Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal ornament, such as a necklace, ring, or bracelet, made from gemstones, precious metals or other materials. Amber is Fossil tree Resin, which is appreciated for its color and beauty American and British English spelling differences are one aspect of American and British English differences. A gemstone or gem, also called a precious or semi-precious stone, is a piece of attractive Mineral, which &mdash when cut and polished &mdash Precious Metal is the eighteenth episode in the of the popular American Crime drama, which is set in Las Vegas, Nevada.
The word jewellery is derived from the word jewel, which was anglicised from the Old French "jouel" around the 13th century. Anglicisation or anglicization (see -ise vs -ize) is a process of conversion of verbal or written elements of any other language into a more comprehensible English French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people [1] It has also been suggested that the word is deriverd from "Jew", as the Jews were important jewelry artisans of that time. Further tracing leads back to the Latin word "jocale", meaning plaything. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Jewellery is one of the oldest forms of body adornment; recently found 100,000 year-old beads made from Nassarius shells are thought to be the oldest known jewellery. Nassarius, Common names nassa mud snails (USA or dog whelks (UK is a Genus of sea Snails marine Gastropod Molluscs [2]
Although during earlier times jewellery was created for practical uses such as wealth, storage and pinning clothes together, in recent times it has been used almost exclusively for decoration. The first pieces of jewellery were made from natural materials, such as bone, animal teeth, shell, wood, and carved stone. A natural material is any product or physical matter that comes from plants animals or the ground Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Jewellery was often made for people of high importance to show their status and, in many cases, they were buried with it.
Jewellery has been made to adorn nearly every body part, from hairpins to toe rings and many more types of jewellery. Hairpin can mean A long device used to hold a person's hair in place see below Hairpin bend A Stem-loop in biochemistry A toe ring is a ring made out of various Metals and non-metals worn on any of the Toes. This While high-quality is made with gemstones and precious metals, there is also a growing demand for Art jewelry where design and creativity is prized above material value. A gemstone or gem, also called a precious or semi-precious stone, is a piece of attractive Mineral, which &mdash when cut and polished &mdash See also Wearable art. Art jewelry is created with a variety of materials not just precious metals and gems In addition, there is the less-costly costume jewellery, made from less-valuable materials and mass-produced. Costume jewelry (also called fashion jewelry, junk jewelry, fake jewelry, or fallalery) is Jewelry that is made of less valuable materials New variations include wire sculpture (wrap) jewellery, using anything from base metal wire with rock tumbled stone to precious metals and precious gemstones. Wire sculpture refers to the creation of Sculpture or Jewellery (sometimes called wire wrap jewellery) out of Wire.
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Form and function
Jewellery has been used for a number of reasons:
- Currency, wealth display and storage,
- Functional use (such as clasps, pins, and buckles)
- Symbolism (to show membership or status)
- Protection (in the form of amulets and magical wards),[3]
- Artistic display
Most cultures have at some point had a practice of keeping large amounts of wealth stored in the form of jewellery. The history of money is a story spanning thousands of years Related to this Numismatics is the scientific study of Money and its History in all its varied An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic Numerous cultures move wedding dowries in the form of jewellery, or create jewellery as a means to store or display coins. A dowry (also known as trousseau or tocher) is the money goods or estate that a woman brings to her soon to be husband in marriage Alternatively, jewellery has been used as a currency or trade good; an example being the use of slave beads. Slave beads (often called Trade beads) were otherwise decorative Glass Beads used between the 16th and 20th century as a Currency to exchange
Many items of jewellery, such as brooches and buckles originated as purely functional items, but evolved into decorative items as their functional requirement diminished. A brooch (also known in ancient times as a fibula, and not to be confused with broach) is a Decorative jewelry item designed to be attached to A buckle (from Latin buccula) is a Clasp used for fastening two things together such as the ends of a belt, or for retaining the end of a [4]
Jewellery can also be symbolic of group membership, as in the case of the Christian crucifix or Jewish Star of David, or of status, as in the case of chains of office, or the Western practice of married people wearing a wedding ring. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings A crucifix (from Latin cruci fixus meaning "(one fixed to a cross" is a cross with a representation of Jesus ' body or corpus Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut The Star of David or Shield of David ( Magen David in Hebrew with nikkud or מגן דוד without academically transcribed Māḡēn Dāwīḏ by A livery collar or chain of office is a collar or heavy chain, usually of Gold, worn as insignia of office or a mark of Fealty or NOTICE TO WOULD-BE ROMEOS ************** A wedding ring or wedding band consists of a Metal ring, often set with diamonds or other precious stones
Wearing of amulets and devotional medals to provide protection or ward off evil is common in some cultures; these may take the form of symbols (such as the ankh), stones, plants, animals, body parts (such as the Khamsa), or glyphs (such as stylized versions of the Throne Verse in Islamic art). An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic In the Roman Catholic faith a devotional medal is a Medal issued for religious devotion Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Ankylosis progressive homolog (mouse, also known as ANKH, is a human Gene. The Hamsa (خمسة Khamsa, literally "five" חמסה Khamsa) is a symbol used in Amulets Charms and Jewelry to protect A glyph is an element of writing Two or more glyphs representing the same symbol whether interchangeable or context-dependent are called Allographs the abstract unit they The Throne Verse ( Arabic: آية الكرسى) is Ayah 255 of the second Sura, Al-Baqara Islamic art encompasses the arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally [5]
Although artistic display has clearly been a function of jewellery from the very beginning, the other roles described above tended to take primacy. It was only in the late 19th century, with the work of such masters as Peter Carl Fabergé and René Lalique, that art began to take primacy over function and wealth. Peter Carl Fabergé original name Carl Gustavovich Fabergé ( May 30, 1846 &ndash September 24, 1920) was a Russian René Jules Lalique was born in Ay Marne, Marne, France on April 6, 1860, and died May 5, 1945. This trend has continued into modern times, expanded upon by artists such as Robert Lee Morris and Ed Levin. Robert Lee Morris is a Jewelry designer and Sculptor who attributes much of his inspiration to forms he admires in Nature.
Materials and methods
In creating jewellery, gemstones, coins, or other precious items are often used, and they are typically set into precious metals. A gemstone or gem, also called a precious or semi-precious stone, is a piece of attractive Mineral, which &mdash when cut and polished &mdash main - title Coin keywords numismatics coin review Alloys of nearly every metal known have been encountered in jewellery -- bronze, for example, was common in Roman times. Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus Modern fine jewellery usually includes gold, white gold, platinum, palladium, or silver. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 White gold is an Alloy of Gold and at least one White metal, usually Nickel or Palladium. Platinum (ˈplætɪnəm is a Chemical element with the Atomic symbol Pt and an Atomic number of 78 Palladium (pronounced \pəˈleɪdiəm\ is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal that was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston, who named it palladium after the Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Most American and European gold jewellery is made of an alloy of gold, the purity of which is stated in karats, indicated by a number followed by the letter K. The KARAT (abbreviation "K" or 'Kt' or "KP" for Karat Plumb is a measure of the Purity of Gold Alloys. American gold jewellery must be of at least 10K purity (41. 7% pure gold), (though in England the number is 9K (37. 5% pure gold) and is typically found up to 18K (75% pure gold). Higher purity levels are less common with alloys at 22 K (91. 6% pure gold), and 24 K (99. 9% pure gold) being considered too soft for jewellery use in America and Europe. These high purity alloys, however, are widely used across Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Platinum alloys range from 900 (90% pure) to 950 (95. 0% pure). The silver used in jewellery is usually sterling silver, or 92. Sterling silver is an Alloy of Silver containing 925% pure silver and 7 5% fine silver. In costume jewelry, stainless steel findings are sometimes used. Costume jewelry (also called fashion jewelry, junk jewelry, fake jewelry, or fallalery) is Jewelry that is made of less valuable materials In Metallurgy, stainless steel is defined as a Steel Alloy with a minimum of 11
Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused-glass or enamel; wood, often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bone and ivory; natural clay; polymer clay; and even plastics. Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many In a discussion of Material science, enamel (or vitreous enamel or porcelain enamel in U Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce Ivory is formed from Dentine and constitutes the bulk of the Teeth and Tusks of animals such as the Elephant, Hippopotamus, Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Polymer clay is a sculptable material based on the Polymer Polyvinyl chloride ( PVC) Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products Hemp and other twines have been used as well to create jewelry that has more of a natural feel. However, any inclusion of lead or lead solder will cause an English Assay office (the building which gives English jewellery its stamp of approval, the Hallmark) to destroy the piece. Assay offices are Institutions set up to Assay (test the Purity of Precious metal items to protect Consumers. A hallmark is a mark or series of marks struck on items made of precious metals &mdash Platinum, Gold, Silver and in some nations Palladium
Beads are frequently used in jewellery. A bead is a small decorative object that is pierced for threading or stringing These may be made of glass, gemstones, metal, wood, shells, clay and polymer clay. Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs Beaded jewellery commonly encompasses necklaces, bracelets, earrings, belts, and rings. Beadwork is the art or craft of attaching Beads to one another or to cloth using a needle and thread A necklace is an article of Jewellery which is worn around the Neck. bracelet is an article of Jewelry which is worn around the Wrist. Earrings are jewelry attached to the ear through a piercing in the Earlobe or some other external part of the ear (except in the case of clip earrings A belt is a flexible band typically made of Leather or heavy Cloth, and worn around the Waist. Beads may be large or small, the smallest type of beads used are known as seed beads, these are the beads used for the "woven" style of beaded jewellery. Seed beads are uniformly shaped spheroidal Beads ranging in size from under a Millimetre to several millimetres Another use of seed beads is an embroidery technique where seed beads are sewn onto fabric backings to create broad collar neck pieces and beaded bracelets. Bead embroidery, a popular type of handwork during the Victorian era is enjoying a renaissance in modern jewellery making. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Beading, or beadwork, is also very popular in many African cultures.
