| Kashgar Urdu قەشقەر K̡ǝxk̡ǝr 喀什 | |
 | |
 | |
| Country | People's Republic of China |
|---|---|
| Autonomous Region | Xinjiang |
| Population (1999) | |
| - Total | 205,056 |
Kashgar (officially: Kaxgar;[1] Uyghur: قەشقەر/K̡ǝxk̡ǝr; Chinese: 喀什; pinyin: Kāshí,[2] is an oasis city in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. In Political geography and International politics, a country is a Political division of a geographical entity Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES An autonomous area is an area of a Country that has a degree of Autonomy, or freedom from an external authority Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk Uyghur (/ ug-Latn Uyƣurqə/ug-Cyrl Уйғурчә, or / ug-Latn Uyƣur tili/ug-Cyrl Уйғур Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use In Geography, an oasis (plural oases) or Cienega ( Southwestern United States) is an isolated area of vegetation in a Desert, typically Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES In 1999, the population was given as 205,056.
Contents |
Geography
Kashgar is sited west of the Taklamakan Desert at the feet of the Tian Shan mountain range. The Taklamakan Desert (Takelamagan Shamo 塔克拉玛干沙漠 also known as Taklimakan, is a Desert in Central Asia, in the Xinjiang The Tian Shan (天山 Pinyin: Tiān Shān "celestial mountains" also commonly spelled Tien Shan, is a Mountain range located in Central Its coordinates are . It is 1,290 m/4,232 ft above sea level.
Situated at the junction of routes from the valley of the Oxus, from Khokand and Samarkand, Almati, Aksu, and Khotan, the last two leading from China and India, Kashgar has been noted from very early times as a political and commercial centre. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. Kokand (alternative spellings Khokand, Khoqand; Uzbek: Quqon; Russian: Коканд:Куканд/کوکند; Chagatai Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Almaty ( Алматы; formerly known as Alma-Ata ( Алма-Ата) also Verniy, (Верный is the largest city in Kazakhstan Aksu or Akesu (also known as Ak-su, Akshu, Aqsu, Bharuka and Po-lu-chia; ئاقسۇ|Aqsu|Ak̡su China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country
The Kashgar oasis is where both the northern and southern routes from China around the Taklamakan Desert converge. The Taklamakan Desert (Takelamagan Shamo 塔克拉玛干沙漠 also known as Taklimakan, is a Desert in Central Asia, in the Xinjiang It is also almost directly north of Tashkurgan through which traffic passed from Gandhara, in what is now northern Pakistan, and Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan. Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient Jalalabad (Jalalkot ( Pashto: جلالکوټ، جلال اباد) is a city in eastern Afghanistan.
About 200 km west of the present city, just past the present border with Kyrgyztan, the main Silk Road crossed into the head of the Alai Valley from where relatively easy routes led southwest to Balkh or northwest to Ferghana. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Balkh ( - Balḫ) also known as Bactra, was once a major world city but was destroyed entirely by the Mongols. Fergana or Farghana ( Uzbek: Farg'ona, Persian فرغانه, UniPers "Farqāna", Russian: Фергана The present main road now travels northwest through the Torugart pass. Torugart Pass ( (elevation 3752 m / 12310 ft is a pass in the Tian Shan mountain range on the border between the Naryn Province of Kyrgyzstan
The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass. The Karakoram Highway (KKH is the highest paved international road in the world |name = Islamabad|native_name = |nickname = |settlement_type = Capital City |total_type Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Khunjerab Pass ( (el 4693 m/15397 ft is a high Mountain pass in the Karakorum Mountains on the northern border of Pakistan and the Xinjiang Bus routes exist for passenger travel south into Pakistan.
Kyrgyzstan is also accessible from Kashgar, via the Torugart Pass and Irkeshtam Pass; as of summer 2007, daily bus service connects Kashgar with Bishkek's Western Bus Terminal. Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Torugart Pass ( (elevation 3752 m / 12310 ft is a pass in the Tian Shan mountain range on the border between the Naryn Province of Kyrgyzstan [3]
Railways
The South Xinjiang branch of the Lanxin Railway reached Kashgar in December 1999,[4] making it China's westernmost railway station. The Lanxin railway, or Lanzhou–Xinjiang railway ( Traditional Chinese: 蘭新鐵路 Simplified Chinese: 兰新铁路 Pinyin: Lánxīn [5]
In 2007, investigations commenced for the development of a railway line to Pakistan. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Proposals for a rail connection to Osh in Kyrgyzstan have also been discussed at various levels since at least 1996. Osh ( Kyrgyz: Ош) is the second largest city in Kyrgyzstan located in the Fergana Valley in the south of the country and often referred Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан [6]
Name
Kashgar, or Qäshqär, is said to mean variegated houses. The modern Chinese name is Kāshí 喀什, a shortened form of the longer and less-frequently used 喀什噶爾 (Kāshígéěr). A former Chinese name was 疏勒, variously romanized as Su-leh, Sulei, Shule, Shu-le, She-le, Shu-lo or Sha-le, which perhaps represents either an original Solek or Sorak. Alternate romanizations include Cascar and, historically, Cashgar[2].
