Justinian I
Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire
Justinian depicted on one of the famous mosaics of the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna
Reign	9 August 527 - 13 or 14 November 565
Full name	Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus
Born	c. This is a list of the Emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire by modern historians The Church or Basilica of San Vitale — styled an " ecclesiastical basilica " in the Roman Catholic Church though it is not of architectural basilica Ravenna is a City and Comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. Events 48 BC - Caesar's civil war: Battle of Pharsalus - Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus For the political lobbying groups see 527 groups Events By Place Byzantine Empire April 1 — Byzantine Events 1533 - Conquistadors from Spain under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro arrive in Cajamarca, Inca Events By Place Byzantine Empire November 14 — Justin II succeeds Justinian I as Emperor 482
Birthplace	Tauresium, province of Dardania
Died	13 or 14 November 565
Place of death	Constantinople
Predecessor	Justin I
Successor	Justin II
Consort	Theodora
Dynasty	Justinian Dynasty

Justinian I or Justinian the Great (Latin: Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus, Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; 482/483 – November 13 or November 14, 565) was Eastern Roman Emperor from 527 until his death, and second member of the Dynasty, after his uncle Justin I. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Byzantine emperor Zeno I issues the Henotikon, an attempt to reconcile Tauresium is a fortified settlement from the Early Byzantine period. The Dardani ( Ancient Greek Δαρδάνιοι were a Thraco-Illyrian tribe Events 1533 - Conquistadors from Spain under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro arrive in Cajamarca, Inca Events By Place Byzantine Empire November 14 — Justin II succeeds Justinian I as Emperor Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Flavius Iustinus (c 450&ndash August 1, 527) known in English as Justin I, was an Byzantine Emperor (518&ndash527 who rose through the ranks Flavius Iustinus (Iunior Augustus (c 520 - 578 was Eastern Roman emperor from 565 to 578 Theodora ( Greek: Θεοδώρα (c 500 - June 28 548) was empress of the Byzantine Empire and the wife of Emperor Justinian The Justinian Dynasty is a family who ruled over the Byzantine Empire from 518 to 602. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Events By Place Byzantine Empire Byzantine emperor Zeno I issues the Henotikon, an attempt to reconcile Events By Place Byzantine Empire Due to Zeno I 's Monophysite sympathies general Illus and Verina, mother-in-law Events 1002 - English king Ethelred orders the killing of all Danes in England, known today as the St Events 1533 - Conquistadors from Spain under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro arrive in Cajamarca, Inca Events By Place Byzantine Empire November 14 — Justin II succeeds Justinian I as Emperor For a simplified list see Concise list of Roman Emperors. For more information see History of the Roman Empire. For the political lobbying groups see 527 groups Events By Place Byzantine Empire April 1 — Byzantine A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations Flavius Iustinus (c 450&ndash August 1, 527) known in English as Justin I, was an Byzantine Emperor (518&ndash527 who rose through the ranks He is considered a saint amongst Eastern Orthodox Christians, is also commemorated by the Lutheran Church,^[1] and is sometimes called the "Last Roman" in popular historiography. A saint (from the Latin sanctus) is a human being to whom has been attributed (and who has generally demonstrated a high level of Holiness and Sanctity The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther The description Last of the Romans ( Ultimus Romanorum) has historically been given to any man thought to embody the values of Ancient Roman civilization - values which ^[2]

One of the most important figures of late antiquity, Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the Byzantine Empire. The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and empire. Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but ultimately failed renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the empire". ^[3] This ambition was expressed in the partial recovery of the territories of the Western Roman Empire, including the city of Rome itself. The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states. The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 Civil law or Romano-Germanic law or Continental law is the predominant system of law in the world. His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and his building program yielded such masterpieces as the church of Hagia Sophia, which was to be the center of Eastern Orthodox Christianity for many centuries. Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya Αγία Σοφία " Holy Wisdom " Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia) is a former patriarchal Basilica, later The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world

The devastating Plague of Justinian in the early 540s marked the end of an age of splendor. The Plague of Justinian was a Pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541 – 542 The empire entered a period of decline not to be reversed until the Ninth Century.

Procopius provides our primary source for the history of Justinian's reign. Procopius of Caesarea ( Προκόπιος ο Καισαρεύς, c The Syriac chronicle of John of Ephesus, which does not survive, was used as a source for later chronicles, contributing many additional details of value. See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language John of Ephesus (or of Asia) (c 507 - c 586 was a leader of the Orthodox non-Chalcedonian Syriac -speaking Church in the sixth century and one of the Both historians became very bitter towards Justinian and his empress, Theodora. Theodora ( Greek: Θεοδώρα (c 500 - June 28 548) was empress of the Byzantine Empire and the wife of Emperor Justinian Procopius also wrote the Anekdota (the so-called Secret History), which reports on various scandals at Justinian's court. Procopius of Caesarea ( Προκόπιος ο Καισαρεύς, c Other sources include the histories of Agathias, Menander Protector, John Malalas, the Paschal Chronicle, the chronicles of Marcellinus Comes and Victor of Tunnuna. Agathias or Agathias Scholasticus (c AD 536-582/594 of Myrina, an Aeolian city in western Asia Minor, was a Greek Poet and the Menander Protector, Byzantine Historian, was born in Constantinople in the middle of the 6th century AD. John Malalas or Ioannes Malalas (or Malelas) (Syriac word for "rhetor" "orator" ( Greek:) (c Chronicon Paschale ("the Paschal Chronicle, also Chronicum Alexandrinum or Constantinopolitanum, or Fasti Siculi) is the conventional name Marcellinus Comes (fl 6th century was a Byzantine Chronicler. Victor of Tunnuna (d ca 570) was Bishop of the North African town of Tunnuna and a Chronicler from Late Antiquity.