Advanced glass and glass beadmaking techniques by Murano and Venetian glassmasters developed crystalline glass, enameled glass (smalto), glass with threads of gold (goldstone), multicoloured glass (millefiori), milk-glass (lattimo) and imitation gemstones made of glass. Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many The technology for glass beadmaking is among the oldest human arts dating back 30000 years (Dubin 1987 Murano is usually described as an Island in the Venetian Lagoon, although like Venice itself it is actually an Archipelago of islands linked Venetian glass is a type of Glass object made in Venice, Italy, primarily on the island of Murano. Millefiori is a glasswork technique which produces distinctive decorative patterns on glassware As early as the 13th century, Murano glass and Murano beads were popular. Murano glass has been a famous product of the Venetian island of Murano for centuries Murano beads are intricate Glass Beads influenced by Venetian glass artists Complexities of glass and the making of beads There are
Silversmiths, goldsmiths, and lapidaries methods include forging, casting, soldering or welding, cutting, carving, and "cold-joining" (using adhesives, staples, and rivets to assemble parts). A silversmith is a person who works primarily making objects in solid Silver; historically the training and guild organization of Goldsmiths included silversmiths A goldsmith is a Metalworker who specializes in working with Gold and other Precious metals usually in modern times to make Jewelry. A lapidary (the word means "concerned with stones" is an Artisan who practices the craft of working forming and finishing stone, Mineral, Forging is the term for shaping metal by using localized compressive forces Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is (usually poured into a mold which Soldering is a process in which two or more Metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint the filler metal having a relatively low Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials usually Metals or Thermoplastics by causing coalescence. Glue or adhesive is a compound that adheres or bonds two items together A rivet is a mechanical Fastener. Before it is installed it consists of a smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end [6]
Diamonds
Diamonds were first mined in India. In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country [7] Pliny may have mentioned them, although there is some debate as to the exact nature of the stone he referred to as Adamas;[8] In 2005, Australia, Botswana, Russia and Canada ranked among the primary sources of gemstone diamond production. [9][10]
The British crown jewels contain the Cullinan Diamond, part of the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106. The collective term Crown Jewels denotes the regalia and vestments worn by the sovereign of the United Kingdom during the Coronation ceremony and at various other The Cullinan diamond is the largest rough gem-quality Diamond ever found at 3106 75 carats (621. The carat is a unit of Mass used for measuring gems and Pearls Currently a carat is defined as exactly 200 mg (0 35 g).
Now popular in engagement rings, this usage dates back to the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477. In Western tradition an engagement ring is a ring worn by a woman indicating her Engagement to be married. Mary, called Mary the Rich ( 13 February, 1457 &ndash
Other gemstones
Many precious stones are used for jewellery. A gemstone or gem, also called a precious or semi-precious stone, is a piece of attractive Mineral, which &mdash when cut and polished &mdash Some gems, for example, amethyst, have become less valued as methods of extracting and importing them have progressed. Amethyst is a violet variety of Quartz often used as an Ornamental stone in Jewelry. Some man-made gems can serve in place of natural gems, an example is the cubic zirconia, used in place of the diamond. Cubic zirconia (or CZ) the cubic crystalline form of Zirconium dioxide ( ZrO2) is a Mineral that is widely synthesized [11]
Metal finishes
For platinum, gold, and silver jewellery there are many techniques to create finishes. Platinum (ˈplætɪnəm is a Chemical element with the Atomic symbol Pt and an Atomic number of 78 Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen The most common are high-polish, satin/matte, brushed, and hammered. High-polished jewellery is by far the most common and gives the metal the highly-reflective and shiny look. Satin, or matte finish reduces the shine and reflection of the jewellery and is commonly used to accentuate gemstones such as diamonds. In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in Brushed finishes give the jewellery a textured look, and are created by brushing a material (similar to sandpaper) against the metal, leaving 'brush strokes'. Hammered finishes are typically created by using a soft, rounded hammer and hammering the jewellery to give it a wavy texture.
Impact on society
Jewellery has been used to denote status. In ancient Rome, for instance, only certain ranks could wear rings;[12] Later, sumptuary laws dictated who could wear what type of jewellery; again based on rank. Sumptuary laws (from Latin sumptuariae leges) are Laws which attempt to regulate habits of consumption Cultural dictates have also played a significant role; for example, the wearing of earrings by Western men was considered "effeminate" in the 19th and early 20th centuries. More recently, the display of body jewellery, such as piercings, has become a mark of acceptance or seen as a badge of courage within some groups, but is completely rejected in others. Body piercing is the practice of puncturing or cutting a part of the Human body, creating an opening in which jewelry may be worn Likewise, the hip-hop culture has popularized the slang term bling, which refers to ostentatious display of jewellery by men or women. Hip hop is a cultural movement which developed in New York City in the 1970s primarily among African Americans and Latinos. Bling-bling (or simply bling) is a Slang term in Hip hop culture referring to flashy or elaborate Jewelry and ornamented
Conversely, the jewellery industry in the early 20th century launched a campaign to popularize wedding rings for men — which caught on — as well as engagement rings for men - which did not, going so far as to create a false history and claim that the practice had Medieval roots. A wedding ring or wedding band consists of a Metal ring, often set with diamonds or other precious stones In Western tradition an engagement ring is a ring worn by a woman indicating her Engagement to be married. By the mid 1940s, 85% of weddings in the U. S. featured a double-ring ceremony, up from 15% in the 1920s. [13] Religion has also played a role: Islam, for instance, considers the wearing of gold by men as a social taboo,[14] and many religions have edicts against excessive display. Haraam (حرام is an Arabic term meaning "forbidden" [15]
History
The history of jewellery is a long one, with many different uses among different cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insights into how ancient cultures worked. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic
Early history
The first signs of jewellery came from the Cro-Magnons, ancestors of Homo sapiens, around 40,000 years ago. Cro-Magnon ( French) is one of the main types of Homo sapiens of the European Upper Paleolithic, living approximately 40000 to 10000 years Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus The Cro-Magnons originally migrated from the Middle East to settle in Europe and replace the Neanderthals as the dominant species. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. The jewellery pieces they made were crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, teeth and stone hung on pieces of string or animal sinew, or pieces of carved bone used to secure clothing together. A necklace is an article of Jewellery which is worn around the Neck. bracelet is an article of Jewelry which is worn around the Wrist. A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of Fibrous connective tissue that usually connects Muscle to Bone and is capable of withstanding tension In some cases, jewellery had shell or mother-of-pearl pieces. Nacre, also known as mother of pearl, is an organic-inorganic Composite material produced by some Mollusks as an inner shell layer In southern Russia, carved bracelets made of mammoth tusk have been found. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending A mammoth is any Species of the Extinct Genus Mammuthus. These Proboscideans are members of the elephant family and A tusk is an extremely long Incisor Tooth of certain Mammals that protrudes when the Mouth is closed Most commonly, these have been found as grave-goods. Around 7,000 years ago, the first sign of copper jewellery was seen. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 [4]
Egypt
The first signs of established jewellery making in Ancient Egypt was around 3,000-5,000 years ago. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now [16] The Egyptians preferred the luxury, rarity, and workability of gold over other metals. This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Predynastic Egypt had Jewellery in Egypt soon began to symbolize power and religious power in the community. The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in death, with jewellery commonly placed among grave goods. Grave goods, in Archaeology and Anthropology, are the items buried along with the body
In conjunction with gold jewellery, Egyptians used coloured glass in place of precious gems. Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many Although the Egyptians had access to gemstones, they preferred the colours they could create in glass over the natural colours of stones. For nearly each gemstone, there was a glass formulation used by the Egyptians to mimic it. The colour of the jewellery was very important, as different colours meant different things; the Book of the Dead dictated that the necklace of Isis around a mummy’s neck must be red to satisfy Isis’s need for blood, while green jewellery meant new growth for crops and fertility. ' The Book of the Dead' is the common name for the Ancient Egyptian Funerary text known as ' Spells of Coming' (or ' Going') ' Forth By Day' Isis is a goddess in Ancient Egyptian religious beliefs and is celebrated in their mythology as the ideal mother and wife patron of nature and magic friend of slaves sinners Although lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the country’s borders, most other materials for jewellery were found in or near Egypt, for example in the Red Sea, where the Egyptians mined Cleopatra's favourite gem, the emerald. The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; January 69 BC &ndash 30 BC was a Hellenistic ruler of Egypt Emeralds are a variety of the Mineral Beryl (Be3Al2(SiO36 colored Green by trace amounts Egyptian jewellery was predominantly made in large workshops attached to temples or palaces. A temple (from the Latin word Templum) is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities such as prayer and sacrifice or analogous rites A palace is a grand residence especially the home of a Head of state or some other high-ranking Public figure.
