiated responsibility, India maintains that the major responsibility of curbing emission rests with the developed countries, which have accumulated emissions over a long period of time. However, the U. S. and other Western nations assert that India, along with China, will account for most of the emissions in the coming decades, owing to their rapid industrialization and economic growth.

Russia

See also: Energy policy of Russia

Vladimir Putin approved the treaty on November 4, 2004 and Russia officially notified the United Nations of its ratification on November 18, 2004. The Energy policy of Russia is contained in an Energy Strategy document which sets out policy for the period up to 2020 Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (; born 7 October 1952 in Leningrad, USSR; now Saint Petersburg, Russia was the second President of Russia Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 326 - The old St Peter's Basilica is consecrated 1302 - Pope Boniface VIII issues the Papal bull "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " The issue of Russian ratification was particularly closely watched in the international community, as the accord was brought into force 90 days after Russian ratification (February 16, 2005). Events 1249 - Andrew of Longjumeau is dispatched by Louis IX of France as his ambassador to meet with the Khan of the Mongols Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

President Putin had earlier decided in favour of the protocol in September 2004, along with the Russian cabinet,[60] against the opinion of the Russian Academy of Sciences, of the Ministry for Industry and Energy and of the then president's economic adviser, Andrey Illarionov, and in exchange to EU's support for Russia's admission in the WTO. Andrey Nikolayevich Illarionov ( Андре́й Никола́евич Илларио́нов) (born September 16 1961) is [61] As anticipated after this, ratification by the lower (22 October 2004) and upper house of parliament did not encounter any obstacles. Events 202 BC - Hannibal Barca, leader of the Carthaginians, is defeated by the Roman legions under Scipio Africanus "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again "

The Kyoto Protocol limits emissions to a percentage increase or decrease from their 1990 levels. Since 1990 the economies of most countries in the former Soviet Union have collapsed, as have their greenhouse gas emissions. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Because of this, Russia should have no problem meeting its commitments under Kyoto, as its current emission levels are substantially below its limitations.

It is debatable whether Russia will benefit from selling emissions credits to other countries in the Kyoto Protocol. [62]

United States

See also: Energy policy of the United States

The United States (U. The energy policy of the United States is determined by federal state and local public entities in the United States, which address issues of energy production distribution The United States of America —commonly referred to as the S. ), although a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, has neither ratified nor withdrawn from the Protocol. The signature alone is symbolic, as the Kyoto Protocol is non-binding on the United States unless ratified. The United States was, as of 2005, the largest single emitter of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels. [63] The ‘‘Lieberman-Warner Climate Security Act of 2008’’,also more commonly referred to in the U.S. as the "Cap and Trade Bill", was proposed for greater U. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Emissions trading (or emission trading) is an administrative approach used to control Pollution by providing economic Incentives for S. allignment with the Kyoto standards and goals. The current bill is almost 500 pages long, and provides for establishment of a federal bureau of Carbon Trading, Regulation, and Enforcement with mandates which some authorities suggest will amount to the largest tax increase in the history of the United States. http://lieberman.senate.gov/documents/amendment.pdf

On July 25, 1997, before the Kyoto Protocol was finalized (although it had been fully negotiated, and a penultimate draft was finished), the U. Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar S. Senate unanimously passed by a 95–0 vote the Byrd-Hagel Resolution (S. Res. 98),[64][65] which stated the sense of the Senate was that the United States should not be a signatory to any protocol that did not include binding targets and timetables for developing as well as industrialized nations or "would result in serious harm to the economy of the United States". On November 12, 1998, Vice President Al Gore symbolically signed the protocol. Events 764 - Tibetan troops occupy Chang'an, the capital of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, for fifteen days Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Albert Arnold Gore Jr (born March 31 1948 is an American environmental Activist, author Businessperson, former Politician, and former Both Gore and Senator Joseph Lieberman indicated that the protocol would not be acted upon in the Senate until there was participation by the developing nations. Joseph Isadore "Joe" Lieberman (born February 24 1942 is the junior United States Senator from Connecticut. [66] The Clinton Administration never submitted the protocol to the Senate for ratification.