Life

Justinian, born in 482,^[4] was a Latin-speaking^[5] Illyrian^[6][7] peasant from a small village called Tauresium, in the province of Dardania (near Justiniana Prima, which he founded later), in what is now Leskovac, Central Serbia. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Byzantine emperor Zeno I issues the Henotikon, an attempt to reconcile Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Illyrians has come to refer to a broad ill-defined " Indo-European " group of peoples who inhabited the western Balkans ( Illyria, roughly A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground Tauresium is a fortified settlement from the Early Byzantine period. The Dardani ( Ancient Greek Δαρδάνιοι were a Thraco-Illyrian tribe Justiniana Prima ( Serbian: Царичин град / Caričin Grad) was a Byzantine city Leskovac ( Serbian Cyrillic: Лесковац Leskofça is a city and municipality located in southern Serbia at 43 Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country ^[8][9][10] He was born as Petrus Sabbatius; the cognomen Justinianus, which he later took, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin. Flavius Iustinus (c 450&ndash August 1, 527) known in English as Justin I, was an Byzantine Emperor (518&ndash527 who rose through the ranks ^[11] His mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was in the imperial guard (the Excubitors) before he became emperor,^[12] adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople, and ensured the boy's education. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS ^[12] As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence, theology and Roman history. Jurisprudence is the Theory and Philosophy of Law. Scholars of jurisprudence or legal philosophers hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective ^[12] Justinian served for some time with the Excubitors but the details of his early career are unknown. ^[12]

When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor, with significant help from Justinian. ^[12] During Justin's reign (518-527), Justinian was the emperor's close confidant. Justinian showed much ambition, and it has been thought that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor on April 1, 527, although there is no conclusive evidence for this. Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne For the political lobbying groups see 527 groups Events By Place Byzantine Empire April 1 — Byzantine ^[13] As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de facto ruler. ^[12] Justinian was appointed consul in 521, and later commander of the army of the east. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire Events By Place Byzantine Empire Future Byzantine emperor Justinian becomes Consul. ^[12][14] Upon Justin I's death on August 1, 527, Justinian became the sole sovereign. Flavius Iustinus (c 450&ndash August 1, 527) known in English as Justin I, was an Byzantine Emperor (518&ndash527 who rose through the ranks Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman For the political lobbying groups see 527 groups Events By Place Byzantine Empire April 1 — Byzantine ^[12]

The Barberini Ivory, which is thought to portray either Justinian or Anastasius I. The Barberini ivory is one half of a Byzantine Ivory imperial Diptych dating from Late Antiquity, now in the Louvre.

As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the Emperor who never sleeps" on account of his work habits. Nevertheless, he seems to have been amenable and easy to approach. ^[15] Justinian's family came from a lowly and provincial background, and therefore he had no power base in the traditional aristocracy of Constantinople. Instead, he surrounded himself with men and women of extraordinary talent, whom he selected not on the basis of aristocratic origin, but on the basis of merit. Around 525 he married Theodora, who was by profession a courtesan about 20 years his junior. Events Dionysius Exiguus proposes a calendar based on the birth of Jesus Christ Theodora ( Greek: Θεοδώρα (c 500 - June 28 548) was empress of the Byzantine Empire and the wife of Emperor Justinian A courtesan in mid-16th century usage referred to a mistress or trained artisan of dance and singing especially one associated with wealthy powerful or upper-class Justinian would have, in earlier times, been unable to marry her because of her class, but his uncle Emperor Justin I had passed a law allowing intermarriage between social classes. ^[16] Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire, and later emperors would follow Justinian's precedent in marrying outside the aristocratic class. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations The marriage caused a scandal, but Theodora would prove to be very intelligent, "street smart", a good judge of character and Justinian's greatest supporter. Other talented individuals included Tribonian, his legal adviser; his finance ministers John the Cappadocian and Peter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented general Belisarius. Tribonian (c 500–547 was a Jurist during the reign of the Emperor Justinian I, who revised the legal code of the Roman Empire. A different John the Cappadocian was Patriarch from 518-520 See John of Cappadocia. Flavius Belisarius (Βελισάριος (505(? – 565 was one of the greatest Generals of the Byzantine Empire and one of the most acclaimed generals in history

Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he almost lost his throne during the Nika riots, and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied businessmen was discovered as late as 562. The Nika riots (Στάση του Νίκα or Nika revolt, took place over the course of a week in Constantinople in 532. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Belisarius stands trial for corruption in Constantinople, possibly with ^[17]

Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s, but recovered. The Plague of Justinian was a Pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541 – 542 Theodora died, perhaps of cancer, in 548, at a relatively young age, and Justinian outlived her by almost twenty years. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Belisarius is relieved of command over the Byzantine forces in Italy and replaced by Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine,^[18] became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life. When he died, on the night of November 13-November 14, 565, he left no children. Events 1002 - English king Ethelred orders the killing of all Danes in England, known today as the St Events 1533 - Conquistadors from Spain under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro arrive in Cajamarca, Inca Events By Place Byzantine Empire November 14 — Justin II succeeds Justinian I as Emperor He was succeeded by Justin II, the son of his sister Vigilantia, who was married to Sophia, the niece of Empress Theodora. Flavius Iustinus (Iunior Augustus (c 520 - 578 was Eastern Roman emperor from 565 to 578 Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles. For other structures of this name including in the Moscow Kremlin, see Church of the Holy Apostles (disambiguation.

Legislative activities

Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of all Roman law, something that had not previously been attempted. Roman law is the legal system of Ancient Rome. As used in the West the term commonly refers to legal developments prior to the Roman/Byzantine state's adopting The total of Justinian's legislature is known today as the Corpus juris civilis. The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 It consists of the Codex Justinianus, the Digesta or Pandectae, the Institutiones, and the Novellae. The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 Pandects ( Lat pandectae, adapted from Gr pandektes, all-containing is a name given to a compendium or digest of Roman law The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 A novella is a written, Fictional Prose Narrative longer than a Novelette but shorter than a Novel.

Early in his reign, Justinian appointed the quaestor Tribonian to oversee this task. Quaestors were originally appointed by the Consuls to investigate criminal acts and determine if the consul needed to take public action Tribonian (c 500–547 was a Jurist during the reign of the Emperor Justinian I, who revised the legal code of the Roman Empire. The first draft of the Codex Justinianus, a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on April 7, 529. The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 Events 529 - First draft of Corpus Juris Civilis (a fundamental work in Jurisprudence) is issued by Eastern Roman Emperor Events By Place Byzantine Empire April 7 — The first draft of Corpus Juris Civilis (a fundamental work in (The final version appeared in 534. Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 1 — Decimus Theodorius Paulinus is appointed Consul (the last to hold this ) It was followed by the Digesta (or Pandectae), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the Institutiones, a textbook explaining the principles of law. Pandects ( Lat pandectae, adapted from Gr pandektes, all-containing is a name given to a compendium or digest of Roman law Events By Place Byzantine Empire June 21 - Belisarius sails from Constantinople. The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 The Novellae, a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, supplements the Corpus. As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the Novellae appeared in Greek, the common language of the Eastern Empire; Latin, the traditional language of the Roman Empire, was only poorly understood by most citizens of the Eastern Empire. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial

The Corpus forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical Canon Law) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. Canon Law, the Ecclesiastical law of the Catholic Church, is a fully developed legal system with all the necessary elements courts lawyers judges a fully articulated As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the leges (laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws, senatorial consults (senatusconsulta), imperial decrees, case law, and jurists' opinions and interpretations (responsa prudentum). The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Case law' (also known as decisional law or judicial precedent) is that body of reported Judicial opinions in countries that have Common law

Tribonian's code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the Basilica of Basil I and Leo VI the Wise. The Latin word basilica (derived from Greek, Basiliké Stoà, Royal Stoa) was originally used to describe a Roman For the Russian ruler see Basil I of Russia Basil I, called the Macedonian ( Greek: Βασίλειος Α΄ο Μακεδών This article is about the Byzantine Emperor There is also an article on Pope Leo VI Leo VI "the Wise" or "the Philosopher" The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest, by the so-called Pragmatic Sanction of 554),^[19] from where it was to pass to Western Europe in the 12th century and become the basis of much European law code. A pragmatic sanction is a sovereign's solemn decree on a matter of primary importance and has the force of fundamental law Events By Place Byzantine Empire General Narses reconquers all of Italy Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to Russia. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending ^[20] It remains influential to this day.

Nika riots

Main article: Nika riots

Justinian's habit of choosing efficient, but unpopular advisors nearly cost him his throne early in his reign. The Nika riots (Στάση του Νίκα or Nika revolt, took place over the course of a week in Constantinople in 532. In January 532, partisans of the chariot racing factions in Constantinople, normally divided among themselves, united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the Nika riots. Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 11 — Nika riots in Constantinople: The cathedral is destroyed Chariot racing (ἁρματοδρομία/armatodromia was one of the most popular ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine Sports Chariot The Nika riots (Στάση του Νίκα or Nika revolt, took place over the course of a week in Constantinople in 532. They forced him to dismiss Tribonian and two of his other ministers, and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him by the senator Hypatius, who was a nephew of the late emperor Anastasius. Tribonian (c 500–547 was a Jurist during the reign of the Emperor Justinian I, who revised the legal code of the Roman Empire. Hypatius (d 532 was a Byzantine noble of imperial descent who was positioned as commander in the east in the days of Justin I. Flavius Anastasius (Φλάβιος Ἀναστάσιος or Anastasius I (Ἀναστάσιος Β΄ (c While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered fleeing the capital, but he remained in the city on the stirring words of Theodora. Theodora ( Greek: Θεοδώρα (c 500 - June 28 548) was empress of the Byzantine Empire and the wife of Emperor Justinian In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generals Belisarius and Mundus. Flavius Belisarius (Βελισάριος (505(? – 565 was one of the greatest Generals of the Byzantine Empire and one of the most acclaimed generals in history Mundus ( Μούνδος, died 536 was an East Roman General during the reign of Justinian I. Procopius relates that 30,000^[21] unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome. On Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own judgment^[22], Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed. ^[23]

The destruction that had taken place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings, most notably the architectural innovation of the domed Hagia Sophia. Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya Αγία Σοφία " Holy Wisdom " Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia) is a former patriarchal Basilica, later

Military activities

One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin which had slipped out of imperial control in the 5th century. The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in Anno Domini / Common Era. ^[24] As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art. ^[25] The reconquests were in large part carried out by his general Belisarius. Flavius Belisarius (Βελισάριος (505(? – 565 was one of the greatest Generals of the Byzantine Empire and one of the most acclaimed generals in history ^[26]

From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the Sassanid Empire. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire ^[27] In 530 a Persian army was defeated at Daraa, but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum. For the California area code see Area code 530 Events By Place Byzantine Empire Battle of Daras: The Battle of Dara was fought between the Sassanids and the Byzantine Empire in 530. The Battle of Callinicum took place between the armies of the Eastern Roman Empire under the command of General Belisarius and Sassanid Persians under When king Kavadh I of Persia died (September 531), Justinian concluded an "Eternal Peace" (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold)^[28] with his successor Khosrau I (532). Kavadh I (b 449 r 488&ndash531 also spelled Kaveh, Kavad) son of Peroz I (457&ndash484 was the nineteenth Sassanid King of Persia from Events By Place Byzantine Empire April 19 — Belisarius is defeated at the Battle of Callinicum; Mundus Khosrau I or Khosrow I ( Chosroes I in classical sources most commonly known in Persian as Anushirvan, Persian انوشيروان meaning Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 11 — Nika riots in Constantinople: The cathedral is destroyed Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to the West, where Arian Germanic kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire. Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (c AD 250-336 who was ruled a heretic by the Christian church at the Council of Nicea. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern

Conquest of North Africa, 533–534

Main article: Vandalic War

The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the Vandals in North Africa. The Vandalic War was a war fought in North Africa in the areas of modern Tunisia and eastern Algeria, in 533 - 534, between the forces of North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan King Hilderic, who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy, had been overthrown by his cousin Gelimer in 530. Hilderic, King of the Vandals and Alans (c 460s - 533 reigned 523-530 was the pentultimate ruler of the North African Kingdom of the Gelimer (original form possibly Geilamir, 480-553 King of the Vandals and Alans from 530 to 534 was the last ruler of the North African Kingdom For the California area code see Area code 530 Events By Place Byzantine Empire Battle of Daras: Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian.

In 533, Belisarius with a fleet of 92 dromons escorting 500 transports, landed at Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia) in modern Tunisia with an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a number of barbarian troops. Events By Place Byzantine Empire June 21 - Belisarius sails from Constantinople. Flavius Belisarius (Βελισάριος (505(? – 565 was one of the greatest Generals of the Byzantine Empire and one of the most acclaimed generals in history Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off-guard, at Ad Decimum on 14 September 533 and Tricamarum in December; Belisarius took Carthage. The Battle of Ad Decimum took place on September 13, 533 between the armies of the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, and the Eastern Events 81 - Domitian becomes Emperor of the Roman Empire upon the death of his brother Titus. Events By Place Byzantine Empire June 21 - Belisarius sails from Constantinople. The Battle of Tricamarum took place on December 15, 533 between the armies of the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, and his brother Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers King Gelimer fled to Mount Pappua in Numidia, but surrendered the next spring. Gelimer (original form possibly Geilamir, 480-553 King of the Vandals and Alans from 530 to 534 was the last ruler of the North African Kingdom Numidia (202 BC – 46 BC was an ancient Berber kingdom in present-day Algeria and part of Tunisia ( North Africa) that later alternated He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a triumph. A Roman triumph ( la [[wikttriumphus triumphus]], Old Latin la triumpus, attested as the exclamation la TRIVMPE in the Carmen Arvale; via Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and the stronghold Septem near Gibraltar were recovered in the same campaign. Sardinia (sɑrˈdɪnɪə Sardegna Sardigna or Sardinnya is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily) Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily The Balearic Islands ( Catalan and official Illes Balears; Spanish: Islas Baleares) are an Archipelago in the western Mediterranean Ceuta is an autonomous city of Spain located on the Mediterranean, on the North African side of the Strait of Gibraltar, which Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar ^[29]