Egyptian designs were most common in Phoenician jewellery. Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun Also, ancient Turkish designs found in Persian jewellery suggest that trade between the Middle East and Europe was not uncommon. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Women wore elaborate gold and silver pieces that were used in ceremonies. [16]
Europe and the Middle East
Mesopotamia
By approximately 4,000 years ago, jewellery-making had become a significant craft in the cities of Sumer and Akkad. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar The most significant archaeological evidence comes from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 2900–2300 BC were unearthed; tombs such as that of Puabi contained a multitude of artefacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli crowns embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and jewel-headed pins. Pu-Abi ( Akkadian lit "Word of my father" was an important personage in the Sumerian city of Ur who lived about 2600-2500 BCE In Assyria, men and women both wore extensive amounts of jewellery, including amulets, ankle bracelets, heavy multi-strand necklaces, and cylinder seals. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic A cylinder seal is a cylinder engraved with a 'picture story' used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface generally wet Clay. [17]
Jewellery in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf and was set with large numbers of brightly-coloured stones (chiefly agate, lapis, carnelian, and jasper). Favoured shapes included leaves, spirals, cones, and bunches of grapes. Jewellers created works both for human use and for adorning statues and idols; they employed a wide variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, such as cloisonne, engraving, fine granulation, and filigree. Cloisonné, an ancient Metalworking technique is a multi-step enamel process used to produce Jewelry, Vases and other decorative items Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it Filigree (formerly written filigrann or filigrane; also known as telkari, the name given in Anatolia, meaning "wire work" [18]
Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to the trade and manufacture of jewellery have also been unearthed throughout Mesopotamian archaeological sites. One record in the Mari royal archives, for example, gives the composition of various items of jewellery:
| “ | 1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 34 flat speckled chalcedony bead, [and] 35 gold fluted beads, in groups of five. Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of 1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 39 flat speckled chalcedony beads, [with] 41 fluted beads in a group that make up the hanging device. 1 necklace with rounded lapis lazuli beads including: 28 rounded lapis lazuli beads, [and] 29 fluted beads for its clasp. [19] | ” |
Greece
The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewellery in 1,400 BC, although beads shaped as shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. By 300 BC, the Greeks had mastered making coloured jewellery and using amethysts, pearl and emeralds. Amethyst is a violet variety of Quartz often used as an Ornamental stone in Jewelry. A pearl is a hard roundish object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled Mollusk. Emeralds are a variety of the Mineral Beryl (Be3Al2(SiO36 colored Green by trace amounts Also, the first signs of cameos appeared, with the Greeks creating them from Indian Sardonyx, a striped brown pink and cream agate stone. For the "brief appearance" see Cameo appearance. For the "chemical emergency software" see Computer-Aided Management of Emergency India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Onyx is a Cryptocrystalline form of Quartz. The colors of its bands range from white to almost every color (save some shades such as purple or blue This article is about the semi-precious stone For other uses see Agate (disambiguation. Greek jewellery was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and workmanship. However, as time progressed the designs grew in complexity different materials were soon utilized.
Jewellery in Greece was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances or on special occasions. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly worn by women to show their wealth, social status and beauty. The jewellery was often supposed to give the wearer protection from the “Evil Eye” or endowed the owner with supernatural powers, while others had a religious symbolism. The evil eye is a belief that the Envy elicited by the good Luck of fortunate people may result in their misfortune The term supernatural or supranatural ( Latin: super, supra "above" + natura "nature" pertains to entities events Older pieces of jewellery that have been found were dedicated to the Gods. The largest production of jewellery in these times came from Northern Greece and Macedon. Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most However, although much of the jewellery in Greece was made of gold and silver with ivory and gems, bronze and clay copies were made also. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Ivory is formed from Dentine and constitutes the bulk of the Teeth and Tusks of animals such as the Elephant, Hippopotamus, Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and
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They worked two styles of pieces; cast pieces and pieces hammered out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewellery have been recovered; it was made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay moulds. Then the two halves were joined together and wax and then molten metal, was placed in the centre. Wax has traditionally referred to a substance that is secreted by Bees ( Beeswax) and used by them in constructing their This technique had been practised since the late Bronze Age. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for The more common form of jewellery was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to thickness and then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then used to create motifs on the jewellery. Jewels may then be added to hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface. The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia when Alexander the Great conquered part of it. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' In earlier designs, other European influences can also be detected. When Roman rule came to Greece, no change in jewellery designs was detected. However, by 27 BC, Greek designs were heavily influenced by the Roman culture. That is not to say that indigenous design did not thrive; numerous polychrome butterfly pendants on silver foxtail chains, dating from the 1st century, have been found near Olbia, with only one example ever found anywhere else. For the character from the Oz series see Polychrome (fictional character. Olbia ( Sardinian: Terranoa, Gallurese: Tarranoa) is a town of approximately 51000 inhabitants in northeastern [20]
Rome
Although jewellery work was abundantly diverse in earlier times, especially among the barbarian tribes such as the Celts, when the Romans conquered most of Europe, jewellery was changed as smaller factions developed the Roman designs. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The most common artefact of early Rome was the brooch, which was used to secure clothing together. A brooch (also known in ancient times as a fibula, and not to be confused with broach) is a Decorative jewelry item designed to be attached to The Romans used a diverse range of materials for their jewellery from their extensive resources across the continent. Although they used gold, they sometimes used bronze or bone and in earlier times, glass beads & pearl. As early as 2,000 years ago, they imported Sri Lankan sapphires and Indian diamonds and used emeralds and amber in their jewellery. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island Sapphire (antique greek hyacinthos refers to gem varieties of the mineral Corundum, an Aluminium oxide (Al2O3 when it is a color other than Amber is Fossil tree Resin, which is appreciated for its color and beauty In Roman-ruled England, fossilized wood called jet from Northern England was often carved into pieces of jewellery. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs Jet is a geological material and is considered to be a minor gemstone The early Italians worked in crude gold and created clasps, necklaces, earrings and bracelets. They also produced larger pendants which could be filled with perfume. A pendant (from Old French) is a hanging object generally attached to a Necklace or an Earring. Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living