History
The earliest mention of Kashgar is when the Chinese Han Dynasty envoy traveled the Northern Silk Road to explore lands to the west. The Northern Silk Road is a Prehistoric Trackway in northern China originating in the early capital of Xi'an and extending north of the [7]
Another early mention of Kashgar is during the Former Han (also known as the Western Han Dynasty), when the Chinese conquered the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu), Yutien (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group of states in the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan mountains. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km² The Tian Shan (天山 Pinyin: Tiān Shān "celestial mountains" also commonly spelled Tien Shan, is a Mountain range located in Central This happened in 76 BC. Year 76 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Salome Alexandra becomes queen of Judea
Kashgar does not appear to have been known in the West at this time, but Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a Kasia Regio, possibly exhibiting the name whence Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th Kashgar or Kashi (officially transliterated as Kaxgar in Uyghur; قەشقەر/K̡ǝxk̡ǝr, is an Oasis
The country's people practiced Zoroastrianism and Buddhism before the coming of Islam.
In the Hanshu, or Book of the Former Han, which covers the period between 125 BC and 23 AD, it is recorded that there were 1,510 households, 18,647 people and 2,000 persons able to bear arms. The Book of Han ( is a classic Chinese Historical writing completed in 111 CE covering the history of Western Han from 206 BCE to This article is about the year AD 23 For other uses see 23 (number, 23 (numerology, or 23 (disambiguation. By the time covered by the Hou Hanshu (roughly 25 to 170), it had grown to 21,000 households and had 30,000 men able to bear arms. The Book of the Later Han ( is one of the official Chinese Historical works which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century, using Year 25 was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar.
The Hou Hanshu, or Book of the Later Han, provides a wealth of detail on developments in the region:
"During the time of Emperor Ai 6 BC-1 AD and Emperor Ping 1-5, the principalities of the Western Regions split up and formed fifty-five kingdoms. The Book of the Later Han ( is one of the official Chinese Historical works which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century, using Year 6 BC was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 1 ( I) was a Common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. Year 1 ( I) was a Common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. Year 5 ( V) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Wang Mang, after he usurped the Throne in 9, demoted and changed their kings and marquesses. Wang Mang ( (45 BC&ndashOctober 6 23 Courtesy name Jujun (巨君 was a Han Dynasty official who seized the throne from the Liu family Year 9 ( IX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Following this, the Western Regions became resentful, and rebelled. They, therefore, broke off all relations with the Middle Kingdom and, all together, submitted to the Xiongnu again. The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes
The Xiongnu collected oppressively heavy taxes. The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes The kingdoms were not able to support their demands. In the middle of the Jianwu period 25-55, they each sent envoys to ask if they could submit to the Middle Kingdom, and to express their desire for a Protector General. Year 25 was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 55 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Emperor Guangwu 25-57, decided that because the Empire was not yet settled [after a long period of civil war], he had no time for outside affairs, and [therefore] finally refused his consent. Year 57 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar.
In the meantime, the Xiongnu became weaker. The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes The king of Suoju (Yarkand), named Xian, wiped out several kingdoms. Yarkent (Yarkand County ( Chinese 莎車县 Pinyin: Shāchē; يەكەن|Yerkent|Yərkənt; Turkish: Yerkent which means 'ground city' also After Xian’s death, they began to attack and fight each other. Xiao Yuan, Jingjue (Niya), Ronglu (south of Niya), and Qiemo (Charchan) were annexed by Shanshan (the region of Lop Nor, with the capital near modern Ruoqiang or Kharghalik). The Qiemo County, also known as Cherchen or Qarqan, is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and is under the administration of the Bayin'gholin Qule (south of Keriya) and Pishan (modern Pishan or Guma) were conquered by Yutian (Khotan), which completely occupied them. Yuli, Danhuan, Guhu, and Wutanzili (along the route north of the Tianshan mountains) were wiped out by Jushi (Turfan/Jimasa). Turfan or Tulufan (تۇرپان|Turpan|Turpan Modern Chinese: 吐魯番, Pinyin: Tǔlǔfān is an Oasis city in the Later these kingdoms were re-established.
During the Yongping period 58-75, the Northern Scoundrels (= the Northern Xiongnu) forced several countries to help them plunder the commanderies and districts of Hexi. Year 58 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 75 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The gates of the towns stayed shut in broad daylight. "
And, more particularly in reference to Kashgar itself, including the only historical reference to Kushan involvement in the oasis, is the following record:
"In the sixteenth Yongping year of Emperor Ming 73, Jian, the king of Qiuci (Kucha), attacked and killed Cheng, the king of Shule (Kashgar). Year 73 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Kucha or Kuche (also Kuçar, Kuchar) Uyghur ( كۇچار) Chinese Simplified 库车; Traditional 庫車 Then he appointed the Qiuci (Kucha) Marquis of the Left, Douti, King of Shule (Kashgar).