An African prefecture was established in April 534,^[30] but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with the Moors and military mutinies. The Praetorian prefecture of Africa ( Praefectura praetorio Africae) was a major administrative division of the Eastern Roman Empire established after the reconquest of northwestern Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 1 — Decimus Theodorius Paulinus is appointed Consul (the last to hold this The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent The area was not completely pacified until 548,^[31] but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Belisarius is relieved of command over the Byzantine forces in Italy and replaced by The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold. ^[32]

War in Italy, first phase, 535–540

Main article: Gothic War (535–554)

As in Africa, dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention. See Gothic War (376-382 for the war on the Danube The Gothic War was a war fought in Italy and the adjoining regions of Dalmatia, Sardinia The young king Athalaric had died on 2 October 534, and a usurper, Theodahad, had imprisoned queen Amalasuntha, Theodoric's daughter and mother of Athalaric, on an island in Lake Bolsena, where he had her assassinated in 535. Athalaric ( 516 - 2 October 534) was the King of the Ostrogoths in Italy. Events 1187 - Siege of Jerusalem: Saladin captures Jerusalem after 88 years of Crusader rule Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 1 — Decimus Theodorius Paulinus is appointed Consul (the last to hold this Theodahad (d 536 was the King of the Ostrogoths from 534 to 536 and a nephew of Theodoric the Great through his sister Amalasuntha (also known as Amalasuentha, Amalaswintha, Amalasuintha or Amalasontha) (died 535 was a queen of the Ostrogoths. Lake Bolsena ( Lago di Bolsena) is a Crater lake of central Italy, of volcanic origin which was formed 370000 years ago following the collapse Events By Place Byzantine Empire Justinian I orders Belisarius to start the reconquest of Italy; Mundus Thereupon Belisarius with 7,500 men^[33] invaded Sicily (535) and advanced into Italy, sacking Naples and capturing Rome on 9 December 536. Flavius Belisarius (Βελισάριος (505(? – 565 was one of the greatest Generals of the Byzantine Empire and one of the most acclaimed generals in history Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Justinian I orders Belisarius to start the reconquest of Italy; Mundus Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Events 536 - Byzantine General Belisarius enters Rome while the Ostrogothic garrison peacefully leaves the city Events By Place Byzantine Empire April — Belisarius, a general in the service of Justinian I, lands in Italy By that time Theodahad had been deposed by the Ostrogothic army, who had elected Vitigis as their new king. Theodahad (d 536 was the King of the Ostrogoths from 534 to 536 and a nephew of Theodoric the Great through his sister The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late Witiges or Vitiges (died 540 was King of the Ostrogoths in Italy from 536 to 540 He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Events By Place Byzantine Empire December 27 — The construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is completed Events By Place Europe March 12 — Witiges, king of the Ostrogoths, ends his siege of Rome and retreats to Justinian sent another general, Narses, to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign. For other historical figures with similar names see Narses (disambiguation. Milan was taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths. Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Justinian recalled Narses in 539. For other historical figures with similar names see Narses (disambiguation. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Ravenna becomes an Exarchate of the Byzantine Empire. By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna. Events By place Byzantine Empire General Belisarius conquers Milan and the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna Ravenna is a City and Comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. There he was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace which would leave the region north of the river Po in Gothic hands. The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern The Po ( Latin: Padus, Po Ligurian: Bo, Greek: Eridanus) is a river that flows 652 km(405 miles (682 km by considering Belisarius feigned to accept the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for the Empire. Events By place Byzantine Empire General Belisarius conquers Milan and the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna ^[34] Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the captured Vitigis and his wife Matasuentha with him. Witiges or Vitiges (died 540 was King of the Ostrogoths in Italy from 536 to 540

War with the Sassanid Empire, 540–562

Modern or early modern drawing of a medallion celebrating the reconquest of Africa, c. 535

Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Following a revolt against Byzantium in Armenia in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors, king Khosrau I broke the "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540. Marzpanate period (Մարզպանական Հայաստան refers to the period in Armenian history after the fall of the Arshakuni Dynasty of Armenia Events and Trends 532 — Nika riots in Constantinople; the cathedral was destroyed The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late Khosrau I or Khosrow I ( Chosroes I in classical sources most commonly known in Persian as Anushirvan, Persian انوشيروان meaning Events By place Byzantine Empire General Belisarius conquers Milan and the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna ^[35] He first sacked Beroea and then Antioch (allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city)^[36], besieged Daras, and then went on to attack the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of Lazica near the Black Sea, exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also Dara or Daras ( Δάρας) was an important East Roman fortress city in northern Mesopotamia on the border with the Sassanid Empire The Lazic War also known as the Great War of Egrisi ( Georgian: ეგრისის დიდი ომი Egrisis Didi Omi) in Georgian historiography The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year. ^[37]

Belisarius arrived in the East in 541, but, after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in 542. Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 1 — Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius is appointed as Consul in Events By Place Byzantine Empire An outbreak of the plague kills at least 230000 in Constantinople (before they stopped The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of disloyalty on behalf of the general reaching the court. ^[38] The outbreak of the plague caused a lull in the fighting during the year 543. The Plague of Justinian was a Pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541 – 542 Events By Topic Religion The doctrine of Apocatastasis is condemned by the Synod of Constantinople The following year Khosrau defeated a Byzantine army of 30,000 men,^[39] but unsuccessfully besieged the major city of Edessa. Edessa ( Greek:) is the historical name of a Syriac town in northern Mesopotamia, refounded on an ancient site by Seleucus I Nicator Both parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. Events By Place Byzantine Empire The Ostrogoths besiege Rome. After that the Lazic War in the North continued for several years, until a second truce in 557, followed by a Fifty Years' Peace in 562. The Lazic War also known as the Great War of Egrisi ( Georgian: ეგრისის დიდი ომი Egrisis Didi Omi) in Georgian historiography Events By Place Asia The Northern Zhou Dynasty begins in northern China; its first ruler is Northern Zhou Xiao Min Di Events By Place Byzantine Empire Belisarius stands trial for corruption in Constantinople, possibly with Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000 solidi) to be paid by the Romans. ^[40]