Like the Greeks, often the purpose of Roman jewellery was to ward off the “Evil Eye” given by other people. Although woman wore a vast array of jewellery, men often only wore a finger ring. A finger ring is a band worn as a type of ornamental Jewellery around a finger it is the most common current meaning of the word ring. Although they were expected to wear at least one ring, some Roman men wore a ring on every finger, while others wore none. Roman men and women wore rings with a carved stone on it that was used with wax to seal documents, an act that continued into medieval times when kings and noblemen used the same method. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the jewellery designs were absorbed by neighbouring countries and tribes. [16]
Middle Ages
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Post-Roman Europe continued to develop jewellery making skills; the Celts and Merovingians in particular are noted for their jewellery, which in terms of quality matched or exceeded that of Byzantium. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The Merovingians (also Merovings) were a Salian Frankish dynasty that came to rule the Franks in a region (known as Francia in Latin Clothing fasteners, amulets, and to a lesser extent signet rings are the most common artefacts known to us; a particularly striking celtic example is the Tara Brooch. A seal can mean a wax seal bearing an impressed figure or an embossed figure in paper with the purpose of authenticating a document but the term can also mean any device for The Tara Brooch is considered one of the most important extant artifacts of early Christian-era Irish Insular art, and is displayed in the National Museum of Ireland The Torc was common throughout Europe as a symbol of status and power. A torc, also spelled torq or torque is a rigid piece of personal adornment made from twisted metal By the 8th century, jewelled weaponry was common for men, while other jewellery (with the exception of signet rings) seems to become the domain of women. Grave goods found in a 6th-7th century burial near Chalon-sur-Saône are illustrative; the young girl was buried with: 2 silver fibulae, a necklace (with coins), bracelet, gold earings, a pair of hair-pins, comb, and buckle. Not to be confused with Châlons-en-Champagne, formerly known as Châlons-sur-Marne A Fibula is an ancient brooch (Plural fibulae Technically the Latin term fibulae refers specifically to Roman brooches however the term is widely used to [21] The Celts specialized in continuous patterns and designs; while Merovingian designs are best known for stylized animal figures. Celtic art is art associated with various people known as Celts; those who spoke the Celtic languages in Europe from pre-history through to the modern period [22] They were not the only groups known for high quality work; note the Visigoth work shown here, and the numerous decorative objects found at the Anglo-Saxon Ship burial at Sutton Hoo Suffolk, England, are a particularly well-known example. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south A ship burial or boat grave is a Burial in which a Ship or Boat is used either as a container for the dead and the grave goods or as a part Sutton Hoo near Woodbridge, Suffolk, England, is the site of two Anglo-Saxon cemeteries Suffolk (ˈsʌfək is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in East Anglia, England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland [16] On the continent, cloisonné and garnet were perhaps the quintessential method and gemstone of the period. Cloisonné, an ancient Metalworking technique is a multi-step enamel process used to produce Jewelry, Vases and other decorative items The garnet group includes a group of minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives
The Eastern successor of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, continued many of the methods of the Romans, though religious themes came to predominate. Unlike the Romans, the Franks, and the Celts, however; Byzantium used light-weight gold leaf rather than solid gold, and more emphasis was placed on stones and gems. As in the West, Byzantine jewellery was worn by wealthier females, with male jewellery apparently restricted to signet rings. Like other contemporary cultures, jewellery was commonly buried with its owner. [23]
Renaissance
The Renaissance and exploration both had significant impacts on the development of jewellery in Europe. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere By the 17th century, increasing exploration and trade lead to increased availability of a wide variety of gemstones as well as exposure to the art of other cultures. Whereas prior to this the working of gold and precious metal had been at the forefront of jewellery, this period saw increasing dominance of gemstones and their settings. A fascinating example of this is the Cheapside Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in London England during the Commonwealth period and not found again until 1912. The Commonwealth of England was the Republican government which ruled first England (including Wales) and then Ireland and Scotland It contained Colombian emerald, topaz, amazonite from Brazil, spinel, iolite, and chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, ruby from India, Afghani lapis lazuli, Persian turquoise, Red Sea peridot, as well as Bohemian and Hungarian opal, garnet, and amethyst. Emeralds are a variety of the Mineral Beryl (Be3Al2(SiO36 colored Green by trace amounts Topaz is a Silicate mineral of Aluminium and Fluorine with the Chemical formula Al 2 Si[[oxygen O]]4( Amazonite (sometimes called "Amazon stone" is a green variety of Microcline Feldspar. The spinels are any of a class of Minerals of general formulation XY2 O 4 which Crystallize in the cubic (isometric Cordierite ( Mineralogy) or iolite ( Gemology) is a Magnesium Iron Aluminium cyclosilicate. The Mineral or Gemstone chrysoberyl, not to be confused with Beryl, is an aluminate of Beryllium with the formula BeAl2O4 A Ruby is a pink to blood-red Gemstone, a variety of the Mineral Corundum ( Aluminium oxide) For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Turquoise is an opaque blue-to-green Mineral that is a hydrous Phosphate of Copper and Aluminium, with the Chemical Peridot (pronunciation /ˈpɛrɪˌdɒt/, /ˈpɛrɪˌdoʊ/ (British English /ˈpɛərɪˌdɑt/ /ˈpɛərɪˌdɑʊ/ (US English is the gem quality variety of forsteritic OPAL ( Open Pool Australian Lightwater reactor) is a 20 megawatt pool-type nuclear research reactor that was officially opened in April 2007 The garnet group includes a group of minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives Amethyst is a violet variety of Quartz often used as an Ornamental stone in Jewelry. Large stones were frequently set in box-bezels on enamelled rings. [24] Notable among merchants of the period was Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who in the 1660s brought the precursor stone of the Hope Diamond to France. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1605 - July 1689 was a French traveller and pioneer of trade with India, born in Paris, where his father Gabriel and uncle French Blue redirects here For the color see Blue. The Hope Diamond is a large 45
When Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned as Emperor of the French in 1804, he revived the style and grandeur of jewellery and fashion in France. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Under Napoleon’s rule, jewellers introduced parures, suites of matching jewellery, such as a diamond tiara, diamond earrings, diamond rings, a diamond brooch and a diamond necklace. A parure is a set of various items of matching Jewellery, which rose to popularity in 17th century Europe A tiara (from Persian تاره tara adopted in Latin as 'tiara' is a form of crown. Earrings are jewelry attached to the ear through a piercing in the Earlobe or some other external part of the ear (except in the case of clip earrings Both of Napoleon’s wives had beautiful sets such as these and wore them regularly. Another fashion trend resurrected by Napoleon was the cameo. For the "brief appearance" see Cameo appearance. For the "chemical emergency software" see Computer-Aided Management of Emergency Soon after his cameo decorated crown was seen, cameos were highly sought after. The period also saw the early stages of costume jewellery, with fish scale covered glass beads in place of pearls or conch shell cameos instead of stone cameos. Costume jewelry (also called fashion jewelry, junk jewelry, fake jewelry, or fallalery) is Jewelry that is made of less valuable materials A pearl is a hard roundish object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled Mollusk. A conch (pronounced in the USA as "konk" or "konch" ˈkɒŋk or /ˈkɒntʃ/ is one of a number of different Species New terms were coined to differentiate the arts: jewellers who worked in cheaper materials were called bijoutiers, while jewellers who worked with expensive materials were called joailliers; a practice which continues to this day.