In winter 73, the Han sent the Major Ban Chao who captured and bound Douti. Year 73 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Control of the Tarim Basin Ban Chao like his predecessors Huo Qubing and Wei Qing from the earlier-half of the Han Dynasty before him is said to He appointed Zhong, the son of the elder brother of Cheng, to be king of Shule (Kashgar). Zhong later rebelled. (Ban) Chao attacked and beheaded him. "
The Kushans
The Hou Hanshu gives the only historical record of Yuezhi or Kushan involvement in the oasis:
"During the Yuanchu period (114-120) in the reign of Emperor An, Anguo, the king of Shule (Kashgar), exiled his maternal uncle Chenpan to the Yuezhi (Kushans) for some offence. The Yuezhi or Rouzhi ( Chinese: 月支 Pinyin: yuè zhī or ròu zhī; also 月氏 Pinyin: yuè shì The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The king of the Yuezhi became very fond of him. Later, Anguo died without leaving a son. His mother directed the government of the kingdom. She agreed with the people of the country to put Yifu (lit. 'Posthumous Child'), who was the son of a full younger brother of Chenpan on the throne as king of Shule (Kashgar). Chenpan heard of this and appealed to the Yuezhi (Kushan) king, saying:
“Anguo had no son. The Yuezhi or Rouzhi ( Chinese: 月支 Pinyin: yuè zhī or ròu zhī; also 月氏 Pinyin: yuè shì The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 His relative (Yifu) is weak. If one wants to put on the throne a member of (Anguo's) mother’s family, I am Yifu's paternal uncle, it is I who should be king. ”
The Yuezhi (Kushans) then sent soldiers to escort him back to Shule (Kashgar). The people had previously respected and been fond of Chenpan. Besides, they dreaded the Yuezhi (Kushans). They immediately took the seal and ribbon from Yifu and went to Chenpan, and made him king. Yifu was given the title of Marquis of the town of Pangao [90 li, or 37 km, from Shule].
Then Suoju (Yarkand) continued to resist Yutian (Khotan), and put themselves under Shule (Kashgar). Thus Shule (Kashgar), became powerful and a rival to Qiuci (Kucha) and Yutian (Khotan).
In the second Yongjian year (127), during Emperor Shun’s reign, Chenpan sent an envoy to respectfully present offerings. The Emperor bestowed on Chenpan the title of Great Commandant-in-Chief for the Han. Chenxun, who was the son of his elder brother, was appointed Temporary Major of the Kingdom.
In the fifth year (130), Chenpan sent his son to serve the Emperor and, along with envoys from Dayuan (Ferghana) and Suoju (Yarkand), brought tribute and offerings.
(From an earlier part of the text comes the following addition): "In the first Yangjia year (132), Xu You sent the king of Shule (Kashgar), Chenpan, who with 20,000 men, attacked and defeated Yutian (Khotan). He beheaded several hundred people, and released his soldiers to plunder freely. He replaced the king [of Jumi] by installing Chengguo from the family of [the previous king] Xing, and then he returned. "
(Then the first passage continues):
"In the second Yangjia year (133), Chenpan again made offerings (including) a lion and zebu cattle.
Then, during Emperor Ling's reign, in the first Jianning year [168], the king of Shule (Kashgar) and Commandant-in-Chief for the Han (i. e. presumably Chenpan), was shot while hunting by the youngest of his paternal uncles, Hede. Hede named himself king.
In the third year (170), Meng Tuo, the Inspector of Liangzhou, sent the Provincial Officer Ren She, commanding five hundred soldiers from Dunhuang, with the Wuji Major Cao Kuan, and Chief Clerk of the Western Regions, Zhang Yan, brought troops from Yanqi (Karashahr), Qiuci (Kucha), and the Nearer and Further States of Jushi (Turfan and Jimasa), altogether numbering more than 30,000, to punish Shule (Kashgar). Karasahr or Yanqi (also Karashahr, meaning 'black city' in Uyghur languages They attacked the town of Zhenzhong [Arach – near Maralbashi] but, having stayed for more than forty days without being able to subdue it, they withdrew. Following this, the kings of Shule (Kashgar) killed one another repeatedly while the Imperial Government was unable to prevent it.
Northeast [from Shule] you pass through Weitou (Akqi), Wensu (Wushi or Uch Turfan), Gumo (Aksu), Qiuci (Kucha), and arrive at Yanqi (Karashahr). "[8]
Three Kingdoms to the Sui
These centuries are marked by the general silence on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin in general.
The Weilue, composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as dependencies of Kashgar: the kingdom of Zhenzhong (Arach?), the kingdom of Suoju (Yarkand), the kingdom of Jieshi, the kingdom of Qusha, the kingdom of Xiye (Khargalik), the kingdom of Yinai (Tashkurghan), the kingdom of Manli (modern Karasul), the kingdom of Yire (Mazar – also known as Tágh Nák and Tokanak), the kingdom of Yuling, the kingdom of Juandu (‘Tax Control’ – near modern Irkeshtam), the kingdom of Xiuxiu (‘Excellent Rest Stop’ – near Karakavak), and the kingdom of Qin.