War in Italy, second phase, 541–552

While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse. Under their respective kings Ildibad and Eraric (both murdered in 541) and especially Totila, the Ostrogoths made quick gains. Ildibad (Sometimes rendered Hildebad or Heldebadus) (d 541 was a king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, being chosen to replace Witiges Eraric (d 541 was briefly King of the Ostrogoths He was killed by a member of his royal guard Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 1 — Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius is appointed as Consul in Totila (died Jul 1 552) was king of the Ostrogoths from 541 until his death After a victory at Faenza in 542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire peninsula. Faenza is an Italian town and Comune, in the Province of Ravenna, Emilia-Romagna, situated 50 km southeast of Bologna. Events By Place Byzantine Empire An outbreak of the plague kills at least 230000 in Constantinople (before they stopped Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in 544, but lacked sufficient troops. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Belisarius is sent back to Italy to once more fight the Ostrogoths who have Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in 548. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Belisarius is relieved of command over the Byzantine forces in Italy and replaced by Belisarius succeeded in defeating a Gothic fleet with 200 ships. The Goths ( Gothic: Gothic usvg|14px|u]]Gothic asvg|14px|a]]Gothic s During this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times, first taken and depopulated by the Ostrogoths in December 546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again by the Goths in January 550. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Events By Place Byzantine Empire December 17 — The Ostrogoths under Totila retake Rome, bribing Events By Place Europe Ida founds the kingdom of Bernicia at Bamburgh (traditional date Events By place Byzantine Empire January 16 — Gothic War (535–552: The Ostrogoths, under King Totila Totila also plundered Sicily and attacked the Greek coastlines. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Spain) under the command of Narses^[41]. The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. For other historical figures with similar names see Narses (disambiguation. The army reached Ravenna in June 552, and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of Busta Gallorum in the Apennines, where Totila was slain. Events By Place Europe Battle of Asfeld: Longobards under king Audoin defeat the Gepids. At the Battle of Taginae (also known as the Battle of Busta Gallorum) in June/July 552, the forces of the Byzantine Empire under Narses broke After a second battle at Mons Lactarius in October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken. The Battle of Mons Lactarius (also known as Battle of the Vesuvius) took place in 553 during the Gothic War waged on behalf of Justinian I against In 554, a large-scale Frankish invasion was defeated at Casilinum, and Italy secured for the Empire, even though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group For the battle of the Italian Risorgimento, see Battle of the Volturnus (1860 The Battle of the Volturnus, also known as the At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men. ^[36] The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold. ^[42]

Other campaigns

In addition to the other conquests, the Eastern Empire established a presence in Visigothic Spain, when the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against king Agila. The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Athanagild (died 567 was Visigothic King of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, today Spain and Portugal) In 552, Justinian dispatched a force of 2,000 men under the octogenarian Liberius, who had served under the Ostrogoth kings of Italy since the 490s. Events By Place Europe Battle of Asfeld: Longobards under king Audoin defeat the Gepids. Petrus Marcellinus Felix Liberius (c 465 &ndash c 554 was a Late Roman aristocrat and official whose career spanned seven decades in the highest offices of both the Ostrogothic The Byzantines took Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded the new province of Spania before being checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now become king. Cartagena ( is a Spanish Mediterranean city and naval station in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula in the autonomous community of Region of Murcia Spania (Provincia Spaniae was a province of the Byzantine Empire from 552 until 624 in the south of the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion.

During Justinian's reign, the Balkans suffered from several incursions by the Turkic and Slavic peoples who lived north of the Danube. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works. In 559 a particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigurs under their khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople, but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius. For the North American area code see Area code 559. Events By Place Byzantine Empire The Bulgars and Huns The Kutrigurs (Kotrags/Kotzagerek/Kazarig were a horde of equestrian nomads later known as part of the Bulgars that inhabited the Eurasian plains during the dark ages Zabergan was ruler of the Kutrigur Bulgars between 550 and 582.

Results

The enlargement of the Byzantine Empire's territory between the rise to power of Justinian (red, 527) and his death (orange, 565)

Justinian's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realised. In the West, the brilliant early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation. Events and Trends 532 — Nika riots in Constantinople; the cathedral was destroyed The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought. ^[43] The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon its population were deeply resented. While the final victory in Italy and the conquest of the coast of southern Spain significantly enlarged the area over which Byzantium could project its power and influence, and while they must have contributed to the empire's prestige, most of the conquests proved ephemeral. The greater part of Italy would be lost to the invading Lombards three years after Justinian's death (568), and within a century and a half Africa and Spain were forever lost for the empire. The Lombards ( Latin Langobardi, whence the alternative names Langobards and Longobards) were a Germanic people originally from Events By Place Europe April 1 — King Alboin leads the Lombards into Italy refugees fleeing from them go on

Events of the later years of the reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historian Menander Protector felt the need to explain the emperor's failure to protect the capital from the weakness of his body in his old age. Menander Protector, Byzantine Historian, was born in Constantinople in the middle of the 6th century AD. ^[44] In his efforts to renew the old Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched the resources of the Eastern Empire while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe. ^[45] Paradoxically, Justinian's military successes probably contributed to the empire's subsequent decline. ^[46]

Religious activities

Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especially Monophysitism, which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Monophysitism (from the Greek monos meaning 'one alone' and physis meaning 'nature' or Monophysiticism is the Christological position that Monophysite doctrine had been condemned as a heresy by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism of Zeno I and Anastasius had been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief The Council of Chalcedon was the fourth Ecumenical council. It was held from 8 October to 1 November 451 at Chalcedon (a city of Flavius Zeno, original name Tarasicodissa or Trascalissaeus, Byzantine Emperor ( Circa Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Monophysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy which proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them. Near the end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine, but he died before being able to promulgate any legislation to this effect. The empress Theodora sympathised with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro-Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years. In the course of his reign Justinian, who had a genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small number of theological treatises. ^[47]

Religious policy

Justinian I, depicted on an AE Follis coin

As with his secular administration, despotism appeared also in the emperor's ecclesiastical policy. Despotism is a Form of government by a single authority either an individual or tightly knit group, which rules with absolute political power He regulated everything, both in religion and in law.