Romanticism
Starting in the late 18th century, Romanticism had a profound impact on the development of western jewellery. Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the Perhaps the most significant influences were the public’s fascination with the treasures being discovered through the birth of modern archaeology, and the fascination with Medieval and Renaissance art. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Changing social conditions and the onset of the industrial revolution also lead to growth of a middle class that wanted and could afford jewellery. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the As a result, the use of industrial processes, cheaper alloys, and stone substitutes, lead to the development of paste or costume jewellery. Costume jewelry (also called fashion jewelry, junk jewelry, fake jewelry, or fallalery) is Jewelry that is made of less valuable materials Distinguished goldsmiths continued to flourish, however, as wealthier patrons sought to ensure that what they wore still stood apart from the jewellery of the masses, not only through use of precious metals and stones but also though superior artistic and technical work; one such artist was the French goldsmith Françoise Désire Fromment Meurice. A category unique to this period and quite appropriate to the philosophy of romanticism was mourning jewellery. It originated in England, where Queen Victoria was often seen wearing jet jewellery after the death of Prince Albert; and allowed the wearer to continue wearing jewellery while expressing a state of mourning at the death of a loved one. Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 was from 20 June 1837 the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Jet is a geological material and is considered to be a minor gemstone [25]
In the United states, this period saw the founding in 1837 of Tiffany & Co. by Charles Lewis Tiffany. Tiffany & Co ( is a US jewelry and silverware company founded by Charles Lewis Tiffany and Teddy Young in New York City Charles Lewis Tiffany ( February 15, 1812 – February 18, 1902) founded Tiffany & Co Tiffany's put the United States on the world map in terms of jewellery, and gained fame creating dazzling commissions for people such as the wife of Abraham Lincoln; later it would gain popular notoriety as the setting of the film Breakfast at Tiffany's. Abraham Lincoln (February 12 1809 &ndash April 15 1865 the sixteenth President of the United States, successfully led his country through its greatest internal Breakfast at Tiffany's is a 1961 American film starring Audrey Hepburn and George Peppard, and featuring Patricia Neal, In France, Pierre Cartier founded Cartier SA in 1847, while 1884 saw the founding of Bulgari in Italy. Cartier SA is a French jeweller and watch manufacturer that is a subsidiary of Compagnie Financière Richemont SA Bulgari ( is an Italian jeweler and Luxury goods Retailer. The name is usually written "BVLGARI" in ancient Roman style and comes from The modern production studio had been born; a step away from the former dominance of individual craftsmen and patronage. Patronage is the support encouragement privilege and often financial aid given by a person or an organization
This period also saw the first major collaboration between East and West; collaboration in Pforzheim between German and Japanese artists lead to Shakudo plaques set into Filigree frames being created by the Stoeffler firm in 1885). Pforzheim is a town of nearly 119000 inhabitants in the state of Baden-Württemberg, southwest Germany at the gate to the Black Forest. Shakudō (赤銅 is a Billon of Gold and Copper (typically 4% Gold 96% Copper mostly designed for its beautiful dark blue-purple Patina. Filigree (formerly written filigrann or filigrane; also known as telkari, the name given in Anatolia, meaning "wire work" [26] Perhaps the grand finalé – and an appropriate transition to the following period – were the masterful creations of the Russian artist Peter Carl Fabergé, working for the Imperial Russian court, whose Fabergé eggs and jewellery pieces are still considered as the epitome of the goldsmith’s art. Peter Carl Fabergé original name Carl Gustavovich Fabergé ( May 30, 1846 &ndash September 24, 1920) was a Russian A Fabergé egg is any one of sixty-nine jeweled eggs made by Peter Carl Fabergé and his assistants between 1885 and 1917
Art Nouveau
In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potential of the growing Art Nouveau style. Art Nouveau ( nu vo anglicised /ˈɑːt nuːvəu/ ( French for 'new art' also known as Jugendstil ( German for 'youth style' is an international Very closely related were the German Jugendstil, British (and to some extent American) Arts and Crafts movement. Art Nouveau ( nu vo anglicised /ˈɑːt nuːvəu/ ( French for 'new art' also known as Jugendstil ( German for 'youth style' is an international The Arts and Crafts Movement was a British, Canadian, and American Aesthetic movement occurring in the last years of the 19th century and the Art Nouveau jewellery encompassed many distinct features including a focus on the female form and an emphasis on colour, most commonly rendered through the use of enamelling techniques including basse-taille, champleve, cloisonné and plique a jour. Motifs included orchids, irises, pansies, vines, swans, peacocks, snakes, dragonflies, mythological creatures and the female silhouette. Rene Lalique, working for the Paris shop of Samuel Bing, was recognized by contemporaries as a leading figure in this trend. René Jules Lalique was born in Ay Marne, Marne, France on April 6, 1860, and died May 5, 1945. Siegfried "Samuel" Bing (1838 &ndash September 1905 was a German Art dealer in Paris, who was prominent in the introduction of Japanese The Darmstadt Artists' Colony and Wiener Werkstaette provided perhaps the most significant German input to the trend, while in Denmark Georg Jensen, though best known for his Silverware, also contributed significant pieces. The Darmstadt Artists’ Colony refers both to a group of artists as well as to the buildings in Mathildenhöhe in Darmstadt in which these artists lived and worked Established in 1903 the Wiener Werkstätte (Vienna Workshop was a production community of visual artists Georg Arthur Jensen ( August 31, 1866, Raadvad Denmark &ndash October 2, 1935, Copenhagen) was a Danish In England, Liberty & Co and the British arts & crafts movement of Charles Robert Ashbee contributed slightly more linear but still characteristic designs. Liberty is a well known store in Great Marlborough Street in central London, England at the heart of the West End shopping district Charles Robert Ashbee (London May 17, 1863 &ndash Sevenoaks, Kent May 23, 1942) was a designer The new style moved the focus of the jeweller's art from the setting of stones to the artistic design of the piece itself; Lalique's dragonfly design is one of the best examples of this. Enamels played a large role in technique, while sinuous organic lines are the most recognizable design feature. In a discussion of Material science, enamel (or vitreous enamel or porcelain enamel in U The end of World War One once again changed public attitudes; and a more sober style came in. [27]
Art Deco
Growing political tensions, the after-effects of the war, and a reaction against the perceived decadence of the turn of the century led to simpler forms, combined with more effective manufacturing for mass production of high-quality jewellery. Covering the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the style has become popularly known as Art Deco. Art Deco was a popular international design movement from 1925 until 1939 affecting the decorative arts such as Architecture, Interior design, and Industrial Walter Gropius and the German Bauhaus movement, with their philosophy of "no barriers between artists and craftsmen" lead to some interesting and stylistically simplified forms. Walter Adolph Georg Gropius ( May 18, 1883 &ndash July 5, 1969) was a German Architect and founder of Bauhaus ("House of Building" or "Building School" is the common term for the, a school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts and was famous Modern materials were also introduced: plastics and aluminum were first used in jewellery, and of note are the chromed pendants of Russian born Bauhaus master Naum Slutzky. Naum Slutzky,* 28 Februar 1894 in Kiev, former Russia; † 4 Technical mastery became as valued as the material itself; in the west, this period saw the reinvention of granulation by the German Elizabeth Treskow (although development of the re-invention has continued into the 1990s).
Jewish jewellery
In the Jewish culture jewellery have played an important role since biblical times. There are references in the bible to the custom of wearing jewellery both as a decoration and as a symbol. Now, Jewish jewellery is worn to show affiliation with the religion, and as talismans and amulets.
The Star of David ("Magen David" in Hebrew) is the symbol most recognized with Judaism. The Star of David or Shield of David ( Magen David in Hebrew with nikkud or מגן דוד without academically transcribed Māḡēn Dāwīḏ by It was used in Israel in Roman times, but it seems to have become associated with Judaism in particular only in later centuries. In the 17th century it became a practice to put the Star of David on the outside of synagogues, to identify them as Jewish houses of worship; however, it is not clear why this symbol was selected for this. Today the Star of David is a universally recognized symbol of Jews. It appears on the flag of the state of Israel, and the Israeli equivalent of the Red Cross is known as "the Magen David Adom" ("Adom" is red in Hebrew). One of the most common symbols in Jewish jewellery is the Star of David, equivalent to wearing a cross by Christians.
Another popular symbol used in Jewish jewellery is the Hamsa, also known as the "Hamesh hand". The Hamsa (خمسة Khamsa, literally "five" חמסה Khamsa) is a symbol used in Amulets Charms and Jewelry to protect The Hamsa appears often in a stylized form, as a hand with three fingers raised, and sometimes with two thumbs arranged symmetrically. Its five fingers are said to symbolize the five books if the Torah. The symbol is used for protection and as a mean to ward of the Evil eye in amulets and charms and can also be found in various places such as home entrances and cars. The evil eye is a belief that the Envy elicited by the good Luck of fortunate people may result in their misfortune It is also common to place other symbols in the middle of the Hamsa that are believed to help against the evil eye such as fish, eyes and the Star of David. The colour blue, or more specifically light blue, is also considered protective against the evil eye and many Hamsas are in that colour or with embedded gemstones in different shades of blue. Hamsas are often decorated with Jewish prayers of a protective fashion such as the Sh'ma Prayer, the Birkat HaBayit (Blessing for the Home), or the Tefilat HaDerech (Traveler's Prayer).