However, much of the information on the Western Regions contained in the Weilue seems to have ended roughly about (170), near the end of Han power. So, we can't be sure that this is a reference to the state of affairs during the Cao Wei (220-265), or whether it refers to the situation before the civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and came to be divided into three separate kingdoms. Events By Place Roman Empire The Goths invade Asia Minor and the Balkans. Events By Place Roman Empire Gallienus repels the invasion of the Goths in the Balkans.
The Sanguoshi, ch. 30 says that after the beginning of the Wei Dynasty (220) the states of the Western Regions did not arrive as before, except for the larger ones such as Kucha, Khotan, Kangju, Wusun, Kashgar, Yuezhi, Shanshan and Turfan, who are said to have come to present tribute every year, as in Han times. Cao Wei ( was one of the empires that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period Events By Place Roman Empire The Goths invade Asia Minor and the Balkans. Kucha or Kuche (also Kuçar, Kuchar) Uyghur ( كۇچار) Chinese Simplified 库车; Traditional 庫車 Kangju (Chinese 康居 was the name of an ancient people and the kingdom they established in central Asia The Wusun (烏孫 were a nomadic Turkic speaking people who according to the Chinese histories originally lived to the northwest of China near the Yuezhi The Yuezhi or Rouzhi ( Chinese: 月支 Pinyin: yuè zhī or ròu zhī; also 月氏 Pinyin: yuè shì ----------------------------------------- Shanshan ( is the Chinese name for a kingdom that existed roughly from 200 BCE-1000 CE at the north-eastern end of the Taklamakan Turfan or Tulufan (تۇرپان|Turpan|Turpan Modern Chinese: 吐魯番, Pinyin: Tǔlǔfān is an Oasis city in the
In 270, four states from the Western Regions were said to have presented tribute: Karashahr, Turfan, Shanshan, and Kucha. Events By Place Roman Empire Quintillus briefly holds power over the Roman Empire and is succeeded by Aurelian. Karasahr or Yanqi (also Karashahr, meaning 'black city' in Uyghur languages Turfan or Tulufan (تۇرپان|Turpan|Turpan Modern Chinese: 吐魯番, Pinyin: Tǔlǔfān is an Oasis city in the ----------------------------------------- Shanshan ( is the Chinese name for a kingdom that existed roughly from 200 BCE-1000 CE at the north-eastern end of the Taklamakan Kucha or Kuche (also Kuçar, Kuchar) Uyghur ( كۇچار) Chinese Simplified 库车; Traditional 庫車 Some wooden documents from Niya seem to indicate that contacts were also maintained with Kashgar and Khotan also had contact about this time.
In 422, according to the Songshu, ch. Events By Topic Religion September 10 — Pope Celestine I succeeds Pope Boniface I as the 98, the king of Shanshan, Bilong, came to the court and "the thirty-six states in the Western Regions" all swore their allegiance and presented tribute. It must be assumed that these 36 states included Kashgar.
The "Songji" of the Zizhi Tongjian records that in the 5th month of 435, nine states: Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turfan and Sute all came to the Wei court. The Zizhi Tongjian ( was a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography.
In 439, according to the Weishu, ch. Events By Place Western Roman Empire Licinia Eudoxia, wife of the Emperor Valentinian III, is granted the title of ''Augusta'' 4A, Shanshan, Kashgar and Karashahr sent envoys to present tribute.
According to the Weishu, ch. 102, Chapter on the Western Regions, the kingdoms of Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turfan and Sute all began sending envoys to present tribute in the Taiyuan reign period (435-440). For the article on the Movie camera, see Arriflex 435. Events By Place Western Roman Empire August 3 - Events By Place Western Roman Empire Geiseric, king of the Vandals, captures Sicily.
In 453 Kashgar sent envoys to present tribute (Weishu, ch. Events By Place Europe Theodoric II succeeds his brother Thorismund as king of the Visigoths. 5), and again in 455. Events By Place Western Roman Empire March 16 — Valentinian III is murdered by former soldiers of Aëtius, in revenge
An embassy sent during the reign of Wencheng Di (452-466) from the king of Kashgar presented a supposed sacred relic of the Buddha; a dress which was incombustible. Events By Place Western Roman Empire Attila, king of the Huns, invades Italy. Events By Place Eastern Roman Empire Emperor Leo I repels the Hun invasion of Dacia.
In 507 Kashgar, is said to have sent envoys in both the 9th and 10th months (Weishu, ch. For the area code see Area code 507 Events By Place Europe Battle of Vouillé: Clovis I 8).
In 512, Kashgar sent envoys in the 1st and 5th months. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Emperor Anastasius I ends a period of moderate eclectic policy and starts strongly favoring his own (Weishu, ch. 8).
Early in the 6th century Kashgar is included among the many territories controlled by the Yeda or Hephthalite Huns, but their empire collapsed at the onslaught of the Western Turks between 563 and 567 who then probably gained control over Kashgar and most of the states in the Tarim Basin. The Hephthalites or White Huns were a Central Asian Nomadic confederation whose precise origins and composition remain obscure Events By Place Byzantine Empire Justinian I re-consecrates Hagia Sophia after its dome is rebuilt Events By Place Europe Liuva I succeeds Athanagild as king of the Visigoths. The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km²
The Tang Dynasty
The opening of the Tang Dynasty, in 618, saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Events By Place Asia The Sui Dynasty ends and the Tang Dynasty begins in China.