The Clinton Administration released an economic analysis in July 1998, prepared by the Council of Economic Advisors, which concluded that with emissions trading among the Annex B/Annex I countries, and participation of key developing countries in the "Clean Development Mechanism" — which grants the latter business-as-usual emissions rates through 2012 — the costs of implementing the Kyoto Protocol could be reduced as much as 60% from many estimates. William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19 1946 served as the forty-second President of the United States Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) The Council of Economic Advisers (CEA is a group of Economists who advise the President of the United States. CDM directs here For other uses see CDM (disambiguation. The Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM) is an arrangement under the 2012 ( MMXII) will be a Leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Other economic analyses, however, prepared by the Congressional Budget Office and the Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration (EIA)[67], demonstrated a potentially large loss to GDP from implementing the Protocol of up to 4. The Congressional Budget Office is a federal agency within the legislative branch of the United States government. The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy The United States Energy Information Administration (EIA created by Congress in 1977, is the independent statistical agency within the U 2% (EIA).

The current President, George W. Bush, has indicated that he does not intend to submit the treaty for ratification, not because he does not support the Kyoto principles, but because of the exemption granted to China (the world's largest emitter of carbon dioxide[68]). George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. Bush also opposes the treaty because of the strain he believes the treaty would put on the economy; he emphasizes the uncertainties which he believes are present in the climate change issue. National and international science academies and professional societies have assessed the current scientific opinion on climate change, in particular recent Global warming. Furthermore, the U. S. is concerned with broader exemptions of the treaty. For example, the U. S. does not support the split between Annex I countries and others. Bush said of the treaty:

This is a challenge that requires a 100% effort; ours, and the rest of the world's. The world's second-largest emitter of greenhouse gases is the People's Republic of China. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Yet, China was entirely exempted from the requirements of the Kyoto Protocol. India and Germany are among the top emitters. Yet, India was also exempt from Kyoto … America's unwillingness to embrace a flawed treaty should not be read by our friends and allies as any abdication of responsibility. To the contrary, my administration is committed to a leadership role on the issue of climate change … Our approach must be consistent with the long-term goal of stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. "[69]

In June 2002, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released the "Climate Action Report 2002". Some observers have interpreted this report as being supportive of the protocol, although the report itself does not explicitly endorse the protocol. At the G-8 meeting in June 2005 administration officials expressed a desire for "practical commitments industrialized countries can meet without damaging their economies". According to those same officials, the United States is on track to fulfill its pledge to reduce its carbon intensity 18% by 2012. Carbon intensity can refer to The ratio of Carbon Dioxide to energy a measure of the "greenness" of different fuels [70] The United States has signed the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, a pact that allows those countries to set their goals for reducing greenhouse gas emissions individually, but with no enforcement mechanism. Aims US President George W Bush called it a "new results-oriented partnership" that he said "will allow our nations to develop and accelerate deployment Supporters of the pact see it as complementing the Kyoto Protocol while being more flexible, but critics have said the pact will be ineffective without any enforcement measures.

The Administration's position is not uniformly accepted in the U. S. For example, Paul Krugman notes that the target 18% reduction in carbon intensity is still actually an increase in overall emissions. Paul Robin Krugman ( born February 28 1953 is an American Economist, Columnist, Author, and Intellectual. Carbon intensity can refer to The ratio of Carbon Dioxide to energy a measure of the "greenness" of different fuels [71] The White House has also come under criticism for downplaying reports that link human activity and greenhouse gas emissions to climate change and that a White House official, former oil industry advocate and current Exxon Mobil officer, Philip Cooney, watered down descriptions of climate research that had already been approved by government scientists, charges the White House denies. The Exxon Mobil Corporation, or ExxonMobil, is an American oil and gas Corporation and a direct descendant of John D Philip A Cooney (born July 16, 1959) is a former member of the administration of President George W [72] Critics point to the Bush administration's close ties to the oil and gas industries. In June 2005, State Department papers showed the administration thanking Exxon executives for the company's "active involvement" in helping to determine climate change policy, including the U. Exxon is a brand of fuel sold by ExxonMobil. History Exxon formally replaced the Esso, Enco, S. stance on Kyoto. Input from the business lobby group Global Climate Coalition was also a factor. The Global Climate Coalition was a group of mainly United States businesses opposing immediate action to reduce Greenhouse gas emissions [73]

In 2002, Congressional researchers who examined the legal status of the Protocol advised that signature of the UNFCCC imposes an obligation to refrain from undermining the Protocol's object and purpose, and that while the President probably cannot implement the Protocol alone; Congress can create compatible laws on its own initiative. [74]

Local governments

As of January 18, 2007, eight Northeastern US states are involved in the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI),[75] which is a state level emissions capping and trading program. Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI, or ReGGIe) is a regional initiative by states in the Northeastern United States region to reduce Greenhouse It is believed that the state-level program will indirectly apply pressure on the federal government by demonstrating that reductions can be achieved without being a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol.