The Chai symbol, popularly worn on necklaces, is the Hebrew word "Chai" (means 'living'), consisting of the two Hebrew letters Chet and Yod. This word refers to God. According to the gematrian system, the letters of Chai add up to 18. There have been many mystical numerological speculations about this fact and the custom to give donations and monetary gifts in multiples of 18 as a blessing for long life is very common in Jewish circles.
Other motives found in Jewish jewellery are symbols from the Kabbalah (also known as kabala, cabala) such as the Merkaba, a three-dimensional Star of David, and the Tree of life. Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. Pieces of jewellery are decorated with parts or initials of known Jewish prayers and with 3-letters combinations, believed to represent different names of the Jewish God.
Asia
Jewellery making in Asia started in China 5,000 years ago and in the Indus Valley region later on. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd
China
The earliest culture to begin making jewellery in Asia was the Chinese around 5,000 years ago. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Chinese jewellery designs were very religion-orientated and contained Buddhist symbols, a fact which remains to this day. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices
The Chinese used silver in their jewellery more often than gold, and decorated it with their favourite colour, blue. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Events By place Carthage Accused of treason by the Carthaginians after being defeated by the Romans at the Battle of the Events By Place Roman Empire The Goths invade Asia Minor and the Balkans. Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Blue kingfisher feathers were tied onto early Chinese jewellery and later, blue gems and glass were incorporated into designs. Kingfishers are small bright colored Birds of the three families Alcedinidae ( River kingfishers, Halcyonidae ( Tree kingfishers, and Cerylidae ( Water Feathers are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering or Plumage, on Birds They are considered the most complex integumentary structures However, Chinese preferred jade over any other stone. Jade is an Ornamental stone. The term jade is applied to two different rocks that are made up of different Silicate minerals. They fashioned it using diamonds. In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in The Chinese revered jade because of the human-like qualities they assigned to it, such as its hardness, durability and beauty. [4] The first jade pieces were very simple, but as time progressed, more complex designs evolved. Jade rings from between the 4th and 7th centuries BCE show evidence of having been worked with a compound milling machine; hundreds of years before the first mention of such equipment in the west. A milling machine is a Machine tool used for the shaping of Metal and other Solid Materials. [28]
In China, jewellery was worn frequently by both sexes to show their nobility and wealth. However, in later years, it was used to accentuate beauty. Women wore highly detailed gold and silver head dresses and other items, while men wore decorative hat buttons which showed rank and gold or silver rings. Woman also wore strips of gold on their foreheads, much like women in the Indus Valley. The band was an early form of tiara and was often decorated with precious gems. A tiara (from Persian تاره tara adopted in Latin as 'tiara' is a form of crown. The most common piece of jewellery worn by Chinese was the earring, which was worn by both men and women. Amulets were also common too, often with a Chinese symbol or dragon. An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic The dragon is a Legendary creature of which some interpretation or depiction appears in almost every culture worldwide In fact, dragons, Chinese symbols and also phoenixes were frequently depicted on jewellery designs. The phoenix ( Ancient Greek: Φοῖνιξ phoínix is a mythical sacred firebird in ancient mythologies starting with the Greek and later the
The Chinese often placed their jewellery in their graves; most Chinese graves found by archaeologists contain decorative jewellery. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos [29]
India
The Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere. This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. While Western traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms for some 5000 years. [30] One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin By 1,500 BC the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces and metallic bangles. Bangles (Kangan (Valayal (Gaaju or Chudi are ornaments worn mainly by women Before 2,100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. A bead is a small decorative object that is pierced for threading or stringing Beads in the Indus Valley were made using simple techniques. First, a bead maker would need a rough stone, which would be bought from an eastern stone trader. The stone would then be placed into a hot oven where it would be heated until it turned deep red, a colour highly prized by people of the Indus Valley. The red stone would then be chipped to the right size and a hole drilled through it with primitive drills. The beads were then polished. Some beads were also painted with designs. This art form was often passed down through family; children of bead makers often learnt how to work beads from a young age.
Jewellery in the Indus Valley was worn predominantly by females, who wore numerous clay or shell bracelets on their wrists. They were often shaped like doughnuts and painted black. Over time, clay bangles were discarded for more durable ones. In India today, bangles are made out of metal or glass. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across Other pieces that women frequently wore were thin bands of gold that would be worn on the forehead, earrings, primitive brooches, chokers and gold rings. choker is a close-fitting Necklace, worn high on the Neck. This type of Jewellery can consist of one or more bands circling the neck Although women wore jewellery the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small beads were often crafted to be placed in men and women’s hair. The beads were about one millimetre long.
A female skeleton (presently on display at the National Museum, New Delhi, India) wears a carlinean bangle ( a bracelet) on her left hand.
India was the first country to mine diamonds, with some mines dating back to 296 BC. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in However, axes dating to 4,000 BC found in China, contain traces of diamond dust used to sharpen the blades. While China used the diamonds they found mainly for carving jade, India traded the diamonds, realising their valuable qualities. This trade almost vanished 1,000 years after Christianity grew as a religion, as Christians rejected the diamonds which were used in Indian religious amulets. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Along with Arabians from the Middle East restricting the trade, India’s diamond jewellery trade lulled. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East.
Today, many of the jewellery designs and traditions are still used and jewellery is commonplace in Indian ceremonies and weddings. [29]
Americas
Jewellery played a major role in the fate of the Americas when the Spanish established an empire to seize South American gold. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Jewellery making developed in the Americas 5,000 years ago in Central and South America. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Large amounts of gold was easily accessible, and the Aztecs and Mayans created numerous works in the metal. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas Among the Aztecs, only nobility wore gold jewellery, as it showed their rank, power and wealth. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political Gold jewellery was most common in the Aztec Empire and was often decorated with feathers from birds. Feathers are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering or Plumage, on Birds They are considered the most complex integumentary structures Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. The main purpose of Aztec jewellery was to draw attention, with richer and more powerful Aztecs wearing brighter, more expensive jewellery and clothes. Although gold was the most common and popular material used in Aztec jewellery, silver was also readily available throughout the American empires. In addition to adornment and status, the Aztecs also used jewellery in sacrifices to appease the gods. Priests also used gem encrusted daggers to perform animal and human sacrifices. [16][25]
Another ancient American civilization with expertise in jewellery making was the Maya. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas At the peak of their civilization, the Maya were making jewellery from jade, gold, silver, bronze and copper. Jade is an Ornamental stone. The term jade is applied to two different rocks that are made up of different Silicate minerals. Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Maya designs were similar to those of the Aztecs, with lavish head dresses and jewellery. The Maya also traded in precious gems. However, in earlier times, the Maya had little access to metal, so made the majority of their jewellery out of bone or stone. Merchants and nobility were the only few that wore expensive jewellery in the Maya Empire, much the same as with the Aztecs. [29]
In North America, Native Americans used shells, wood, turquoise, and soapstone, almost unavailable in South and Central America. Turquoise is an opaque blue-to-green Mineral that is a hydrous Phosphate of Copper and Aluminium, with the Chemical Soapstone (also known as steatite or soaprock) is a Metamorphic rock, a talc- Schist. The turquoise was used in necklaces and to be placed in earrings. Native Americans with access to oyster shells, often located in only one location in America, traded the shells with other tribes, showing the great importance of the body adornment trade in Northern America. The common name oyster is used for a number of different groups of Bivalve Mollusks most of which live in marine habitats or Brackish water. [31]
Pacific
Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas because of recent human settlement. Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas due to relatively recent human settlement The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions Early Pacific jewellery was made of bone, wood and other natural materials, and thus has not survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn above the waist, with headdresses, necklaces, hair pins and arm and waist belts being the most common pieces.
Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to be a symbol of either fertility or power. Elaborate headdresses are worn by many Pacific cultures and some, such as the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea, wear certain headresses once they have killed an enemy. Papua New Guinea (or ˈpæpjuːə in Tok Pisin: Papua Niugini) officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania Tribesman may wear boar bones through their noses.
Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of communication with outside cultures; some areas of Borneo and Papua New Guinea are yet to be explored by Western nations. However, the island nations which were flooded with Western missionaries have had drastic changes made to their jewellery designs. Missionaries saw any type of tribal jewellery as a sign of the wearer's devotion to paganism. Thus many tribal designs were lost forever in the mass conversion to Christianity. [32]
Australia is now the number one supplier of opals in the world. OPAL ( Open Pool Australian Lightwater reactor) is a 20 megawatt pool-type nuclear research reactor that was officially opened in April 2007 bracelet is an article of Jewelry which is worn around the Wrist. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. OPAL ( Open Pool Australian Lightwater reactor) is a 20 megawatt pool-type nuclear research reactor that was officially opened in April 2007 Opals had already been mined in Europe and South America for many years prior, but in the late 1800s, the Australian opal market became predominant. Australian opals are only mined in a few select places around the country, making it one the most profitable stones in the Pacific. [33]
One of the few cultures to today still create their jewellery as they did many centuries prior is the New Zealand Māori, who create Hei-tiki. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island This article discusses the Māori people of New Zealand For their language see Māori language, and for other meanings see Māori (disambiguation. hei-tiki is an ornamental neck pendant of the Māori. Materials used Hei-tiki are usually made of Pounamu (greenstone and worn around the neck The reason the hei-tiki is worn is not apparent; it may either relate to ancestral connections, as Tiki was the first Māori, or fertility, as there is a strong connection between this and Tiki. Another suggestion from historians is that the Tiki is a product of the ancient belief of a god named Tiki, perhaps dating back to before the Māoris settled in New Zealand. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from bone (commonly whale), nephrite or bowenite; a lengthy and spiritual process. Nephrite is a variety of the calcium and magnesium rich Amphibole mineral Actinolite (aggregates of which also make up one form of Asbestos) Bowenite is a hard compact variety of the Serpentine species Antigorite found in several places throughout the world notably in Rhode Island where in The Hei-tiki is now popular amongst tourists who can buy it from souvenir or jeweller shops.
Other than jewellery created through Māori influence, jewellery in New Zealand remains similar to other western civilizations; multi cultural and varied. This is more noticeable in New Zealand because of its high levels of non-European citizens. [32]
Modern
The modern jewellery movement began in the late 1940s at the end of World War II with a renewed interest in artistic and leisurely pursuits. The movement is most noted with works by Georg Jensen and other jewellery designers who advanced the concept of wearable art. Georg Arthur Jensen ( August 31, 1866, Raadvad Denmark &ndash October 2, 1935, Copenhagen) was a Danish The advent of new materials, such as plastics, Precious Metal Clay (PMC) and colouring techniques, has led to increased variety in styles. Metal clay is a Clay -like medium used to make Jewelry, Beads and small sculpture Other advances, such as the development of improved pearl harvesting by people such as Kokichi Mikimoto and the development of improved quality artificial gemstones such as moissanite (a diamond simulant), has placed jewellery within the economic grasp of a much larger segment of the population. A pearl is a hard roundish object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled Mollusk. ( 10 March 1858 &ndash 21 September 1954) was a Japanese entrepreneur and adopter of the Mise/Nishikawa technique for production Moissanite or Silicon carbide (SiC is a rare mineral that can be found in meteorites and in terrestrial samples This article addresses the many imitations of diamond For a broader discussion of diamonds see Diamond.
The "jewellery as art" movement was spearheaded by artisans such as Robert Lee Morris and continued by designers such as Anoush Waddington in the UK. Robert Lee Morris is a Jewelry designer and Sculptor who attributes much of his inspiration to forms he admires in Nature. Anoush Waddington is a leading designer in Art jewelry. Anoush’s work can be found in a significant number of private collections around the world Influence from other cultural forms is also evident; one example of this is bling-bling style jewellery, popularized by hip-hop and rap artists in the early 21st century. Bling-bling (or simply bling) is a Slang term in Hip hop culture referring to flashy or elaborate Jewelry and ornamented
The late 20th century saw the blending of European design with oriental techniques such as Mokume-gane. Mokumebilletpng|thumb|200px|Mokume-gane brass/copper billet]] Mokume-gane ( 木目金) is a mixed-metal laminate with distinctive layered patterns The following are innovations in the decades stradling the year 2000: "Mokume-gane, hydraulic die forming, anti-clastic raising, fold-forming, reactive metal anodizing, shell forms, PMC, photoetching, and [use of] CAD/CAM. Raising is a Metalworking technique whereby Sheet metal is formed into a bowl or other hollow object by repeated sequences of hammering and annealing of Fold-forming is a technique of Metalworking whereby metal is folded repeatedly Forged and annealed, and unfloded at which stage it generally has a dramatic Metal clay is a Clay -like medium used to make Jewelry, Beads and small sculpture Photolithography (also called optical lithography) is a process used in Microfabrication to selectively remove parts of a thin film (or the bulk of a substrate CAD/CAM refers to integration of Computer-aided design (CAD and Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM systems during product development "[34]
Artisan jewellery continues to grow as both a hobby and a profession. See also Wearable art. Art jewelry is created with a variety of materials not just precious metals and gems With more than 17 United States periodicals about beading alone, resources, accessibility and a low initial cost of entry continues to expand production of hand-made adornments. Some fine examples of artisan jewellery can be seen at The Metropolitan Museum. [35]
Body modification
Jewellery used in body modification is usually plain; the use of simple silver studs, rings and earrings predominates. Body modification (or body alteration) is the permanent or semi-permanent deliberate altering of the human body for non-medical reasons such as sexual enhancement Common jewellery pieces such as earrings, are themselves a form of body modification, as they are accommodated by creating a small hole in the ear.
Padaung women in Myanmar place large golden rings around their necks. The Kayan are a feminine religion It builds on a feminine solidarity and a preservation of traditions Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. From as early as 5 years old, girls are introduced to their first neck ring. Over the years, more rings are added. In addition to the twenty-plus pounds of rings on her neck, a woman will also wear just as many rings on her calves too. At their extent, some necks modified like this can reach 10-15 inches long; the practice has obvious health impacts, however, and has in recent years declined from cultural norm to tourist curiosity. [36] Tribes related to the Paduang, as well as other cultures throughout the world, use jewellery to stretch their earlobes, or enlarge ear piercings. In the Americas, labrets have been worn since before first contact by Innu and first nations peoples of the northwest coast. A LABRET is one form of Body piercing. Taken literally it is any type of adornment that is attached to the facial lip (labrum First contact is a term describing the first meeting of two Cultures previously unaware of one another The Innu are the indigenous inhabitants of an area they refer to as Nitassinan, which comprises most of what other Canadians refer to as eastern Quebec First Nations is a term of Ethnicity that refers to the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis people [37] Lip plates are worn by the African Mursi and Sara people, as well as some South American peoples. In Africa a lower lip plate is usually combined with the excision of the two lower front teeth sometimes all four The Mursi (or Murzu) are a Nomadic cattle herder ethnic group located in the Debub Omo Zone of the Southern Nations Nationalities and People's The Sara are an Ethnic group in Central Africa, who reside mostly in Chad, making up approximatively 30% of its southern population
In the late 20th century, the influence of modern primitivism led to many of these practices being incorporated into western subcultures. Modern primitives or urban primitives are people in Developed nations who engage in Body modification rituals and practices while making reference or homage Many of these practices rely on a combination of body modification and decorative objects; thus keeping the distinction between these two types of decoration blurred.
In many cultures, jewellery is used as a temporary body modifier, with in some cases, hooks or even objects as large as bike bars being placed into the recipient's skin. Although this procedure is often carried out by tribal or semi-tribal groups, often acting under a trance during religious ceremonies, this practise has seeped into western culture. Many extreme-jewellery shops now cater to people wanting large hooks or spikes set into their skin. Most often, these hooks are used in conjunction with pulleys to hoist the recipient into the air. This practise is said to give an erotic feeling to the person and some couples have even performed their marriage ceremony whist being suspended by hooks. [36]
Jewellery Market
According to a recent KPMG study[38] the largest jewellery market is the United States with a market share of 30. 8%, Japan, India and China and the Middle East each with 8 - 9% and finally Italy with 5%. The authors of the study predict a dramatic change in market shares by 2015, where the market share of the United States will have dropped to around 25%, and China and India will increase theirs to over 13%. The Middle East will remain more or less constant at 9%, whereas Europe's and Japan's marketshare will be halved and become less than 4% for Japan, and less than 3% for the biggest individual European countries: Italy and the UK.