In 635 the Tang Annals report an embassy from the king of Kashgar. Events By Topic Religion Saint Aidan founds Lindisfarne in Northumbria, England In 639 there was a second embassy bringing products of Kashgar as a token of submission.
Xuan Zang passed through Kashgar (which he calls Ka-sha) in 644 on his return journey from India to China. See also Xuanzang (fictional character Xuanzang ( pronounced Shwan-dzang) was a famous Chinese Buddhist Monk, scholar traveler Events By Place Asia The Tang dynasty of China begins the invasion of Goguryo. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, was active in Kashgar. Xuan Zang records that they flattened their babies heads, were ill-favoured, tattooed their bodies and had green eyes. He said they had abundant crops, fruits and flowers, wove fine woollen stuffs and rugs, their writing had been copied from India but their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere believers in Buddhism and there were some hundreds of monasteries with more than 10,000 followers, all members of the Sarvastivadin School. Sarvastivada is an early school of Buddhism that held to 'the existence of all Dharmas in the past present and future the 'three times'
Contemporaneously, Nestorian Christians were establishing bishoprics at Herat, Merv and Samarkand, whence they subsequently proceeded to Kashgar, and finally to China itself. Nestorius Nestorius (c 386 &ndashc 451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. Merv ( Russian: Мерв from Persian: مرو Marv, sometimes transliterated Marw or Mary; cf Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of
In 646, when the Turkish Kagan asked for the hand of a Chinese princess, the Emperor claimed Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, Karashahr and Sarikol as a marriage gift, but this was not to happen.
In a series of campaigns between 652 and 658, with the help of the Uyghurs, the Chinese finally defeated the Western Turk tribes and took control of all their domains, including the Tarim Basin kingdoms. Events By Place Europe Rodoald succeeds his father Rothari as king of the Lombards. Events By place Europe The Union of Slavic Tribes falls apart after King Samo 's death
In 662 a rebellion broke out in the Western Regions and a Chinese army sent to control it was badly defeated by the Tibetans south of Kashgar. Events The regent Grimuald usurps the kingship of the Lombards, driving Perctarit into exile and killing Godepert.
After another defeat of the Chinese forces in 670, the Tibetans gained control of the whole region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8 and retained possession of it until 692, when China regained control of all their former territories, and retained it for the next fifty years. Events By Place Europe On the death of his brother Clotaire Childeric II becomes king of all of the Frankish kingdoms ( Austrasia Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European Events By Place Asia The Arabs conquer Armenia. Leontios leading a substantial Byzantine army
In 722 Kashgar sent 4,000 troops to assist the Chinese to force the "Tibetans out of "Little Bolu" or Gilgit. Events By Place Americas 3 January — K'inich Ahkal Mo' Naab III takes the throne of the Maya state of Palenque Gilgit ( Urdu: گلگت) is the capital city of the Northern Areas, Pakistan and a Tehsil (headquarters of Gilgit District
In 728, the king of Kashgar was awarded a brevet by the Chinese emperor. Events By Place Europe Liutprand King of the Lombards occupies all of the exarchate.
In 739, the Tangshu relates that the governor of the Chinese garrison in Kashgar, with the help of Ferghana, was interfering in the affairs of the Turgash tribes as far as Talas. Events By Place Europe Charles Martel drives the Moors out of France.
In 751 the Chinese suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Arabs in Talas; a blow from which they never fully recovered. Events By Place Europe Pepin the Short is elected as king of the Franks by the Frankish nobility marking the end of the The Battle of Talas in 751 CE was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty for control The Tibetans cut all communication between China and the West in 766. Events By Topic Religion November 16 — Nicetas is appointed Patriarch of Constantinople.
Soon after the Chinese pilgrim monk Wukong passed through Kashgar in 753. Event By Place Asia Samarkand is conquered by Arabs The town of Staraja Ladoga is founded in Russia. He again reached Kashgar on his return trip from India in 786 and mentions a Chinese deputy governor as well as the local king. For the processors see 80786 - 7th generation x86 like Athlon and Intel Pentium 4.
The Arab invasions
In the 8th century came the Arab invasion from the west, and we find Kashgar and Turkestan lending assistance to the reigning queen of Bokhara, to enable her to repel the enemy. The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Turkestan (literally meaning "Land of the Turks" is a region in Central Asia, which today is largely inhabited by Turkic peoples. Bukhara (Buxoro Бухоро بُخارا Бухара also spelled as Bukhoro and Bokhara, from the Soghdian βuxārak ("lucky But although the Muslim religion from the very commencement sustained checks, it nevertheless made its weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the north and east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It was not, however, till the 10th century that Islam was established at Kashgar, under the Uyghur kingdom.