At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church's belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation; and to threaten all heretics with the appropriate penalties;^[48] whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law. SSC RF "Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Termonuclear Research" or TRINITY for shprt Троицкий Институт инновационных и термоядерных Incarnation which literally means embodied in flesh, refers to the conception and birth of a sentient creature (generally a human who is the Heresy, as a blanket term describes a practice or belief that is labeled as unorthodox Due process (more fully due process of law) is the principle that a person has a right to receive notice and be heard in an orderly proceeding in order to protect his or her ^[49] He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church,^[50] and accorded legal force to the canons of the four ecumenical councils. Canon law is internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches and the Anglican Communion of churches Ecumenism (also oecumenism, œcumenism) refers to initiatives aimed at greater Religious unity or cooperation ^[51] The bishops in attendance at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553 recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and command;^[52] while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the Patriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription. The Fifth Ecumenical Council (the Second Council of Constantinople was a Christian Ecumenical Council that was held at Constantinople (5 May-2 June Events By Place Europe The Ostrogoth Kingdom is conquered by the Byzantines after the Battle of Mons Lactarius Anthimus I was a Monophysite Patriarch of Constantinople from 535 - 536. ^[53] Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity for securing the rights of the Church and clergy, for protecting and extending monasticism. Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given Religion. Monasticism (from Greek μοναχός, monachos, derived from Greek monos, alone is the religious practice in which one He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receive solemnia or annual gifts from the imperial treasury or from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation on monastic estates.

Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was indeed a "nursing father" of the Church. Both the Codex and the Novellae contain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia (which cost 20,000 pounds of gold)^[54], the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya Αγία Σοφία " Holy Wisdom " Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia) is a former patriarchal Basilica, later The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and mosaics, became the centre and most visible monument of Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople. Art History Mosaics of the 4th century BC are found in the Macedonian palace-city of Aegae, and they enriched the floors of Hellenistic The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world

Religious relations with Rome

From the middle of the fifth century onward increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters. The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in Anno Domini / Common Era. For one thing, the radicals on all sides felt themselves constantly repelled by the creed adopted by the Council of Chalcedon to defend the biblical doctrine of the nature of Christ and bridge the gap between the dogmatic parties. The Council of Chalcedon was the fourth Ecumenical council. It was held from 8 October to 1 November 451 at Chalcedon (a city of Dogma (the plural is either dogmata or dogmas, Greek, plural) is the established Belief or The letter of Pope Leo I to Flavian of Constantinople was widely considered in the East as the work of Satan; so that nobody cared to hear of the Church of Rome. Pope Saint Leo I or Pope Saint Leo the Great was Pope from September 29, 440 to November 10, 461. Saint Flavian or Phlabianus (died August 11, 449) was Archbishop of Constantinople from 446 to 449 Satan, ( Standard Hebrew Satan'el, English accuser) is a term that originates from the Abrahamic faiths, being traditionally The emperors, however, had a policy of preserving the unity between Constantinople and Rome; and this remained possible only if they did not swerve from the line defined at Chalcedon. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The Council of Chalcedon was the fourth Ecumenical council. It was held from 8 October to 1 November 451 at Chalcedon (a city of In addition, the factions in the East which had become stirred up and disaffected because of Chalcedon needed restraining and pacifying. This problem proved the more difficult because, in the East, the dissenting groups exceeded supporters of Chalcedon both in numerical strength and in intellectual ability. Tension from the incompatibility of the two aims grew: whoever chose Rome and the West must renounce the East, and vice versa.

Consular diptych displaying Justinian's full name (Constantinople 521)

Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the Monophysite schism that had prevailed between Rome and Byzantium since 483. For the area code see Area code 518. Events By Place Byzantine Empire July 9 — Justin becomes emperor Monophysitism (from the Greek monos meaning 'one alone' and physis meaning 'nature' or Monophysiticism is the Christological position that The word schism (ˈsɪzəm or /ˈskɪzəm/ from the Greek σχίσμα skhísma (from σχίζω skhízō, "to tear to split" Events By Place Byzantine Empire Due to Zeno I 's Monophysite sympathies general Illus and Verina, mother-in-law The recognition of the Roman see as the highest ecclesiastical authority^[55] remained the cornerstone of his Western policy. The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Offensive as it was to many in the East, nonetheless Justinian felt himself entirely free to take a Despotic stance toward the popes such as Silverius and Vigilius. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and Pope Pope Vigilius (d June 7, 555) reigned as Pope from 537-555 He belonged to a distinguished Roman family his father Johannes is identified as a While no compromise could ever be accepted by the dogmatic wing of the church, his sincere efforts at reconciliation gained him the approval of the major body of the church. A signal proof was his attitude in the Theopaschite controversy. Scythian Monks were a community of Monks from the region around the mouth of the Danube, who played an influential role in Christian life between the At the outset he was of the opinion that the question turned on a quibble of words. By degrees, however, Justinian came to understand that the formula at issue not only appeared orthodox, but might also serve as a conciliatory measure toward the Monophysites, and he made a vain attempt to do this in the religious conference with the followers of Severus of Antioch, in 533. Severus, Patriarch of Antioch (AD 512 - 518 born approximately 465 in Sozopolis in Pisidia, was by birth and education a pagan, who was baptized Events By Place Byzantine Empire June 21 - Belisarius sails from Constantinople.

Again, Justinian moved toward compromise in the religious edict of March 15, 533,^[56] and congratulated himself that Pope John II admitted the orthodoxy of the imperial confession. Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, Events By Place Byzantine Empire June 21 - Belisarius sails from Constantinople. Pope John II of Alexandria was the Coptic Pope from 505 to 516. ^[57] The serious blunder that he had made at the beginning by abetting a severe persecution of the Monophysite bishops and monks and thereby embittering the population of vast regions and provinces, he remedied eventually. His constant aim now remained to win over the Monophysites, yet not to surrender the Chalcedonian faith. For many at court, he did not go far enough: Theodora especially would have rejoiced to see the Monophysites favored unreservedly. Justinian, however, felt restrained by the complications that would have ensued with the West. But in the condemnation of the Three Chapters Justinian tried to satisfy both the East and the West, but succeeded in satisfying neither. The Three-Chapter Controversy was a phase in the Monophysite controversy was an attempt to reconcile the Christians of Syria and Egypt with Although the pope assented to the condemnation, the West believed that the emperor had acted contrary to the decrees of Chalcedon. Though many delegates emerged in the East subservient to Justinian, many, especially the Monophysites, remained unsatisfied; all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters.