On August 31, 2006, the California Legislature (representing over 33 million Californians) reached an agreement with Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger to reduce the state's greenhouse-gas emissions, which rank at 12th-largest in the world, by 25% by the year 2020. Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The California State Legislature is the state legislature of the U Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger ( German ˌaɐnɔlt aloʏs ˈʃvaɐtsənɛɡɐ born July 30 1947 is an Austrian American Bodybuilder, Actor This resulted in the Global Warming Solutions Act which effectively puts California in line with the Kyoto limitations, but at a date later than the 2008-2012 Kyoto commitment period. The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 is an environmental Law in California, signed into law by Governor of California Arnold

As of December 4, 2007, 740 US cities in 50 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, representing over 76 million Americans support Kyoto after Mayor Greg Nickels of Seattle started a nationwide effort to get cities to agree to the protocol. "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Gregory J "Greg" Nickels (born August 7, 1955) is the 51st and current mayor of Seattle, On October 29, 2007, it was reported that Seattle met their target reduction in 2005, reducing their greenhouse gas emissions by 8 percent since 1990. [76]

Support

Advocates of the Kyoto Protocol state that reducing these emissions is crucially important, as carbon dioxide is causing the earth's atmosphere to heat up. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single This is supported by attribution analysis. See also Global warming, Climate change, Climate change denial Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain

No country has passed national legislation requiring compliance with their treaty obligation. The governments of all of the countries whose parliaments have ratified the Protocol are supporting it. Most prominent among advocates of Kyoto have been the European Union and many environmentalist organizations. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. The United Nations and some individual nations' scientific advisory bodies (including the G8 national science academies) have also issued reports favoring the Kyoto Protocol.

An international day of action was planned for 3 December 2005, to coincide with the Meeting of the Parties in Montreal. Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The planned demonstrations were endorsed by the Assembly of Movements of the World Social Forum. The World Social Forum (WSF is an annual meeting held by members of the Anti-globalization (using the term Globalization in a Doctrinal sense not

A group of major Canadian corporations also called for urgent action regarding climate change, and have suggested that Kyoto is only a first step. [78]

In the United States, there is at least one student group, Kyoto Now!, which aims to use student interest to support pressure towards reducing emissions as targeted by the Kyoto Protocol compliance. Kyoto Now! is a student-led movement at colleges and universities across the USA, through which students hope to make American universities commit to reducing Carbon dioxide

Opposition

Some public policy experts who are skeptical of global warming, although few, see Kyoto as a scheme to either slow the growth of the world's industrial democracies or to transfer wealth to the third world in what they claim is a global socialism initiative. Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Third World is a name given to nations that are generally considered to be underdeveloped economically Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Others argue the protocol does not go far enough to curb greenhouse emissions (Niue, The Cook Islands, and Nauru added notes to this effect when signing the protocol). Niue (niːˈʔuːeɪ/ /ˈnjuːeɪ in English is an Island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. The Cook Islands ( Cook Islands Māori: Kūki 'Āirani) are a self-governing parliamentary democracy in free association with New Zealand. Nauru, officially the Republic of Nauru, is an Island nation in the Micronesian South Pacific. [79]

Some environmental economists have been critical of the Kyoto Protocol. Environmental economics is a subfield of Economics concerned with environmental issues [80][81] [82] Many see the costs of the Kyoto Protocol as outweighing the benefits, some believing the standards which Kyoto sets to be too optimistic, others seeing a highly inequitable and inefficient agreement which would do little to curb greenhouse gas emissions. [83] Finally, some economists as Gwyn Prins and Steve Rayner think that an entirely different approach needs to be followed than the approach suggested by the Kyoto-protocol. [84]

Further, there is controversy surrounding the use of 1990 as a base year, as well as not using per capita emissions as a basis. Countries had different achievements in energy efficiency in 1990. For example, the former Soviet Union and eastern European countries did little to tackle the problem and their energy efficiency was at its worst level in 1990; the year just before their communist regimes fell. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based On the other hand, Japan, as a big importer of natural resources, had to improve its efficiency after the 1973 oil crisis and its emissions level in 1990 was better than most developed countries. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The 1973 oil crisis began on October 17 1973 when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC consisting of the Arab members of However, such efforts were set aside, and the inactivity of the former Soviet Union was overlooked and could even generate big income due to the emission trade. There is an argument that the use of per capita emissions as a basis in the following Kyoto-type treaties can reduce the sense of inequality among developed and developing countries alike, as it can reveal inactivities and responsibilities among countries.

Cost-benefit analysis

Economists have been trying to analyze the overall net benefit of Kyoto Protocol through cost-benefit analysis. Cost-benefit analysis is a term that refers both to a formal discipline used to help appraise or assess the case for a Project or proposal which itself is There is disagreement due to large uncertainties in economic variables. [85] Some of the estimates indicate either that observing the Kyoto Protocol is more expensive than not observing the Kyoto Protocol or that the Kyoto Protocol has a marginal net benefit which exceeds the cost of simply adjusting to global warming. However, a study by De Leo et al. found that "accounting only for local external costs, together with production costs, to identify energy strategies, compliance with the Kyoto Protocol would imply lower, not higher, overall costs. "[86]

The recent Copenhagen consensus project found that the Kyoto Protocol would slow down the process of global warming, but have a superficial overall benefit. Copenhagen Consensus is a project that seeks to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methodologies based on the theory of Welfare economics. Defenders of the Kyoto Protocol argue, however, that while the initial greenhouse gas cuts may have little effect, they set the political precedent for bigger (and more effective) cuts in the future. [87] They also advocate commitment to the precautionary principle. The precautionary principle is a moral and political principle which states that if an action or policy might cause severe or irreversible harm to the public or to the environment in the Critics point out that additional higher curbs on carbon emission are likely to cause significantly higher increase in cost, making such defense moot. Moreover, the precautionary principle could apply to any political, social, economic or environmental consequence, which might have equally devastating effect in terms of poverty and environment, making the precautionary argument irrelevant. The Stern Review (a UK government sponsored report into the economic impacts of climate change) concluded that one percent of global GDP is required to be invested in order to mitigate the effects of climate change, and that failure to do so could risk a recession worth up to twenty percent of global GDP. The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released on October 30, 2006 by economist Lord Stern of Brentford for the [88]

Discount rates

One problem in attempting to measure the "absolute" costs and benefits of different policies to global warming is choosing a proper discount rate. For the interest rate charged to Banks for borrowing short-term funds directly from the Federal Reserve, see Discount window. Over a long time horizon such as that in which benefits accrue under Kyoto, small changes in the discount rate create very large discrepancies between net benefits in various studies. However, this difficulty is generally not applicable to "relative" comparison of alternative policies under a long time horizon. This is because changes in discount rates tend to equally adjust the net cost/benefit of different policies unless there are significant discrepancies of cost and benefit over time horizon.

While it has been difficult to arrive at a scenario under which the net benefits of Kyoto are positive using traditional discounting methods such as the Shadow Price of Capital approach,[89] there is an argument that a much lower discount rate should be utilized; that high rates are biased toward the current generation. This may appear to be a philosophical value judgment, outside the realm of economics, but it could be equally argued that the study of the allocation of resources does include how those resources are allocated over time.

Increase in greenhouse gas emission since 1990

Below is a list of the change in greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 to 2004 for some countries that are part of the Climate Change Convention as reported by the United Nations. [90]

CountryChange in greenhouse gas
Emissions (1990-2004)
excluding LULUCF		Change in greenhouse gas
Emissions (1990-2004)
including LULUCF		EU Assigned Objective
for 2012		Treaty Obligation 2008-2012
Germany-17%-18. Land use, land-use change and Forestry (LULUCF all have impacts on the global Carbon cycle and as such these activities can add or remove Carbon dioxide Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. 2%-21%-8%
Canada+27%+26. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page 6%N/A-6%
Australia+25%+5. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. 2%N/A+8%
Spain+49%+50. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. 4%+15%-8%
Norway+10%-18. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional 7%N/A+1%
New Zealand+21%+17. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island 9%N/A0%
France-0. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. 8%-6. 1%0%-8%
Greece+27%+25. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία 3%+25%-8%
Ireland+23%+22. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world 7%+13%-8%
Japan+6. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. 5%+5. 2%N/A-6%
United Kingdom-14%-58. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located 8%-12. 5%-8%
Portugal+41%+28. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. 9%+27%-8%
EU-15-0. 8%-2. 6%N/A-8%

Below is a table of the changes in CO2 emission of some other countries which are large contributors, but are not required to meet numerical limitations. [91]

CountryChange in greenhouse gas
Emissions (1990-2004)
China+47%
India+55%

Comparing total greenhouse gas emissions in 2004 to 1990 levels, the US emissions were up by 16%,[92] with irregular fluctuations from one year to another but a general trend to increase. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country [93] At the same time, the EU group of 23 (EU-23) Nations had reduced their emissions by 5%. [94] In addition, the EU-15 group of nations (a large subset of EU-23) reduced their emissions by 0. 8% between 1990 and 2004, while emission rose 2. 5% from 1999 to 2004. Part of the increases for some of the European Union countries are still in line with the treaty, being part of the cluster of countries implementation (see objectives in the list above).

As of year-end 2006, the United Kingdom and Sweden were the only EU countries on pace to meet their Kyoto emissions commitments by 2010. While UN statistics indicate that, as a group, the 36 Kyoto signatory countries can meet the 5% reduction target by 2012, most of the progress in greenhouse gas reduction has come from the stark decline in Eastern European countries' emissions after the fall of communism in the 1990s. [95]

Successor

Main article: Post-Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions

In the non-binding 'Washington Declaration' agreed on February 16, 2007, Heads of governments from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol is an extension of the 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC the world's first treaty to attempt to address Global warming by limiting February 2007 Declaration Post-Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissionsOn February 16, 2007, at meeting of the G8+5 Climate Change Dialogue Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa They envisage a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries, and hoped that this would be in place by 2009. Developing countries are countries that haven't reached Western-style standards of democratic government free market economy industrialization social programs and human rights guaranties [96][97]

On June 7, 2007, leaders at the 33rd G8 summit agreed that the G8 nations would 'aim to at least halve global CO2 emissions by 2050'. Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The 33rd G8 summit took place at Kempinski Grand Hotel in Heiligendamm in the old Duchy of Mecklenburg in the Northern German state of Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared The details enabling this to be achieved would be negotiated by environment ministers within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in a process that would also include the major emerging economies. Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries The term emerging markets is used to describe a nation's social or business activity in the process of rapid Industrialization. [98]

A round of climate change talks under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Vienna Climate Change Talks 2007) concluded in 31 August 2007 with agreement on key elements for an effective international response to climate change. The Kyoto Protocol is an extension of the 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC the world's first treaty to attempt to address Global warming by limiting Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. [99]

A key feature of the talks was a United Nations report that showed how energy efficiency could yield significant cuts in emissions at low cost.

The talks are meant to set the stage for a major international meeting to be held in Nusa Dua, Bali, which started on 3 December, 2007. Nusa Dua is an enclave of large international 5-star resorts in south-eastern Bali. Bali is an Indonesian Island located at, the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands, lying between Java to the west and Lombok to [100]

Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate

See also: Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate

The Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate is an agreement between seven Asia-Pacific nations: Australia, Canada, China, India, Japan, South Korea, and the United States. Aims US President George W Bush called it a "new results-oriented partnership" that he said "will allow our nations to develop and accelerate deployment Asia-Pacific or APAC is the area generally regarded as encompassing Littoral East Asia, Southeast Asia and Australasia near the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Between them, these seven countries are responsible for more than half of the world's carbon dioxide emissions.

The partnership had its official launch in January 2006 at a ceremony in Sydney, Australia. The alliance states that member nations have initiated nearly 100 projects aimed at clean energy capacity building and market formation since then. Building on these activities, long-term projects are scheduled to deploy clean energy and environment technologies and services. The pact allows those countries to set arbitrary goals for reducing greenhouse gas emissions individually, without any enforcement mechanism for these goals.

Supporters of the pact see it as "complementing the Kyoto Protocol" whilst being more flexible. Critics have said the pact will be ineffective without any enforcement measures and is a means to undermine the negotiations leading to the Protocol scheduled to replace the current Kyoto Protocol (negotiations started in Montreal in December 2005). U.S. Senator John McCain said the partnership "[amounted] to nothing more than a nice little public relations ploy. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives " [101], while the Economist described the partnership as "patent fig-leaf for the refusal of America and Australia to ratify Kyoto" [102]. The Economist is an English-language weekly news and International affairs publication owned by The Economist Newspaper Ltd and edited in London

See also

References

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  53. ^ GHG DATA 2006 – Highlights from Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions Data for 1990-2004 for Annex I Parties. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2006-10-19). Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. Retrieved on 2007-08-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada.
  54. ^ "New German Rule Could Increase Greenhouse Gas Emissions", New York Times, 2006-06-29. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 512 - A Solar eclipse is recorded by a monastic chronicler in Ireland. Retrieved on 2006-11-01. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi  
  55. ^ Energy White Paper 2003, Department of Trade and Industry, published February 2002, accessed 19 May 2007
  56. ^ New Bill and strategy lay foundations for tackling climate change, Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, published 13 March 2007, accessed 13 March 2007. The Department of Trade and Industry was a United Kingdom government department which was disbanded with the announcement of the creation of the Department for Business The Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra) is the United Kingdom government department responsible for environmental protection
  57. ^ a b c 2005 UK climate change sustainable development indicator and greenhouse gas emissions final figures. DEFRA. The Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra) is the United Kingdom government department responsible for environmental protection Retrieved on 2007-06-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom.
  58. ^ news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3651881.stm. Retrieved on 2007-05-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
  59. ^ Statistics Norway, Strong increase in greenhouse gas emissions
  60. ^ "Russian Government Approves Kyoto Protocol Ratification", mosnews. com, 2004-09-30. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the Retrieved on 2006-11-02. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1570 - A Tidal wave in the North Sea devastates the coast from Holland to Jutland, killing more than 1000  
  61. ^ "Russia forced to ratify Kyoto Protocol to become WTO member", Pravada, 2004-10-26. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 740 - An Earthquake strikes Constantinople, causing much damage and death Retrieved on 2006-11-03. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 644 - Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim Caliph, is killed by a Persian slave in Medina.  
  62. ^ PRESS CONFERENCE WITH PRESIDENTIAL ECONOMIC ADVISER ANDREI ILLARIONOV (2003-10-03). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Retrieved on 2006-11-03. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 644 - Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim Caliph, is killed by a Persian slave in Medina.
  63. ^ United States Country Analysis Brief. US Energy Information Administration (2005). Retrieved on December 5, 2006.
  64. ^ Text of the Byrd-Hagel Resolution (1997-07-25). Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Retrieved on 2006-11-05. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany)
  65. ^ U.S. Senate Roll Call Votes 105th Congress - 1st Session:S.Res. 98 (1997-07-25). Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Retrieved on 2007-01-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1504 - France cedes Naples to Aragon. 1606 - Gunpowder Plot: Guy Fawkes
  66. ^ "Clinton Hails Global Warming Pact", All Politics, CNN, 1997-12-11. Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Retrieved on 2006-11-05. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany)  
  67. ^ Comparing Cost Estimates for the Kyoto Protocol.
  68. ^ BBC.
  69. ^ The Whitehouse (2001-06-11). Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes. "President Bush Discusses Global Climate Change". Press release. A news release, media release, press release or press statement is a written or recorded Communication directed at members of the News Retrieved on 2006-11-05. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany)
  70. ^ Eilperin, Juliet. "Climate Plan Splits U.S. and Europe", Washington Post, 2005-07-02. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival Retrieved on 2006-11-05. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany)  
  71. ^ Krugman, Paul. "Ersatz Climate Policy (requires login)", New York Times. Retrieved on November 15. Events 655 - Battle of Winwaed: Penda of Mercia is defeated by Oswiu of Northumbria.  
  72. ^ "Bush aide 'edited climate papers'", BBC, 2005-06-09. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits Retrieved on 2006-11-07. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat  
  73. ^ Vidal, John. "Revealed - how oil giant influenced Bush", Guardian, 2005-06-08. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable Retrieved on 2006-11-07. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat  
  74. ^ Ackerman, David M. (2002-10-01). See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela. Global Climate Change - Selected Legal Questions About the Kyoto Protocol (pdf). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved on 2006-11-07. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat
  75. ^ Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative. Retrieved on 2006-11-07. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat
  76. ^ The Seattle Times: Seattle meets Kyoto global-warming targets. Retrieved on 2007-10-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II
  77. ^ Mayors Climate Protection Center, List of Cities. Retrieved on 2007-08-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne
  78. ^ "Business leaders call for climate change action", CBC.  
  79. ^ Kyoto protocol status(pdf). UNFCCC. Retrieved on 2006-11-07. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat
  80. ^ Mendelsohn, Robert O. (2005-02-18). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy An Economist's View of the Kyoto Climate Treaty. NPR. Retrieved on 2006-11-07. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat
  81. ^ Hilsenrath, Jon E. . "Environmental Economists Debate Merit of U.S.'s Kyoto Withdrawal", Wall Street Journal, 2001-08-07. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Events 322 BC - Battle of Crannon between Athens and Macedon following the death of Alexander the Great. Retrieved on 2006-11-07. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat  
  82. ^ Gwyn Prins and Steve Rayner calling for radical rethink of Kyoto-protocol approach
  83. ^ The Impact of the Kyoto Protocol on U.S. Economic Growth and Projected Budget Surpluses. Retrieved on 2005-11-15. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 655 - Battle of Winwaed: Penda of Mercia is defeated by Oswiu of Northumbria.
  84. ^ Radical rethinking of approach needed says Steve Rayner and Gwyn Prins
  85. ^ "Economic Effects of a Complex Agreement Depend on Many Assumptions". US Department of Energy. Retrieved on November 15, 2005.
  86. ^ De Leo, Giulio A. ; Luca Rizzi, Andrea Caizzi and Marino Gatto (2001). "Carbon emissions: The economic benefits of the Kyoto Protocol". Nature 413: 478-479. doi:10.1038/35097156. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  87. ^ McKitrick, Ross (2000-09-26). 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar dedicates a Submission to the Joint Standing Committee on Treaties Inquiry into the Kyoto Protocol (pdf). Retrieved on 2006-11-07. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat
  88. ^ Stern, Nicholas (2006-10-30). For the film producer see Nicholas Stern. Nicholas Herbert Stern Baron Stern of Brentford, FBA (born 22 April 1946 Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge. Stern Review: The Economics of Climate Change, Summary of Conclusions (pdf). Retrieved on 2006-11-11. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare
  89. ^ Farber, Daniel A. ; Paul A. Hemmersbaugh (1993). "The Shadow of the Future: Discount Rates, Later Generations, and the Environment". Vanderbilt Law Review 46: 267-304.  
  90. ^ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: Changes in GHG emissions from 1990 to 2004 for Annex I Parties.
  91. ^ International Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Carbon Intensity. The Energy Information Administration.
  92. ^ U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1990 - 2004. Pew Center for Global Climate Change. Retrieved on 2007-01-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy.
  93. ^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: U.S. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reports.
  94. ^ Greenhouse gas emission trends and projections in Europe 2006. European Environment Agency. Retrieved on 2007-01-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy.
  95. ^ Industrial world losing sight of Kyoto target. Retrieved on 2007-05-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
  96. ^ BBC: Politicians sign new climate pact, February 16, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-05-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
  97. ^ Guardian Unlimited: Global leaders reach climate change agreement. Retrieved on 2007-05-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
  98. ^ Breakthrough on climate protection. G8 Summit 2007 Heiligendamm (2007-06-07). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins Retrieved on 2007-06-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins
  99. ^ United Nations (2007-08-31). The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne "Vienna UN conference shows consensus on key building blocks for effective international response to climate change" (PDF). Press release. A news release, media release, press release or press statement is a written or recorded Communication directed at members of the News Retrieved on 2007-10-12. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 539 BC - The army of Cyrus the Great of Persia takes Babylon.
  100. ^ CBC News (2007-12-03). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French "UN climate change conference hails Australia Kyoto signing". Press release. A news release, media release, press release or press statement is a written or recorded Communication directed at members of the News
  101. ^ Amanda Griscom Little, "Pact or Fiction? New Asia-Pacific climate pact is long on PR, short on substance", Grist. org article, August 4, 2005]
  102. ^ "Better late than never: India talks about tackling climate change", The Economist, July 30, 2007

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