The Uyghurs
Modern Uyghurs are the descendants of ancient Turkic tribes including Uyghurs and ancient caucasian inhabitants of Tarim basin. The Uyghur (also spelled Uygur, Uighur, Uigur, Uyghur: ئۇيغۇر) are a Turkic people of Central Asia. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan, the most celebrated prince of this line, was converted to Islam late in the 10th century and the Uyghur kingdom lasted until 1120 but was distracted by complicated dynastic struggles. In 934, the Uyghur king Satuq Boghra Khan, was one of the first Turks (he was also of Tocharian, paternal origine to convert to The Uyghurs employed an alphabet based upon the Syriac and borrowed from the Nestorian missionaries, but after converting to Islam widely used also an arabic script. See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language Nestorius Nestorius (c 386 &ndashc 451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern They spoke a dialect of Turkish preserved in the Kudatku Bilik, a moral treatise composed in 1065. The Kutadgu Bilig, or Qutadğu Bilig (kuːˈtɑːdɡuː ˈbɪlɪk in English proposed Middle Turkic qʊtaðˈɢʊ bɪˈlɪɡ is a Karakhanid
The Mongols
The Uyghur kingdom was destroyed by an invasion of the Kara-Khitai, another Turkish tribe pressing westwards from the Chinese frontier, who in their turn were swept away in 1219 by Genghis Khan. This article refers to the Khitan Khanate. For the Turkic state see Kara-Khanid Khanate. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder His invasion gave a decided check to the progress of the Muslim creed, but on his death, and during the rule of the Jagatai Khans, who became converts to that faith, it began to reassert its ascendancy.
Marco Polo visited the city, which he calls Cascar, about 1273-4 and recorded the presence of numerous Nestorian Christians, who had their own churches. Marco Polo ( September 15 1254 – January 9 1324 at earliest but no later than June 1325 was a Venetian trader and explorer Nestorius Nestorius (c 386 &ndashc 451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern
In 1389–1390 Timur ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening country. Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among Andijan ( Andijon in Uzbek also Andizhan is the fourth-largest city in Uzbekistan, and the capital of the Andijan Province. Kashgar endured a troubled time, and in 1514, on the invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed by Mirza Ababakar, who with the aid of ten thousand men built a new fort with massive defences higher up on the banks of the Tuman river. Sultan Said Khan ruled the state of Yarkand ( mamlakati Yarkand) in Uyghurstan / Eastern Turkestan from September 1514 to July 1533 Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat (died after 1514 was a ruler in eastern Central Asia an amir of the Dughlat tribe The dynasty of the Jagatai Khans collapsed in 1572 with the division of the country among rival factions; soon after, two powerful Khoja factions, the White and Black Mountaineers (Ak Taghliq or Afaqi, and Kara Taghliq or Ishaqi), arose whose differences and war-making gestures, with the intermittent episode of the Oirats of Dzungaria, make up much of recorded history in Kashgar until 1759. Khwāja or Khoja, a Persian word literally meaning 'master' was used in Central Asia as a title of the descendants of the famous Central Asian Naqshbandi Ak Tagh, literally "White Mountain" in Chagatai Turki, was a faction of Turkestani Naqshbandi Sufism originated in Samarkand This article deals with the Oirat ethnic group For the obsolete term for the Turkic Altays see Altay people. Dzungaria is a geographical region in northwest China corresponding to the northern half of Xinjiang.
Chinese Reconquest
In 1759, a Chinese army from Ili (Kulja) invaded Turkistan and consolidated their authority by settling amid Chinese emigrants in the vicinity of a Manchu garrison. Yining ( Uighur غۇلجا Ghulja also Ili Yili Kuldja Kulja Ghulja Ining Kulca is a county-level city in western Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region of northwestern Turkestan (literally meaning "Land of the Turks" is a region in Central Asia, which today is largely inhabited by Turkic peoples. The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in
The Chinese had thoughts of pushing their conquests towards Transoxiana and Samarkand, the chiefs of which sent to ask assistance of the Afghan king Ahmed Shah Abdali. Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Ahmad Shāh Durrānī (c1723-1773 ( also known as Ahmad Shāh Abdālī ( احمد شاه ابدالي) and born as Ahmad Khān Abdālī, This monarch dispatched an ambassador to Beijing to demand the restitution of the Muslim states of Central Asia, but the representative was not well received, and Ahmed Shah was too closely aligned with the Sikhs to attempt to enforce his demands by arms. The law of restitution is the law of gains-based recovery It is to be contrasted with the law of compensation, which is the law of loss-based recovery Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. The Chinese continued to hold Kashgar with occasional interruptions from Muslim-centered groups. One of the most serious of these occurred in 1827, when the territory was and the city taken by Jahanghir Khoja; Chang-lung, however, the Chinese general of Ili, regained possession of Kashgar and the other rebellious cities in 1828. Jahanghir Khoja, Jāhangīr Khwāja, or Jihangir Khoja (张格尔 Zhangge'er was a member of the influential East Turkestan Āfāqī khoja A revolt in 1829 under Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir resulted in the concession of several important trade privileges to the Muslims of the district of Alty Shahr (the six cities), as it was then called.