Suppression of non-Christian religions

Justinian was one of the first emperors to be depicted wielding the cross on the obverse of a coin. A cross is a geometrical figure consisting of two lines or bars perpendicular to each other dividing one or two of the lines in half

Justinian's religious policy reflected the imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire unconditionally presupposed unity of faith; and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could be only the Orthodox (Nicaean). The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Those of a different belief had to recognize that the process of consolidation, which imperial legislation had effected from the time of Constantius II, would now vigorously continue. Flavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II ( 7 August, 317 - November 3, 361) was a Roman Emperor The Codex contained two statutes^[58] which decreed the total destruction of paganism, even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. A statute is a formal written enactment of a Legislative authority that governs a Country, State, City, or County. Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world Contemporary sources (John Malalas, Theophanes, John of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high position. John Malalas or Ioannes Malalas (or Malelas) (Syriac word for "rhetor" "orator" ( Greek:) (c Theophanes may refer to St Theophanes, the name of several saints including Theophan the Recluse (Russian 19th century John of Ephesus (or of Asia) (c 507 - c 586 was a leader of the Orthodox non-Chalcedonian Syriac -speaking Church in the sixth century and one of the

Perhaps the most noteworthy event occurred in 529 when the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens was placed under state control by order of Justinian, effectively strangling this training-school for Hellenism. Events By Place Byzantine Empire April 7 — The first draft of Corpus Juris Civilis (a fundamental work in Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by An academy ( Greek Ἀκαδημία is an institution of higher learning research or honorary membership Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Paganism was actively suppressed. Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world In Asia Minor alone, John of Ephesus claimed to have converted 70,000 pagans. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The historical phenomenon of Christianization (or Christianisation &mdash see spelling differences) the conversion of individuals to Christianity ^[59] Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the Heruli,^[60] the Huns dwelling near the Don,^[61] the Abasgi,^[62] and the Tzani in Caucasia. The Heruli (spelled variously in Latin and Greek) were a nomadic Germanic people, who were subjugated by the Ostrogoths Huns and The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy The Don (Дон is one of the major rivers of Russia. It rises in the town of Novomoskovsk 60 Kilometres southeast from Tula, southeast ^[63]

The worship of Amun at Augila in the Libyan desert was abolished;^[64] and so were the remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae, at the first cataract of the Nile. Amun, reconstructed Egyptian Yamānu (also spelled Amon, Amoun, Amen, and rarely Imen, Greek Ἄμμων Awjila (أوجلة is an oasis after which the Awjila language, an Eastern Berber language spoken there is named Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Isis is a goddess in Ancient Egyptian religious beliefs and is celebrated in their mythology as the ideal mother and wife patron of nature and magic friend of slaves sinners Philae ( Greek:) or Pilak or P'aaleq ( Egyptian: remote place or the end or the angle island) or Arabic A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River ^[65] The Presbyter Julian^[66] and the Bishop Longinus^[67] conducted a mission among the Nabataeans, and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in Yemen by despatching a bishop from Egypt. The Nabataeans ( Arabic: الأنباط, Al-Anbāṭ) were an ancient Semitic people Arabs of southern Jordan, Canaan Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. ^[68]

The Jews, too, had to suffer; for not only did the authorities restrict their civil rights,^[69] and threaten their religious privileges,^[70] but the emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue,^[71] and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of The recalcitrant were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted Belisarius in his Vandal campaign, had to embrace Christianity; their synagogue became a church. ^[72]

The emperor had much trouble with the Samaritans, finding them refractory to Christianity and repeatedly in insurrection. He opposed them with rigorous edicts, but yet could not prevent hostilities towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his reign. Samaria, or the Shomron ( שֹׁמְרוֹן, Standard Šoməron Tiberian Šōmərôn The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that the Manicheans too suffered severe persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment. Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating ^[73] At Constantinople, on one occasion, not a few Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's very presence: some by burning, others by drowning. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Drowning is Death as caused by suffocation when a liquid causes interruption of the body's absorption of oxygen from the air leading to Asphyxia. ^[74]

Building activities, learning, art and literature

Justinian was a prolific builder; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area. ^[75] Under Justinian's patronage the San Vitale in Ravenna, which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed. ^[12] Most notably, he had the Hagia Sophia, originally a basilica style church that had been burnt down during the Nika riots, splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan. Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya Αγία Σοφία " Holy Wisdom " Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia) is a former patriarchal Basilica, later The Latin word basilica (derived from Greek, Basiliké Stoà, Royal Stoa) was originally used to describe a Roman The Nika riots (Στάση του Νίκα or Nika revolt, took place over the course of a week in Constantinople in 532. This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries. Another prominent church in the capital, the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt. For other structures of this name including in the Moscow Kremlin, see Church of the Holy Apostles (disambiguation. ^[76] Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone: excavations at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople have yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from Justinian's reign, and a column topped by a bronze statue of Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543. The Byzantine Great Palace of Constantinople, (Μέγα Παλάτιον Turkish: Büyük Saray also known as the Sacred Palace ( Latin The Column of Justinian was a monumental Triumphal column erected in Constantinople by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I in honour The Augustaion ( Greek:) or in Latin Augustaeum, was the main public square in medieval Constantinople (modern Istanbul Events By Topic Religion The doctrine of Apocatastasis is condemned by the Synod of Constantinople ^[77] It is possible that rivalry with other, more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan aristocracy may have enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital. ^[78]

Justinian also strengthened the borders of the empire through the construction of fortifications, and assured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground cisterns. For cisterns in Neuroanatomy, see Cistern (neuroanatomy.For the village in England see Syston. During his reign a bridge over the river Sangarius was built, securing a major trade route. The Sakarya ( Greek Σαγγάριος, Latinized as Sangarius) is a River in Asia Minor. Furthermore, Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth called Justiniana Prima. Justiniana Prima ( Serbian: Царичин град / Caričin Grad) was a Byzantine city

In Justinian's era, and partly under his patronage, Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians, including Procopius and Agathias, and poets such as Paul the Silentiary and Romanus the Melodist flourished during his reign. Procopius of Caesarea ( Προκόπιος ο Καισαρεύς, c Agathias or Agathias Scholasticus (c AD 536-582/594 of Myrina, an Aeolian city in western Asia Minor, was a Greek Poet and the Paul the Silentiary, also known as Paulus Silentiarius (d Constantinople, 575-580 AD was an officer in the imperial household of the Byzantine emperor Justinian "Romanos" redirects here See Romanus for the Latin form of the same name or Romanos Spain for the municipality in Spain On the other hand, centers of learning as the Platonic Academy in Athens and the famous law school of Beirut^[79] lost their importance during his reign. Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 Another ancient institution, the Roman consulate, was abolished in 541. Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 1 — Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius is appointed as Consul in ^[80]