See also
Footnotes
- ^ jewel. (n.d.). Dictionary. An artisan, also called a Craftsman, is a skilled manual worker who crafts items that may be functional or strictly decorative including furniture clothing See also Wearable art. Art jewelry is created with a variety of materials not just precious metals and gems This article refers to the jewelry of the Etruscan civilization and its differences in various eras This Costume jewelry (also called fashion jewelry, junk jewelry, fake jewelry, or fallalery) is Jewelry that is made of less valuable materials Fashion refers to styles of dress (but can also include cuisine literature art architecture and general comportment that are popular in a culture at any given time A gemstone or gem, also called a precious or semi-precious stone, is a piece of attractive Mineral, which &mdash when cut and polished &mdash A goldsmith is a Metalworker who specializes in working with Gold and other Precious metals usually in modern times to make Jewelry. Variations in the physical appearance of humans, known as human looks, are believed by Anthropologists to be an important factor in the development of personality and Jewellery cleaning is the practice of removing dirt from Jewellery to improve its appearance A silversmith is a person who works primarily making objects in solid Silver; historically the training and guild organization of Goldsmiths included silversmiths Murano glass has been a famous product of the Venetian island of Murano for centuries Murano beads are intricate Glass Beads influenced by Venetian glass artists Complexities of glass and the making of beads There are The Three Jewels, also called the Three Treasures, the Three Refuges, or the Triple Gem, are the three things that Buddhists take refuge A watch is a timepiece that is made to be worn on a person The term now usually refers to a wristwatch, which is worn on the wrist with a strap or Bracelet. Wire sculpture refers to the creation of Sculpture or Jewellery (sometimes called wire wrap jewellery) out of Wire. Handmade jewelry is Jewelry which has been assembled and formed by hand rather than through the use of machines com Unabridged (v 1. 1). Retrieved August 7, 2007, from Dictionary. com website.
- ^ 22 June 2006. Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Study reveals 'oldest jewellery'. BBC News.
- ^ Kunz, PhD, DSc, George Frederick (1917). Magic of Jewels and Charms. John Lippincott Co. . URL: Magic Of jewels: Chapter VII Amulets George Frederick Kunz was gemmologist for Tiffany's built the collections of banker J. George Frederick Kunz ( September 29, 1856 – June 29, 1932) was an American Mineralogist. P. Morgan and the American Natural History Museum in NY City. This chapter deals entirely with using jewels and gemstones in jewellery for talismanic purposes in Western Cultures. The next chapter deals with other, indigenous cultures.
- ^ a b c Holland, J. 1999. The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia. Kingfisher books.
- ^ Morris, Desmond. Body Guards: Protective Amulets and Charms. Element, 1999 ISBN 1-86204-572-0
- ^ McCreight, Tim. Jewelry: Fundamentals of Metalsmithing. Design Books International, 1997 ISBN 1-880140-29-2
- ^ http://lgdl.gia.edu/pdfs/janse-table1.pdf
- ^ Pliny. Natural History XXXVI, 15
- ^ Microsoft Word - WMP 2001-2005 title.doc
- ^ Natural Diamond: World Production, By Country And Type
- ^ Nassau, K. (1980). Gems made by man. ISBN 0801967732
- ^ Pliny the Elder. The Natural History. ed. John Bostock, H. T. Riley, Book XXXIII The Natural History of Metals Online at the Perseus Project Chapter 4. Accessed July 2006
- ^ Howard, Vicky. "A real Man's Ring: Gender and the Invention of Tradition. " Journal of Social History, Summer 2003, pp 837-856.
- ^ Yusuf al-Qaradawi. Yusuf al-Qaradawi ( Arabic: يوسف القرضاوي Yūsuf al-Qaraḍāwiy) (born September 9, 1926) is an Egyptian Muslim The Lawful and Prohibited in Islam (online)
- ^ Greenbaum, Toni. "SILVER SPEAKS: TRADITIONAL JEWELRY FROM THE MIDDLE EAST". Metalsmith, Winter2004, Vol. 24, Issue 1, p. 56. Greenbaum provides the explanation for the lack of historical examples; the majority of Islamic jewellery was in the form of bridal dowries, and traditionally was not handed down from generation to generation; instead, on a woman's death it was sold at the souk and recycled or sold to passers-by. A dowry (also known as trousseau or tocher) is the money goods or estate that a woman brings to her soon to be husband in marriage A souk (سوق also sook, souq, or suq, or shuq in Hebrew שוק is a highly fashioned commercial quarter in an Arab or Berber Islamic jewellery from before the 19th century is thus exceedingly rare.
- ^ a b c d e Reader's Digest Association. 1986. The last 2 million years. Reader's Digest. ISBN 0-86438-007-0
- ^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 155–157.
- ^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 295–297.
- ^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 297.
- ^ Treister, Mikhail YU. "Polychrome Necklaces from the Late Hellenistic Period. " Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 2004, Vol. 10 Issue 3/4, p199-257, 59p.
- ^ Duby Georges and Philippe Ariès, eds. A History of Private Life Vol 1 - From Pagan Rome to Byzantium. Harvard, 1987. p 506
- ^ Duby, throughout.
- ^ Sherrard, P. 1972. Great Ages of Man: Byzantium. Time-Life International.
- ^ Scarisbrick, Diana. Rings: Symbols of Wealth, Power, and Affection. New York: Abrams, 1993. ISBN 0-8109-3775-1 p77.
- ^ a b Farndon, J. 2001. 1,000 Facts on Modern History. Miles Kelly Publishing.
- ^ Ilse-Neuman, Ursula. Book review “Schmuck/Jewellery 1840-1940: Highlights from the Schmuckmuseum Pforzheim. ’’ ‘’Metalsmith’’. Fall2006, Vol. 26 Issue 3, p12-13, 2p
- ^ Constantino, Maria. Art Nouveau. Knickerbocker Press; 1999 ISBN 1-57715-074-0 as well as Ilse-Neuman 2006.
- ^ Lu, Peter J. , "Early Precision Compound Machine from Ancient China. " Science, 6/11/2004, Vol. 304, Issue 5677
- ^ a b c Reader's Digest Association. 1983. Vanished Civilisations. Reader's Digest.
- ^ Untracht, Oppi. Traditional Jewellery of India. New York: Abrams, 1997 ISBN 0-8109-3886-3. p15.
- ^ Josephy Jr, A. M. 1994. 500 Nations: The Illustrated History of North American Indians. Alfred A. Knopf. Inc.
- ^ a b Neich, R. , Pereira, F. 2004. Pacific Jewellery and Adornment. David Bateman & Auckland Museum. ISBN 1-86953-535-9.
- ^ Dorling Kindersley Ltd. 1989. Facts and Fallacies: Stories of the Strange and Unusual. Reader's Digest. 11-13.
- ^ McCrieght, Tim. "What's New?" Metalsmith Spring 2006, Vol. 26 Issue 1, p42-45, 4p
- ^ Nineteenth-Century American Jewelry | Thematic Essay | Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art
- ^ a b Packard, M. 2002. Ripley's Believe it or not: Special Edition. Scholastic Inc. 22.
- ^ Moss, Madonna L. "George Catlin among the Nayas: Understanding the practice of labret wearing on the Northwest Coast. " Ethnohistory Winter99, Vol. 46 Issue 1, p31, 35p.
- ^ KPMG India. "Global Jewelry Consumption". Gems and Gemology XLIII (Summer 2007): 180. GIA date=2007.
References
- Borel, F. 1994. The Splendor of Ethnic Jewelry: from the Colette and Jean-Pierre Ghysels Collection. New York: H. N. Abrams. (ISBN 0-8109-2993-7).
- Evans, J. 1989. A History of Jewellery 1100-1870. (ISBN 0-486-26122-0).
- Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea 1998. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. (ISBN 0-313-29497-6).
- Tait, H. 1986. Seven Thousand Years of Jewellery. London: British Museum Publications. (ISBN 0-7141-2034-0).
External links
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