The area then enjoyed relative calm until 1846 under the rule of Zahir-ud-din, the local Uyghur governor, but in that year a new Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led to his accession to rulership of the city as an authoritarian ruler. Khwāja or Khoja, a Persian word literally meaning 'master' was used in Central Asia as a title of the descendants of the famous Central Asian Naqshbandi His reign, however, was brief, for at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The Khanate of Kokand ( Uzbek: Qo'qon Xonligi) was a state in Central Asia that existed from 1709&ndash1876 within the territory of modern Uzbekistan The last of the Khoja revolts (1857) was of about equal duration, and took place under Wali-Khan, who murdered the famous traveler Adolf Schlagintweit. Wali Khan was a member of the Ak Taghliq clan of East Turkestan Khojas, who invaded Kashgaria from Kokand on several occasions in the 1850s Adolf Schlagintweit ( 9 January 1829 - 26 August 1857) was a German explorer of Central Asia.
The 1862 revolt
The great Tungani (Dungani) revolt, or insurrection of the Chinese Muslims, which broke out in 1862 in Gansu, spread rapidly to Dzungaria and through the line of towns in the Tarim Basin. The Dungan Revolt was a religious war It also known as the Hui Minorities' War and the Muslim Rebellion. Islam in China has a rich heritage China has some of the oldest Muslim history dating back to as early as 650 when the uncle of ( is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. Dzungaria is a geographical region in northwest China corresponding to the northern half of Xinjiang. The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km²
The Tungani troops in Yarkand rose, and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand Chinese, while the inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a Kyrgyz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan, the heir of Jahanghir, and his general Yakub Beg (surnamed the Atalik Ghazi), these being dispatched at Sadik's request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they could to aid his Muslim friends in Kashgar. Yarkent (Yarkand County ( Chinese 莎車县 Pinyin: Shāchē; يەكەن|Yerkent|Yərkənt; Turkish: Yerkent which means 'ground city' also The Kyrgyz (also spelled Kirgiz, Kirghiz) are a Turkic Ethnic group found primarily in Kyrgyzstan. Muhammad Yaqub Bek (1820 – May 30, 1877) ( Uzbek:Муҳаммад Яқуб Бек was an Uzbek adventurer who became head of the kingdom `Alimqul (also spelt Alimkul, Alim quli, Alim kuli) (ca 1833 - 1865 was the warlord in Kokand Khanate, and its de facto ruler in 1863-65
Sadik Beg soon repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched against Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand. Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but Yakub Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, made himself master of Yangi Shahr, Yangi-Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and eventually became sole master of the country, Buzurg Khan proving himself totally unfit for the post of ruler. Yéngisar County (英吉沙县 yīng jí shā xiàn يېڭىسار ناھىيىسى|Yéngisar Nahiyisi|Yengisar Nah̡iyisi is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Yarkent (Yarkand County ( Chinese 莎車县 Pinyin: Shāchē; يەكەن|Yerkent|Yərkənt; Turkish: Yerkent which means 'ground city' also
With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg (1820-1877), the manufacturing industries of Kashgar are supposed to have declined.
Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim Basin remained under Yakub Beg's rule until May 1877, when he died at Korla and Kashgaria was reconquered by the Qing dynasty. Korla or Kuerle ( Mongolian: Хорл Simplified Chinese: 库尔勒 Traditional Chinese: 庫爾勒 Pinyin: Kù'ěrlè is a mid-sized Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China
Sights
- The huge Id Kah Mosque, the largest mosque in China, is located in the heart of the city. For the mosque in Afghanistan see Id Gah Mosque The Id Kah mosque ( is a Mosque located in Kashgar, Xinjiang A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger
- An 18 metre (59 ft) high statue of former Chinese leader Mao Zedong. A statue is a Sculpture in the round representing a person or persons an animal or an event normally full-length as opposed to a bust, and at least close to life-size The word leadership can refer to Those entities that perform one or more acts of leading Mao Zedong ( 26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Military and political leader who led It is one of the few large-scale statues of Mao Zedong remaining in China.
- The tomb of Abakh Khoja, considered the holiest Muslim site in Xinjiang. Abakh Khoja, Apak Khoja, or more properly Āfāq Khwāja (? - 1693/94 was a religious and political leader in Kashgaria (in modern-day southern A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Built in the 17th century, the tiled mausoleum 5 km northeast of the city centre also contains the tombs of five generations of his family. Generation (from the Greek γενεά) also known as procreation, is the act of producing Offspring. Abakh was a powerful ruler, controlling Khotan, Yarkand, Korla, Kucha and Aksu as well as Kashgar. A ruler, or rule, is an instrument used in Geometry, Technical drawing and engineering/building to measure distances and/or to rule straight Yarkent (Yarkand County ( Chinese 莎車县 Pinyin: Shāchē; يەكەن|Yerkent|Yərkənt; Turkish: Yerkent which means 'ground city' also Korla or Kuerle ( Mongolian: Хорл Simplified Chinese: 库尔勒 Traditional Chinese: 庫爾勒 Pinyin: Kù'ěrlè is a mid-sized Kucha or Kuche (also Kuçar, Kuchar) Uyghur ( كۇچار) Chinese Simplified 库车; Traditional 庫車 Aksu or Akesu (also known as Ak-su, Akshu, Aqsu, Bharuka and Po-lu-chia; ئاقسۇ|Aqsu|Ak̡su Among some Uyghur Muslims, he was considered a prophet, second only to Mohammed in importance. Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets
 The tomb of Abakh Khoja |  Mosque next to the tomb of Abakh Khoja. For the mosque in Afghanistan see Id Gah Mosque The Id Kah mosque ( is a Mosque located in Kashgar, Xinjiang Abakh Khoja, Apak Khoja, or more properly Āfāq Khwāja (? - 1693/94 was a religious and political leader in Kashgaria (in modern-day southern |  Mao statue in the city square of Kashgar. |
Demographics
Kashgar is home to an important Muslim community (Uyghurs). A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The area does not have the same high level of Han Chinese immigration as does Ürümqi, Xinjiang's largest city, which is strongly industrial. Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. Ürümchi or Ürümqi, sometimes spelled Wulumuqi (English uːˈruːmtʃi ئۈرۈمچی|Ürümchi) is the capital of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk
Economics & society
The city has a very important Sunday market. Sao Paulo Stock Exchangejpg|thumb| Virtual market arena where buyer and seller are not present and trade via intemediates and electronical information Thousands of farmers pour in from the surrounding fertile lands with a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. Kashgar's livestock market is also very lively.
Silk and carpets made in Hotan are sold at bazaars, as well as local crafts, such as copper teapots and wooden jewelry boxes.
Kashgarlı Mahmut (Mahmut from Kashgar) have written the first Turkish - Arabic Exemplary Dictionary called Divan-ı Lugat-it Türk
The movie The Kite Runner was filmed in Kashgar. The Kite Runner ( - Kāğazparān Bāz or بادبادکباز Bādbādak-bāz is a 2007 Academy Award -nominated film directed by
Footnotes
- ^ Guójiā cèhuìjú dìmíng yánjiūsuǒ 国家测绘局地名研究所: Zhōngguó dìmínglù 中国地名录 (Gazetteer of China; Beijing, Zhōngguó dìtú chūbǎnshè 中国地图出版社 1997); ISBN 7-5031-1718-4, p. 117.
- ^ Also spelled Cascar in older books, e. g. René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, ISBN 0-813-51304-9, p. 360. ]
- ^ Bus schedule posted in Bishkek's Western Bust Terminal. Seen in September 2007.
- ^ Issue 21 – Analysis – Fear and Loathing split Xinjiang’s would-be Las Vegas
- ^ China Rail Map
- ^ Kyrgyzstan Daily Digest
- ^ Silk Road, North China, C.Michael Hogan, the Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham
- ^ Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. " 2nd Draft Edition. [1]
References
- Boulger, Demetrius Charles The Life of Yakoob Beg, Athalik Ghazi and Badaulet, Ameer of Kashgar (London: W. H. Allen & Co. ) 1878
- Gordon, T. E. 1876. The Roof of the World: Being the Narrative of a Journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian Frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir. Edinburgh. Edmonston and Douglas. Reprint: Ch’eng Wen Publishing Company. Taipei. 1971.
- Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilüe 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation. [3]
- Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N. 1979. China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. E. J. Brill, Leiden.
- Kim, Hodong Holy war in China. The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864-1877 (Stanford University Press) 2004
- Puri, B. N. Buddhism in Central Asia, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, 1987. (2000 reprint).
- Shaw, Robert. 1871. Visits to High Tartary, Yarkand and Kashgar. Reprint with introduction by Peter Hopkirk, Oxford University Press, 1984. ISBN 0-19-583830-0.
- Stein, Aurel M. 1907. Ancient Khotan: Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan, 2 vols. Clarendon Press. Oxford. [4]
- Stein, Aurel M. 1921. Serindia: Detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China, 5 vols. London & Oxford. Clarendon Press. Reprint: Delhi. Motilal Banarsidass. 1980. [5]
- Yu, Taishan. 2004. A History of the Relationships between the Western and Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Western Regions. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 131 March, 2004. Dept. of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania.
See also
Further reading
- D'Arcy Brown, Liam (2003). Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Mount Imeon is an ancient name for the Central Asian complex of mountain ranges comprising the present Hindu Kush, Pamir and Tian Shan, extending Green Dragon, Sombre Warrior: travels to China's extremes. London: John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-6038-1
- Thubron, Colin (2007). Shadow of the Silk Road. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-123172-8
External links
- Kashgar travel guide from Wikitravel
- Kashgar government website
- Kashgar Travel Pictures
- Silk Road Seattle (Many resources including a number of full-text historical works including the Travels of Benedict Göez)
- Texts at Silk Road Seattle (A number of on-line historical texts)
- [6]
- [7](Contains an interesting short article, "Nests of the Great Game spies", with photos of the former British and Russian consulates. Wikitravel is a Web -based project "to create a free, complete up-to-date and reliable worldwide travel guide. T. Digby, Shanghai Star. Shanghai Star (上海英文星报 is a weekly English-language newspaper published in Shanghai, China. 2002-05-09)
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