Economy and administration

As was the case under Justinian's predecessors, the empire's economic health rested primarily on agriculture. In addition long-distance trade flourished, reaching as far north as Cornwall where tin was exchanged for Roman corn. Cornwall ( Kernow ˈkɛɹnɔʊ is the most southwesterly county of England, on the Peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 ^[81] Within the empire, convoys sailing from Alexandria provided Constantinople with corn, and Justinian made the traffic more efficient by building a large granary on the island of Tenedos for storage and further transport to Constantinople. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια For the ant spider genus see Tenedos (genus. For the 19th century fort in Zululand, see Fort Tenedos Tenedos, officially ^[82] Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade, which was suffering badly from the wars with the Persians. One important luxury product was silk, which was imported and then processed in the empire. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons In order to protect the manufacture of silk products, Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in 541. Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 1 — Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius is appointed as Consul in ^[83] In order to bypass the Persian landroute, Justinian established friendly relations with the Abyssinians, whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian silk to the empire; the Abyssinians, however, were unable to compete with the Persian merchants in India. The term Habesha ( Ge'ez ሐበሻ ḥabaśā, Amh hābešā, Tgn ^[84] Then, in the early 550s, two monks succeeded in smuggling eggs of silk worms from Central Asia back to Constantinople,^[85] and silk became an indigenous Byzantine product. Events and Trends 554, Eviction of the Ostrogoths from Rome and the re-unification of all Italy under Imperial rule Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south

Scene from daily life on a mosaic from the Great Palace of Constantinople, 5th century

At the start of Justinian I's reign he had inherited a surplus 28,800,000 solidi (400,000 pounds of gold) in the imperial treasury from Anastasius I and Justin I. The Byzantine Great Palace of Constantinople, (Μέγα Παλάτιον Turkish: Büyük Saray also known as the Sacred Palace ( Latin Flavius Iustinus (c 450&ndash August 1, 527) known in English as Justin I, was an Byzantine Emperor (518&ndash527 who rose through the ranks ^[86] Under Justinian's rule, measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient. Greater administrative power was given to both the leaders of the prefectures and of the provinces, while power was taken away from the vicariates of the dioceses, of which a number were abolished. For subsequent types of praefectura, see Prefect. Prefecture (from the Latin Praefectura) indicates the office Vicarius is a Latin word meaning substitute or deputy. It is the root and origin of the English word " Vicar " and Cognate to the Persian In many rites of the Roman Catholic Church and in Anglican churches, a diocese is an administrative territorial unit administered by a Bishop. The overall trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure. ^[87] According to Brown (1971), the increased professionalisation of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional structures of provincial life, as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek towns. ^[88] It has been estimated that before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000 solidi in AD 530, but after his reconquests, the annual revenue was increased to 6,000,000 solidi in AD 550. ^[89]

Throughout Justinian's reign, the cities and villages of the East prospered, although Antioch was struck by two earthquakes (526, 528) and sacked and evacuated by the Persians (540). Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also Events By Place Europe Athalaric succeeds Theodoric as king of the Ostrogoths, and Amalaric becomes king of the Events By Place Byzantine Empire February 13 — Justinian appoints a commission (including the Jurist Events By place Byzantine Empire General Belisarius conquers Milan and the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna Justinian had the city rebuilt, but on a slightly smaller scale. ^[90]

Despite all these measures, the empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th century. The 6th century is the period from 501 to 600 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The first one was the plague, which lasted from 541 to 543 and, by decimating the empire's population, probably created a scarcity of labour and a rising of wages. The Plague of Justinian was a Pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541 – 542 Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 1 — Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius is appointed as Consul in Events By Topic Religion The doctrine of Apocatastasis is condemned by the Synod of Constantinople ^[91] The lack of manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of "barbarians" in the Byzantine armies after the early 540s. Events and Trends The Eastern Roman Empire conquers Milan and the Ostrogothic capital of Ravenna in 540. ^[92] The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid a heavy burden on the empire's resources, and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the government-run post service, which he limited to only one eastern route of military importance. ^[93]

See also

• Plague of Justinian
• History of the Roman Empire

Notes

References

• This article incorporates text from the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion.

Primary Sources

• Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia. Edited by J. Haury; revised by G. Wirth. 3 vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1976-64. Greek text.
• Procopius. Edited by H. B. Dewing. 7 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press and London, Hutchinson, 1914-40. Greek text and English translation.
• Procopius, The Secret History, translated by G. A. Williamson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966. A readable and accessible English translation of the Anecdota.
• Elizabeth Jeffreys, Michael Jeffreys, Roger Scott et al. 1986, The Chronicle of John Malalas: A Translation, Byzantina Australiensia 4 (Melbourne: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies) ISBN 0959362622
• Edward Walford, translator (1846) The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-88-6. [6]

Bibliography

• Bury, J. B. (1958). John Bagnell Bury ( 16 October 1861 &ndash 1 June 1927) known as J History of the later Roman Empire, Vol. 2. New York (reprint).
• Cameron, Averil et al. (eds. ). The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 14, Second Edition, Cambridge 2000.
• Evans, James Allan. The Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-313-32582-0).
• Maas, Michael (ed. ). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian, Cambridge 2005.
• Meier, Mischa. Das andere Zeitalter Justinians. Kontingenzerfahrung und Kontingenzbewältigung im 6. Jahrhundert n. Chr. Göttingen, 2003.
• Meier, Mischa. Justinian. Herrschaft, Reich, und Religion. Munich, 2004.
• Moorhead, John. Justinian, London 1994.
• Rosen, William. Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire, and the Birth of Europe, Viking Adult, 2007. ISBN 978-0670038558.
• Rubin, Berthold (1960). Das Zeitalter Iustinians. Berlin. — German standard work; partially obsolete, but still useful.
• Sarris, Peter. Economy and society in the age of Justinian. Cambridge, 2006.
• Vasiliev, A. A. History of the Byzantine Empire, 324-1453. For a Russian journalist see Alexander Vassiliev. Alexander Alexandrovich Vasiliev (Александр Александрович Васильев Second edition. Madison, 1952.

External links

• The Anekdota ("Secret history") of Procopius in English translation.
• The Buildings of Procopius in English translation.
• The Roman Law Library by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev
• Lecture series covering 12 Byzantine Rulers, including Justinian - by Lars Brownworth
• Media related to Justinian I from the Wikimedia Commons.
• De Imperatoribus Romanis. An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors
• Reconstruction of column of Justinian in Constantinople
• Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes