James II & VII[1]
King of England and Ireland, King of Scots (more...)
Godfrey Kneller, 1684
Reign	6 February 1685 – 11 December 1688
Coronation	23 April 1685
Predecessor	Charles II
Successor Jacobite:	William III and Mary II James III and VIII
Consort	Mary of Modena
among others Issue
Mary II Anne James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick James, Prince of Wales, "The Old Pretender" Louisa Maria Teresa Stuart
Detail Titles and styles
HM The King HRH The Duke of York Prince James
Royal house	House of Stuart
Father	Charles I of England
Mother	Henrietta Maria of France
Born	14 October 1633(1633-10-14) St. James's Palace, London
Died	16 September 1701 (aged 67) Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France
Burial	Saint-Germain-en-Laye

James II and VII (14 October 1633 – 16 September 1701)^[2] was King of England, King of Scots,^[1] and King of Ireland from 6 February 1685 to 11 December 1688. The Kingdom of England was a State (927-1707 located in Western Europe dating from the ninth or tenth century to the early eighteenth century when it was legally The Kingdom of Ireland (Ríocht na hÉireann was the name given to the Irish state from 1541 by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 of the Parliament of Ireland. The Kingdom of Scotland ( Gaelic: Rìoghachd na h-Alba, Scots: Kinrick o Scotland) was a State in northwest Europe The precise style of British Sovereigns has varied over the years Sir Godfrey Kneller 1st Baronet ( 8 August 1646 &ndash 19 October 1723) was the leading Portrait painter in England during Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at Charles II (Charles Stuart 29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685 was the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland. William III or William of Orange (14 November 1650 &ndash 8 March 1702 He is informally known in Northern Ireland and Scotland as "King Billy" Mary II (30 April 1662 &ndash 28 December 1694 reigned as Queen of England, Ireland and Scotland from 1689 until her death Prince James Prince of Wales (James Francis Edward Stuart " The Old Pretender " or " The Old Chevalier " 10 June 1688 – 1 January 1766 was the Mary of Modena (Mary Beatrice Eleanor Anne Margaret Isabel born Este later Queen Mary of England Scotland and Ireland 5 October 1658 &ndash 7 Mary II (30 April 1662 &ndash 28 December 1694 reigned as Queen of England, Ireland and Scotland from 1689 until her death Anne (6 February 1665 – 1 August 1714 became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland on 8 March 1702 succeeding William III of England and II of James FitzJames 1st Duke of Berwick ( 21 August 1670 &ndash 12 June 1734) was a French military leader illegitimate son of King James Prince James Prince of Wales (James Francis Edward Stuart " The Old Pretender " or " The Old Chevalier " 10 June 1688 – 1 January 1766 was the Princess Louisa Maria Teresa Stuart ( 28 June 1692 &ndash 18 April 1712) known to Jacobites as The Princess Royal A royal house or royal dynasty is a familial designation or Family name of sorts used by Royalty. The House of Stuart or Stewart was a Royal house of the Kingdom of Scotland, later also of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Charles I, (19 November 1600 &ndash 30 January 1649 was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution. Henrietta Maria ( 25 November 1609 – 10 September 1669) was Princess of France and Queen Consort of England, Scotland Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces St James's Palace is one of London's oldest Palaces It is situated on Pall Mall in London, just north of St London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers For treaties with this name see Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (disambiguation Saint-Germain-en-Laye is a commune in the western This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers The Kings of Wessex, who conquered Kent and Sussex from Mercia in 825 became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during The monarch of Scotland was the Head of state of the Kingdom of Scotland. The designation King of Ireland (Rí na hÉireann and Queen (regnant of Ireland was used during three periods of Irish history. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office He was the last Roman Catholic monarch to reign over the Kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Kingdom of England was a State (927-1707 located in Western Europe dating from the ninth or tenth century to the early eighteenth century when it was legally The Kingdom of Scotland ( Gaelic: Rìoghachd na h-Alba, Scots: Kinrick o Scotland) was a State in northwest Europe The Kingdom of Ireland (Ríocht na hÉireann was the name given to the Irish state from 1541 by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 of the Parliament of Ireland. Many of his subjects distrusted his religious policies and autocratic tendencies, leading a group of them to depose him in the Glorious Revolution in 1688. The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland in 1688 by a union He was replaced not by his Roman Catholic son, James Francis Edward, but by his Protestant daughter and son-in-law, Mary II and William III, who became joint rulers in 1689. Prince James Prince of Wales (James Francis Edward Stuart " The Old Pretender " or " The Old Chevalier " 10 June 1688 – 1 January 1766 was the Mary II (30 April 1662 &ndash 28 December 1694 reigned as Queen of England, Ireland and Scotland from 1689 until her death William III or William of Orange (14 November 1650 &ndash 8 March 1702 He is informally known in Northern Ireland and Scotland as "King Billy" James made one serious attempt to recover his crowns, when he landed in Ireland in 1689. After his defeat at the Battle of the Boyne in the summer of 1690, James returned to France, living out the rest of his life under the protection of his cousin and ally, King Louis XIV. The Battle of the Boyne (Cath na Bóinne was a turning point in the Williamite claim on the English throne This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Early years Birth and ancestry Louis XIV was born in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 5 1638 and bore the Heir apparent

James is best known for his belief in absolute monarchy and his attempts to create religious liberty for his subjects. Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything Freedom of religion is the freedom of an individual or community in public or private to manifest religion or belief in teaching practice worship and observance Both of these went against the wishes of the English Parliament and of most of his subjects. The Parliament of England was the Legislature of the Kingdom of England. Parliament, opposed to the growth of absolutism that was occurring in other European countries, as well as to the loss of legal supremacy for the Church of England, saw their opposition as a way to preserve traditional English liberties. The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican This tension made James's three-year reign a struggle for supremacy between the Parliament and the crown, resulting in his ouster, the passage of the English Bill of Rights, and the Hanoverian succession. The Bill of Rights (or Declaration of Rights) is an act of the Parliament of England, with the Long title An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties The Act of Settlement is an act of the Parliament of England, originally filed in 1700 and passed in 1701 to settle the succession to the English throne

Birth and early life

The future James II with his father, Charles I

James, the second surviving son of Charles I and Henrietta Maria of France, was born at St. James's Palace in London on 14 October 1633. Charles I, (19 November 1600 &ndash 30 January 1649 was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution. Charles I, (19 November 1600 &ndash 30 January 1649 was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution. Henrietta Maria ( 25 November 1609 – 10 September 1669) was Princess of France and Queen Consort of England, Scotland St James's Palace is one of London's oldest Palaces It is situated on Pall Mall in London, just north of St London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces ^[3] Later that same year, James was baptized by William Laud, the Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury. Archbishop William Laud (7 October 1573 - 10 January 1645 was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633 to 1645 The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican The Archbishop of Canterbury is the chief bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the ^[4] James was educated by tutors, along with his brother, the future King Charles II, and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham, George and Francis Villiers. Charles II (Charles Stuart 29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685 was the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland. George Villiers 1st Duke of Buckingham ( 28 August 1592 &ndash 23 August 1628) (surname ˈvɪlɚz ("villers" was the Favourite George Villiers 2nd Duke of Buckingham, KG, PC, FRS (10 January 1628 – 16 April 1687 was an English Statesman and poet ^[5] At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral; the position was initially honorary, but would become a substantive office after the Restoration, when James was an adult. The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the United Kingdom responsible for the command of the Royal Navy. ^[6]

Civil War

James was invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642,^[7] and created Duke of York on January 22, 1644. The Most Noble Order of the Garter is an Order of chivalry, or Knighthood, originating in Medieval England, and presently bestowed on recipients For the nursery rhyme see The Grand Old Duke of York. The title Duke of York is a title of Nobility in the British Peerage Events 565 - Eutychius is deposed as Patriarch of Constantinople by John Scholasticus. ^[4] As the King's disputes with the English Parliament grew into the English Civil War James stayed in Oxford, a Royalist stronghold. The Parliament of England was the Legislature of the Kingdom of England. The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. Oxford is currently bidding for the 2010 Wikimania Conference Oxford () is a city, and the County town of Oxfordshire, ^[8] When the city surrendered after the siege of Oxford in 1646, Parliamentary leaders ordered the Duke of York to be confined in St. James's Palace. The Siege of Oxford was a Parliamentarian victory late in the First English Civil War. St James's Palace is one of London's oldest Palaces It is situated on Pall Mall in London, just north of St ^[9] In 1648, he escaped from the Palace and from there he went to The Hague in disguise. ^[10] When Charles I was executed by the rebels in 1649, monarchists proclaimed James's older brother, Charles, as King Charles II. Charles II (Charles Stuart 29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685 was the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland. ^[11] Charles II was recognized by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of Ireland, and was crowned King of Scots at Scone, in Scotland in 1651. This article is about the pre-1707 parliament The article on the devolved legislative body established in 1999 is at Scottish Parliament. The Parliament of Ireland (Irish Parlaimint na hEireann) was a Legislature that existed from mediæval times until 1800. The monarch of Scotland was the Head of state of the Kingdom of Scotland. Although he was proclaimed King at Jersey, Charles was unable to secure the crown of England, and consequently fled to France and exile. The Bailiwick of Jersey ( Jèrriais: Jèrri) is a British Crown dependency off the coast of Normandy, France. The Kings of Wessex, who conquered Kent and Sussex from Mercia in 825 became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. ^[11]

Exile in France

Turenne, James's commander in France

Like his brother, James sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde, and later against their Spanish allies. Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne Vicomte de Turenne, often called simply Turenne ( September 11 1611 &ndash July 27 1675) was La Fronde (1648–1653 was a Civil war in France, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635 ^[12] In the French army, James had his first true experience of battle where, according to one observer, he "ventures himself and chargeth gallantly where anything is to be done". ^[12] In 1656, when his brother, Charles, entered into an alliance with Spain—an enemy of France—James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turenne's army. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. ^[13] James quarrelled with his brother over the diplomatic choice of Spain over France. Exiled and poor, there was little that either Charles or James could do about the larger diplomatic situation, and James ultimately travelled to Bruges and (along with his younger brother, Henry) joined the Spanish army under Louis, Prince of Condé, fighting against his former French comrades at the Battle of the Dunes. Bruges (Brugge is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders in the Flemish Region of Belgium. Henry Stuart Duke of Gloucester ( 8 July 1639 – 18 September 1660) was the third adult (and youngest son of Charles I and his Louis II de Bourbon Prince de Condé ( 8 September, 1621 – 11 November, 1686) was a French general and the most famous representative The Battle of the Dunes, fought on June 14 (Gregorian calendar 1658 is also known as the Battle of Dunkirk. ^[14] During his term of service in the Spanish army, James became friendly with two Irish Catholic brothers in the Royalist entourage, Peter and Richard Talbot, and began to be somewhat estranged from his brother's Anglican advisers. Richard Talbot 1st Earl of Tyrconnell (1630 – 14 August 1691) the youngest of sixteen children of Sir William Talbot Bt of Carton, and his wife ^[15] In 1659, the French and Spanish made peace. The Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed in 1659 to end the war between France and Spain that had begun in 1635 during the Thirty Years' War. James, doubtful of his brother's chances of regaining the throne, considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy. ^[16] Ultimately, he declined and by the next year the situation in England had sufficiently changed, and Charles II was proclaimed King. ^[17]

Restoration

Marriage

James and Anne Hyde in the 1660s, by Sir Peter Lely

After Oliver Cromwell's death in 1658 and the subsequent collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, Charles II was restored to the English throne. Sir Peter Lely ( 14 September, 1618 - 30 November, 1680) was a painter of Dutch origin Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 Old Style &ndash 3 September 1658 Old Style) was an English military and political leader best known The Commonwealth of England was the Republican government which ruled first England (including Wales) and then Ireland and Scotland Although James was the heir-presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children. An heir presumptive is the person provisionally scheduled to inherit a throne peerage or other hereditary honor but whose position can be displaced by the birth of an Heir apparent ^[18] Upon his brother's restoration, James was created Duke of Albany in Scotland, to go along with his English title, Duke of York. Duke of Albany is a Peerage title that has occasionally been bestowed on the younger sons in the Scottish, and later the British Royal family, particularly Upon his return to England, James produced an immediate controversy by announcing his engagement to Anne Hyde, the daughter of Charles's chief minister, Edward Hyde. Lady Anne Hyde (22 March 1638 &ndash 31 March 1671 was the first wife of James Duke of York (the future King James II of England and VII of Scotland and the mother Edward Hyde 1st Earl of Clarendon ( 18 February 1609 &ndash 9 December 1674) was an English Historian and statesman and ^[19] In 1659, while attempting to seduce her, James promised he would marry Anne. ^[20] Anne became pregnant in 1660, but following the Restoration and James's return to power, no one at the royal court expected a prince to marry a commoner, no matter what he had pledged beforehand. The English Restoration, or simply The Restoration began in 1660 when the English monarchy, Scottish monarchy and Irish monarchy were restored ^[21] Although nearly everyone, including Anne's father, urged the two not to marry, they did so. ^[21] The couple was married secretly, then went through an official marriage ceremony on 3 September 1660, in London. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Their first child, Charles, was born less than two months later, but died in infancy, as did five further sons and daughters. ^[21] Only two daughters survived: Mary (born 30 April 1662) and Anne (born 6 February 1665). Mary II (30 April 1662 &ndash 28 December 1694 reigned as Queen of England, Ireland and Scotland from 1689 until her death Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule Anne (6 February 1665 – 1 August 1714 became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland on 8 March 1702 succeeding William III of England and II of Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio ^[22] Samuel Pepys wrote that James was fond of his children and his role as a father, writing that he played with them "like an ordinary father," a contrast to the distant parenting common to royals at the time. Samuel Pepys, FRS (23 February 1633 – 26 May 1703 was an English naval administrator and Member of Parliament, who is now most famous for ^[23] James's wife was devoted to him and influenced many of his decisions. ^[24] Even so, he kept a variety of mistresses, including Arabella Churchill and Catherine Sedley, and was reputed to be "the most unguarded ogler of his time. Arabella Churchill ( 23 February 1648 &ndash 30 May 1730) was the mistress of King James II, and the mother of four of his children Also including Sedley's daughter Lady Catherine Darnley Catherine Sedley Countess of Dorchester Countess of Portmore (c "^[25] Anne Hyde died in 1671.

Military and political offices

After the Restoration, James was confirmed as Lord High Admiral, an office that carried with it the subsidiary appointments of Governor of Portsmouth and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the United Kingdom responsible for the command of the Royal Navy. History See also History of Portsmouth There have been settlements in the area since before Roman times mostly being offshoots of Portchester, which The Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports is a ceremonial official in the United Kingdom. ^[26] James commanded the Royal Navy during the Second (1665–1667) and Third Anglo-Dutch Wars (1672–1674). The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) The Second Anglo-Dutch War was fought between England and the United Provinces from 4 March, 1665 until 31 July, 1667. The Third Anglo-Dutch War or Third Dutch War ( Dutch: Derde Engelse Oorlog or Derde Engelse Zeeoorlog) was a military conflict between Following the raid on the Medway in 1667, James oversaw the survey and re-fortification of the southern coast. The Raid on the Medway, sometimes called the Battle of Medway or the Battle of Chatham, was a successful Dutch attack on the largest English ^[27] The office of Lord High Admiral, combined with his revenue from post office and wine tariffs (granted him by Charles upon his restoration) gave James a sufficient salary to keep a sizeable court household. ^[28]

Following its capture by the English in 1664, the Dutch territory of New Netherland was named the Province of New York in James's honour. New Netherland (Dutch Nieuw-Nederland, Latin Novum Belgium or Nova Belgica) 1614–1674 is the name of the former Dutch territory on the eastern coast The Province of New York (1664-1776 (Provincie New York resulted from the capture of the Dutch Republic colony of Provincie Nieuw-Nederland by the After the founding, the duke gave the colony to proprieters, George Carteret and John Lord Berkeley. Fort Orange, 240 kilometres (150 miles) north on the Hudson River, was renamed Albany after James's Scottish title. Fort Orange (Fort Oranje was the first permanent Dutch settlement in New Netherland. The Hudson River, called Muh-he-kun-ne-tuk, the Great Mohegan by the Iroquois, or as the Lenape Native Americans called it in Unami Albany is the Capital of the State of New York and the County seat of Albany County. ^[21] In 1683, he became the governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, but did not take an active role in its governance. ^[21] James also headed the Royal African Company, which participated in the slave trade. The Royal African Company was a slaving company set up by the Stuart family and London merchants once the former retook the English throne in The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history ^[29]

Conversion to Catholicism

Mary of Modena, James's second wife

James's time in France had exposed him to Catholicism and he and his wife, Anne, became drawn to that faith. Mary of Modena (Mary Beatrice Eleanor Anne Margaret Isabel born Este later Queen Mary of England Scotland and Ireland 5 October 1658 &ndash 7 ^[30] James took Communion in the Roman Catholic Church in about 1668 or 1669, although his conversion was kept secret for some time and he continued to attend Anglican services until 1676. The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names is a Christian Sacrament by which in a common interpretation those ^[31] In spite of his conversion, James continued to associate primarily with Anglicans, including John Churchill and George Legge, as well as French Protestants, such as Louis de Duras, the Earl of Feversham. The Huguenots were members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France (or French Calvinists) from the sixteenth to the eighteenth Louis de Duras 2nd Earl of Feversham, KG, (1641 – 19 April 1709) was a French nobleman who became Earl of Feversham in Stuart England ^[32]

Growing fears of Catholic influence at court led Parliament to introduce a new Test Act in 1673. The Test Acts were a series of English Penal laws that served as a Religious test for public office and imposed various civil disabilities on Roman ^[33] Under this Act, all civil and military officials were required to take an oath (in which they were required not only to disavow the doctrine of transubstantiation, but also denounce certain practices of the Roman Catholic Church as "superstitious and idolatrous") and to receive communion under the auspices of the Church of England. See also Eucharist (Catholic Church On the related belief that Christ is present in the Eucharist in body blood soul and divinity see Real Presence. The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican ^[34] James refused to perform both actions, instead choosing to relinquish the post of Lord High Admiral. His conversion to Catholicism was thereby made public. ^[33]

Charles II opposed the conversion, ordering that James's daughters, Mary and Anne, be raised as Protestants. ^[35] Nevertheless, in 1673, he allowed James to marry the Catholic Mary of Modena, a fifteen-year-old Italian princess. Mary of Modena (Mary Beatrice Eleanor Anne Margaret Isabel born Este later Queen Mary of England Scotland and Ireland 5 October 1658 &ndash 7 ^[36] Many of the English, distrustful of Catholicism, regarded the new Duchess of York as an agent of the Pope. Pope Clement X ( July 13, 1590 &ndash July 22, 1676) born Emilio Bonaventura Altieri, was Pope from April 29 ^[37]

Exclusion Crisis

In 1677, James reluctantly consented to his daughter Mary's marriage to the Protestant Prince of Orange, William III (who was also James's nephew,) acquiescing after Charles and William had agreed upon the marriage. William III or William of Orange (14 November 1650 &ndash 8 March 1702 He is informally known in Northern Ireland and Scotland as "King Billy" ^[38] Despite the Protestant marriage, fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted, intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife, Catherine of Braganza, to produce any children. Catherine Henrietta of Braganza (25 November 1638 &ndash 31 December 1705 was a Portuguese Infanta and the Queen consort of Charles II of A defrocked Anglican clergyman, Titus Oates, spoke of a "Popish Plot" to kill Charles and put the Duke of York on the throne. Titus Oates ( September 15, 1649 &ndash July 12/13 1705 was a 17th-century perjurer who fabricated the " Popish Plot " a supposed The Popish Plot was a fictitious conspiracy concocted by Titus Oates which gripped England in Anti-Catholic hysteria from 1678 until 1681. ^[39] The fabricated plot caused a wave of anti-Catholic hysteria to sweep across the nation.

The Duke of Monmouth was involved in plots against James. James Crofts, later James Scott 1st Duke of Monmouth and 1st Duke of Buccleuch ( April 9 1649 &ndash July 15 1685) was an English

In England, the Earl of Shaftesbury, a former government minister and now a leading opponent of Catholicism, attempted to have James excluded from the line of succession. Anthony Ashley-Cooper 1st Earl of Shaftesbury ( July 22, 1621 &ndash January 21, 1683) known as Sir Anthony Ashley-Cooper ^[40] Some members of Parliament even proposed that the crown go to Charles's illegitimate son, James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth. James Crofts, later James Scott 1st Duke of Monmouth and 1st Duke of Buccleuch ( April 9 1649 &ndash July 15 1685) was an English ^[41] In 1679, with the Exclusion Bill in danger of passing, Charles II dissolved Parliament. The Exclusion Bill Crisis ran from 1678 through 1681 in the reign of Charles II of England. ^[42] Two further Parliaments were elected in 1680 and 1681, but were dissolved for the same reason. This article is a List of Parliaments of England Devolved English Parliament is about the debate on a devolved parliament for England ^[43] The Exclusion Crisis contributed to the development of the English two-party system: the Whigs were those who supported the Bill, while the Tories were those who opposed it. The Whigs (with the Tories) are often described as one of two political parties in England and later the United Kingdom from the late 17th to In the political tradition of some English-speaking countries, the term Tory has referred to a variety of political parties and Creeds since it was Ultimately, the succession was not altered, but James was convinced to withdraw from all policy-making bodies and to accept a lesser role in his brother's government. ^[44]

On the orders of the King, James left England for Brussels. Brussels (Bruxelles pronounced; Brussel pronounced) officially the Brussels Capital-Region, is ^[45] In 1680, he was appointed Lord High Commissioner of Scotland and took up his residence at the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh to suppress an uprising and oversee royal government there. The Palace of Holyroodhouse, or informally Holyrood Palace, founded as a monastery by David I of Scotland in 1128, has served as the principal residence Edinburgh ( ˈɛdɪnb(ərə Dùn Èideann) is the Capital of Scotland and is its second largest city after Glasgow. ^[46] James returned to England for a time when Charles was stricken ill and appeared to be near death. ^[47] The hysteria of the accusations eventually faded, but James's relations with many in Parliament, including the Earl of Danby, a former ally, were forever strained and a solid segment of Parliament was turned against him. Thomas Osborne 1st Duke of Leeds ( February 20 1631 - July 26 1712) English statesman commonly known also by his earlier title of Earl ^[48]

Return to favour

In 1683, a plot was uncovered to assassinate Charles and James and spark a republican revolution to re-establish a government of the Cromwellian style. Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty The Commonwealth of England was the Republican government which ruled first England (including Wales) and then Ireland and Scotland ^[49] This conspiracy, known as the Rye House Plot, backfired upon its conspirators and provoked a wave of sympathy for the King and James. The Rye House Plot of 1683 was a plan to assassinate King Charles II of England and his brother (and heir to the throne James Duke of York. ^[50] Several notable Whigs, including the Earl of Essex and the King's illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, were implicated. The Whigs (with the Tories) are often described as one of two political parties in England and later the United Kingdom from the late 17th to Arthur Capell, 1st Earl of Essex (1631 &ndash 13 July 1683 whose surname is sometimes spelled Capel, was an English statesman James Crofts, later James Scott 1st Duke of Monmouth and 1st Duke of Buccleuch ( April 9 1649 &ndash July 15 1685) was an English ^[49] Monmouth initially confessed to complicity in the plot, implicating fellow-plotters, but later recanted. ^[49] Essex committed suicide and Monmouth, along with several others, was obliged to flee into Continental exile. ^[51] Charles reacted to the plot by increasing repression of Whigs and dissenters. ^[49] Taking advantage of James's rebounding popularity, Charles invited him back onto the privy council in 1684. Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council is a body of advisors to the British Sovereign. ^[52] While some in Parliament remained wary of the possibility of a Catholic king, the threat of excluding James from the throne had passed.

Reign

Ascension to the throne

Statue of James II in Trafalgar Square, London

Charles died in 1685 after converting to Roman Catholicism on his deathbed. Trafalgar Square is a square in central London, England. With its position in the heart of London it is a tourist attraction its trademark is Nelson's ^[53] Having no legitimate children, Charles was succeeded by his brother James, who reigned in England and Ireland as James II, and in Scotland as James VII. There was no initial opposition to James's succession, and there were widespread reports of public rejoicing at the orderly succession. ^[54] James wanted to proceed quickly to the coronation, and was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1685. The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, which is almost always referred to by its original name of Westminster Abbey, is a large mainly Gothic church Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at ^[55] The new Parliament that assembled in May 1685 was initially favourable to James, and the new King sent word that even most of the former exclusionists would be forgiven if they acquiesced to his rule. This article is a List of Parliaments of England Devolved English Parliament is about the debate on a devolved parliament for England ^[54] Most of Charles's officers continued in office, the exceptions being the promotion of James's brothers-in-law, the Earls of Clarendon and Rochester, and the demotion of Halifax. Henry Hyde 2nd Earl of Clarendon, ( 2 June 1638 Westminster &ndash 31 October 1709 Westminster) was the eldest son of Laurence Hyde 1st Earl of Rochester, KG, PC (March 1641 &ndash May 2 1711) was an English statesman and writer George Savile 1st Marquess of Halifax ( November 11 1633 - April 5 1695) was an English statesman writer and politician ^[56] Parliament granted James a generous life income, including all of the proceeds of tonnage and poundage and the customs duties. Tonnage and Poundage were certain duties and taxes first levied in Edward II 's reign on every tun (cask of imported Wine, which came mostly from Spain Customs is an Authority or agency in a Country responsible for collecting and safeguarding customs duties and for controlling the flow of goods ^[57] James worked harder as king than his brother had, but was less willing to compromise when his advisers disagreed. ^[58]

Two rebellions

Soon after becoming king, James faced a rebellion in southern England led by his nephew, the Duke of Monmouth, and another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell, the Earl of Argyll. The Monmouth Rebellion of 1685, also known as the Pitchfork Rebellion, was an attempt to overthrow James II, who had become King of England at James Crofts, later James Scott 1st Duke of Monmouth and 1st Duke of Buccleuch ( April 9 1649 &ndash July 15 1685) was an English Archibald Campbell 9th Earl of Argyll (c 1629–1685 was Earl from 1663 following the restoration of the title two years after his father the Marquess of Argyll, was executed The title Duke of Argyll was created in the Peerage of Scotland in 1701 and in the Peerage of the United ^[59] Argyll and Monmouth both began their expeditions from the Netherlands, where James's nephew, William III, had neglected to detain them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts. ^[60] Argyll sailed to Scotland and, on arriving there, raised recruits mainly from amongst his own clan, the Campbells. Clan Campbell is historically one of the largest and most powerful Highland Scottish clans History Origins of the clan The origins of Clan ^[61] The rebellion was quickly crushed, and Argyll himself was captured at Inchinnan on 18 June 1685. Historic buildings / sites Inchinnan swing bridge. The present bridge swings vertically so it is a Bascule bridge; it replaced an earlier a Swing bridge Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries ^[61] Having arrived with fewer than 300 men and unable to convince many more to flock to his standard, Argyll never posed a credible threat to James. ^[62] He was executed on 30 June in Edinburgh. Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, is defeated and killed by troops of the Usurper Edinburgh ( ˈɛdɪnb(ərə Dùn Èideann) is the Capital of Scotland and is its second largest city after Glasgow.

Argyll's rebellion was coordinated with Monmouth's, but the latter was more dangerous to James. Monmouth proclaimed himself King at Lyme Regis on 11 June. Lyme Regis (ˌlaɪmˈriːdʒɪs is a coastal town in West Dorset, England, situated 25 Miles west of Dorchester and east of Exeter Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes. ^[63] He attempted to raise recruits but was unable to gather enough rebels to defeat even James's small standing army. ^[64] Monmouth attacked the King's forces at night, in an attempt at surprise, but was defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor. The Battle of Sedgemoor was fought on 6 July 1685 and took place at Westonzoyland near Bridgwater in Somerset, England ^[64] The King's forces, led by Feversham and Churchill, quickly dispersed the ill-prepared rebels. ^[64] Monmouth himself was captured and executed at the Tower of London on 15 July. Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London (and historically as The Tower) is a historic monument in central London Events 1099 - First Crusade: Christian soldiers take the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem after the final ^[65] The King's judges—most notably, George Jeffreys—condemned many of the rebels to transportation and indentured servitude in the West Indies in a series of trials that came to be known as the Bloody Assizes. George Jeffreys 1st Baron Jeffreys of Wem, PC ( May 15 1645 &ndash April 18 1689) also known as " The Hanging Judge Transportation or penal transportation refers to the deporting of Convicted Criminals to a Penal colony, for example by France An indentured servant is a form of Debt bondage worker The Laborer is under Contract of an Employer for some period of time usually three to The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting The Bloody Assizes were a series of trials started at Winchester on 25th August 1685 in the aftermath of the Battle of Sedgemoor, which ended the Monmouth Rebellion ^[66] Some 250 of the rebels were executed. ^[67] While both rebellions were defeated easily enough, the effect on James was to harden his resolve against his enemies and to increase his suspicion of the Dutch. ^[68]

Absolutism and religious liberty

To protect himself from further rebellions, James sought safety in an enlarged standing army. A standing army is an Army composed of full time career Soldiers who 'stand over' in other words who do not disband during times of peace ^[69] This alarmed his subjects, not only because of the trouble soldiers caused in the towns, but because it was against the English tradition to keep a professional army in peacetime. ^[70] Even more alarming to Parliament was James's use of his dispensing power to allow Roman Catholics to command several regiments without having to take the oath mandated by the Test Act. The Royal Prerogative is a body of customary authority privilege and immunity recognised in Common law and sometimes in Civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy ^[69] When even the previously supportive Parliament objected to these measures, James ordered Parliament prorogued in November 1685, never to meet again in his reign. A parliamentary session is a period of time where the Legislature in a Parliamentary government is sitting ^[71]

Rochester, once amongst James's supporters, turned against him by 1688, along with most Anglicans. Laurence Hyde 1st Earl of Rochester, KG, PC (March 1641 &ndash May 2 1711) was an English statesman and writer

Religious tension grew from 1686. James allowed Roman Catholics to occupy the highest offices of the Kingdoms, and received at his court the papal nuncio, Ferdinando d'Adda, the first representative from Rome to London since the reign of Mary I. Nuncio is an ecclesiastical Diplomatic title, derived from the ancient Latin word Nuntius, meaning "envoy Ferdinando d'Adda (1649 - 1719 was a Roman Catholic bishop and diplomat Mary I (18 February 1516 &ndash 17 November 1558 was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death ^[69] James's Jesuit confessor, Edward Petre, was a particular object of Protestant ire. The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order Edward Petre SJ (1631 &ndash May 15 1699) was an English Jesuit and Privy councillor. ^[72] When the King's Secretary of State, the Earl of Sunderland, began replacing office-holders at court with Catholic favourites, James began to lose the confidence of many of his Anglican supporters. Robert Spencer 2nd Earl of Sunderland KG PC ( September 5 1641 &ndash September 28 1702) was an English statesman ^[73] Sunderland's purge of office-holders even extended to the King's Anglican brothers-in-law and their supporters. ^[73]

In 1687, James issued the Declaration of Indulgence, also known as the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, in which he used his suspending power to negate the effect of laws punishing Roman Catholics and Protestant dissenters. The Declaration of Indulgence (or the Declaration for the Liberty of Conscience) was made by King James II of England, on the April 4, 1687. The Royal Prerogative is a body of customary authority privilege and immunity recognised in Common law and sometimes in Civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy English Dissenters were Christians who separated from the Church of England. ^[74] James ordered the Declaration read from the pulpits of every Anglican church, further alienating the Anglican bishops against the Catholic head of their church. ^[75] While the Declaration elicited some thanks from Catholics and dissenters, it left the Established Church, the traditional ally of the monarchy, in the difficult position of being forced to erode its own privileges. ^[75] The King provoked further opposition by attempting to reduce the Anglican monopoly on education. ^[76] At the University of Oxford, James offended Anglicans by allowing Catholics to hold important positions in Christ Church and University College, two of Oxford's largest colleges. The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the Not to be confused with Christchurch, a city in New Zealand. Christ Church (Ædes Christi the temple or house of Christ and thus sometimes known as University College (in full the The Master and Fellows of the College of the Great Hall of the University of Oxford, colloquially referred to as Univ) is one of He also attempted to force the Protestant Fellows of Magdalen College to elect Anthony Farmer, a man of generally ill repute who was believed to be secretly Catholic,^[77] as their president when the Protestant incumbent died, a violation of the Fellows' right to elect a candidate of their own choosing. Magdalen College redirects here see also Magdalene College Cambridge Magdalen College (ˈmɔːdlɨn "maudlin" is one of the constituent Anthony Farmer (born 1657 was an Englishman nominated by King James II to the office of President of Magdalen College Oxford. ^[76]

Glorious Revolution

Main article: Glorious Revolution

James's nephew, William, was invited to "save the Protestant religion". The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland in 1688 by a union William III or William of Orange (14 November 1650 &ndash 8 March 1702 He is informally known in Northern Ireland and Scotland as "King Billy"

In April 1688, James re-issued the Declaration of Indulgence, subsequently ordering Anglican clergymen to read it in their churches. ^[78] When the Archbishop of Canterbury William Sancroft and six other bishops (known as the Seven Bishops) submitted a petition requesting the reconsideration of the King's religious policies, they were arrested and tried for seditious libel. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the chief bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the William Sancroft ( 30 January 1617 - 24 November 1693) was the 79th Archbishop of Canterbury. The Seven Bishops were seven bishops of the Church of England. Seditious libel is a criminal offence under English Common law. ^[79] Public alarm increased when Queen Mary gave birth to a Catholic son and heir, James Francis Edward on 10 June of that year. Prince James Prince of Wales (James Francis Edward Stuart " The Old Pretender " or " The Old Chevalier " 10 June 1688 – 1 January 1766 was the Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem ^[80] When James's only possible successors were his two Protestant daughters, moderate Anglicans could see his pro-Catholic policies as a temporary aberration; the Prince's birth opened the possibility of a permanent Catholic dynasty, and led such men to reconsider their patience. ^[81] Threatened by a Catholic dynasty, several influential Protestants claimed the child was "suppositious". They had already entered into negotiations with William, Prince of Orange, when it became known the Queen was pregnant, and the birth of James's son reinforced their convictions. ^[82]

John Churchill had been a member of James's household for many years, but defected to William of Orange in 1688.

On 30 June 1688, a group of Protestant nobles, later known as the Immortal Seven, invited the Prince of Orange to come to England with an army. Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, is defeated and killed by troops of the Usurper The Invitation to William was a letter sent by seven notable Englishmen later named the Immortal Seven, to William III Prince of Orange, received by him England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland ^[83] By September, it had become clear that William sought to invade. ^[84] Believing that his own army would be adequate, James refused the assistance of Louis XIV, fearing that the English would oppose French intervention. ^[84] When William arrived on 5 November 1688, many Protestant officers, including Churchill, defected and joined William, as did James's own daughter, Princess Anne. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany) Anne (6 February 1665 – 1 August 1714 became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland on 8 March 1702 succeeding William III of England and II of ^[85] James lost his nerve, and declined to attack the invading army, despite his own numerical superiority. ^[86] On 11 December, James attempted to flee to France, first throwing the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Great Seal of the Realm or Great Seal of the United Kingdom (prior to the Union the Great Seal of England, then Great Seal of Great Britain The Thames ( is a major River flowing through southern England. ^[87] James was captured in Kent; later, he was released and placed under Dutch protective guard. KENT (1400 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Adult Standards/MOR format Having no desire to make James a martyr, the Prince of Orange let him escape on 23 December. Events 962 - Byzantine-Arab Wars: Under the future Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine troops stormed the city ^[87] James was received by his cousin and ally, Louis XIV, who offered him a palace and a pension.

William convened a Convention Parliament to decide how to handle James's flight. The term Convention Parliament has been applied to three different English Parliaments of 1399 1660 and 1689 While the Parliament refused to depose him, they declared that James, having fled to France and dropped the Great Seal into the Thames, had effectively abdicated the throne, and that the throne had thereby become vacant. Abdication (from the Latin abdicatio, disowning renouncing from ab, away from and dicare, to declare to proclaim as not belonging to one ^[88] To fill this vacancy, James's daughter Mary was declared Queen; she was to rule jointly with her husband William, who would be King. The Parliament of Scotland followed suit on 11 April 1689. This article is about the pre-1707 parliament The article on the devolved legislative body established in 1999 is at Scottish Parliament. Events 491 - Flavius Anastasius becomes Byzantine Emperor, with the name of Anastasius I. ^[89] The Parliament passed a Bill of Rights that charged James II with abusing his power; amongst other things, it criticised the suspension of the Test Acts, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the crown, the establishment of a standing army and the imposition of cruel punishments. The Bill of Rights (or Declaration of Rights) is an act of the Parliament of England, with the Long title An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties ^[90] The Bill also stipulated that no Catholic would henceforth be permitted to ascend to the English throne, nor could any English monarch marry a Catholic. ^[91]

Later years

War in Ireland

With the assistance of French troops, James landed in Ireland in March 1689. ^[92] The Irish Parliament did not follow the example of the English Parliament; it declared that James remained King and passed a massive bill of attainder against those who had rebelled against him. The Parliament of Ireland (Irish Parlaimint na hEireann) was a Legislature that existed from mediæval times until 1800. A bill of attainder (also known as an act or writ of Attainder) is an act of Legislature declaring a person or group of persons guilty of ^[93] At James's urging, the Irish Parliament passed an Act for Liberty of Conscience that granted religious freedom to all Catholics and Protestants in Ireland. ^[94] James worked to build an army in Ireland, but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690 when William arrived, personally leading an army to defeat James and reassert English control. The Battle of the Boyne (Cath na Bóinne was a turning point in the Williamite claim on the English throne "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. ^[95] James fled to France once more, departing from Kinsale, never to return to any of his former kingdoms. Kinsale (Cionn tSáile is a town in County Cork, Ireland. Located some 25 km south of Cork City on the coast near the Old Head of Kinsale ^[95] Because he deserted his Irish supporters, James became known in Ireland as Séamus an Chaca or 'James the be-shitten'. ^[96]

Return to exile

The Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, James's home during his final exile

In France, James was allowed to live in the royal château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye is a French royal Palace in the commune of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, in the département of For treaties with this name see Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (disambiguation Saint-Germain-en-Laye is a commune in the western ^[97] James's wife and some of his supporters fled with him, including the Earl of Melfort; most, but not all, were Catholic. John Drummond 1st Earl and titular 1st Duke of Melfort (1649-1714 was a Scottish nobleman ^[98] In 1692, James's last child, Louisa Maria Teresa, was born. Princess Louisa Maria Teresa Stuart ( 28 June 1692 &ndash 18 April 1712) known to Jacobites as The Princess Royal ^[99] Some supporters in England attempted to restore James to the throne by assassinating William III in 1696, but the plot failed and the backlash made James's cause less popular. ^[100] Louis XIV's offer to have James elected King of Poland in the same year was rejected, for James feared that acceptance of the Polish crown might (in the minds of the English people) render him incapable of being King of England. Free election (Polish wolna elekcja) was the Election of individual kings rather than of Dynasties, to the Polish throne between The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic After Louis concluded peace with William in 1697, he ceased to offer much in the way of assistance to James. ^[101]

During his last years, James lived as an austere penitent. Penance is repentance of Sins as well as the proper name of the Catholic and Orthodox Christian Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation/Confession ^[102] He died of a brain hemorrhage on 16 September 1701 at Saint-Germain-en-Laye. A stroke is the rapidly developing loss of brain functions due to a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers For treaties with this name see Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (disambiguation Saint-Germain-en-Laye is a commune in the western ^[103] His body was laid to rest in a coffin at the Chapel of Saint Edmund in the Church of the English Benedictines in the Rue St. Benedictine refers to the Spirituality and Consecrated life in accordance with the Rule of St Benedict, written by Benedict of Nursia in Jacques, Paris. ^[103] In 1734, the Archbishop of Paris heard evidence to support James's canonization, but nothing came of it. ^[103] During the French Revolution, James's tomb was raided and his remains scattered. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an ^[104]

Succession

James's son was known as "James III and VIII" to his supporters, and "The Old Pretender" to his enemies. Prince James Prince of Wales (James Francis Edward Stuart " The Old Pretender " or " The Old Chevalier " 10 June 1688 – 1 January 1766 was the

James's younger daughter Anne succeeded to the throne when William III died in 1702. Anne (6 February 1665 – 1 August 1714 became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland on 8 March 1702 succeeding William III of England and II of The Act of Settlement 1701 provided that, if the line of succession established in the Bill of Rights were to be extinguished, then the crown would go to a German cousin, Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and to her Protestant heirs. The Act of Settlement is an act of the Parliament of England, originally filed in 1700 and passed in 1701 to settle the succession to the English throne Electress Sophia of Hanover (born Sophia Countess Palatine of Simmern; 14 October 1630 – 8 June 1714) was the youngest daughter ^[105] Thus, when Anne died in 1714 (fewer than two months after the death of Sophia), the crown was inherited by George I, Sophia's son, the Elector of Hanover and Anne's second cousin. George I (George Louis German Georg Ludwig; 28 May 1660 &ndash 11 June 1727 For the first year of his life George was the only heir to his father's and three childless ^[105]

James's son James Francis Edward was recognised as King at his father's death by Louis XIV of France and James's remaining supporters (later known as Jacobites) as "James III and VIII. Prince James Prince of Wales (James Francis Edward Stuart " The Old Pretender " or " The Old Chevalier " 10 June 1688 – 1 January 1766 was the Jacobitism was (and to a limited extent remains the political movement dedicated to the restoration of the Stuart kings to the thrones of England, Scotland "^[106] He led a rising in Scotland in 1715 shortly after George I's accession, but was defeated. The Jacobite Risings were a series of uprisings rebellions and wars in the kingdoms of England, Kingdom of Scotland (later the United Kingdom of Great Britain ^[107] Jacobites rose again in 1745 led by Charles Edward Stuart, James II's grandson, and were again defeated. The Jacobite Risings were a series of uprisings rebellions and wars in the kingdoms of England, Kingdom of Scotland (later the United Kingdom of Great Britain For the US politician see Charles E Stuart For "Betty Burke" see The 'Forty-Five' below ^[108] Since then, no serious attempt to restore the Stuart heir has been made. Charles's claims passed to his younger brother Henry Benedict Stuart, the Dean of the College of Cardinals of the Catholic Church. Henry Benedict Cardinal Stuart ( 11 March 1725 &ndash 13 July 1807) was the fourth and final Jacobite heir to publicly claim the thrones The Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals is the President of the College of Cardinals in the Roman Catholic Church, and as such always holds the rank ^[109] Henry was the last of James II's legitimate descendants, and no relative has publicly acknowledged the Jacobite claim since then. The Jacobite succession is the line through which the crown in pretence has descended since the flight of James II & VII from London at the time ^[110]

Historiography

Macaulay wrote in the Whiggish tradition. Whig history or Whiggish historiography presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment culminating in modern forms of liberal

Historical analysis of James II has gone through considerable change since he was overthrown. Initially, Whiggish historians, led by Lord Macaulay, cast James as a cruel absolutist and his reign as "tyranny which approached to insanity. Whig history or Whiggish historiography presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment culminating in modern forms of liberal "^[111] Subsequent scholars, such as G. M. Trevelyan and David Ogg, while more balanced than Macaulay, continued Macaulay's tradition into the twentieth century, characterizing James as a tyrant, his attempts at religious tolerance as a fraud, and his reign as an aberration in the course of British history. George Macaulay Trevelyan CBE OM ( February 16, 1876 Welcombe House, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire ^[112] In 1892, A. W. Ward wrote for the Dictionary of National Biography that James was "obviously a political and religious bigot", although never devoid of "a vein of patriotic sentiment"; "his conversion to the church of Rome made the emancipation of his fellow-catholics in the first instance, and the recovery of England for catholicism in the second, the governing objects of his policy. Adolphus William Ward ( December 2, 1837 – June 19, 1924) was an English Historian and Man of letters. The Dictionary of National Biography ( DNB) is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history published from 1885 "^[113]

Belloc was a notable apologist for James II. Joseph Hilaire Pierre René Belloc (27 July 1870 &ndash 16 July 1953 was a French -born Writer who became a Naturalised British subject

Hilaire Belloc broke with this tradition in 1928. Joseph Hilaire Pierre René Belloc (27 July 1870 &ndash 16 July 1953 was a French -born Writer who became a Naturalised British subject Belloc cast James as an honorable man and a true advocate for freedom of conscience, and his enemies as "men in the small clique of great fortunes . . . which destroyed the ancient monarchy of the English. "^[114] Belloc's thesis failed to alter the course of historical opinion at the time, but by the 1960s and 1970s, Maurice Ashley and Stuart Prall began to reconsider James's motives in granting religious toleration, while still taking note of James's autocratic rule. ^[115] These modern authors moved away from the school of thought that preached inevitability of the Glorious Revolution and the continuous march of progress and democracy. The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland in 1688 by a union "[H]istory is," Ashley wrote, "after all, the story of human beings and individuals, as well as of the classes and the masses. "^[116] He cast James II and William III as "men of ideals as well as human weaknesses. "^[116] John Miller, writing in 2000, accepted the claims of James's absolutism, but argued that "his main concern was to secure religious liberty and civil equality for Catholics. Any 'absolutist' methods . . . were essentially means to that end. "^[117] In 2004, W. A. Speck wrote in the new Oxford Dictionary of National Biography that "James was genuinely committed to religious toleration, but also sought to increase the power of the crown. The Dictionary of National Biography ( DNB) is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history published from 1885 "^[118] He added that, unlike the government of the Netherlands, "James was too autocratic to combine freedom of conscience with popular government. He resisted any check on the monarch's power. That is why his heart was not in the concessions he had to make in 1688. He would rather live in exile with his principles intact than continue to reign as a limited monarch. "^[118]

Tim Harris's conclusions from his 2006 book summarize the crossroads of modern scholarship on James II:

The jury will doubtless remain out on James for a long time…Was he an egotistical bigot…a tyrant who rode roughshod over the will of the vast majority of his subjects (at least in England and Scotland)…simply naïve, or even perhaps plain stupid, unable to appreciate the realities of political power…Or was he a well-intentioned and even enlightened ruler—an enlightened despot well ahead of his time, perhaps—who was merely trying to do what he thought was best for his subjects?^[119]

Titles, styles, and arms

Titles and styles

Monarchical Styles of King James II of England Reference style His Majesty Spoken style Your Majesty Alternative style Sir

• 14 October 1633 – 6 February 1685: Prince James
• 27 January 1644 – 6 February 1685: The Duke of York
• 10 May 1659 – 6 February 1685: The Earl of Ulster
• 31 December 1660 – 6 February 1685: The Duke of Albany

• before 1 January 1665 – 6 February 1685: His Royal Highness^[120]

• 6 February 1685 – 11 December 1688: His Majesty The King
• 11 December 1688 – 16 September 1701: His Majesty King James II
  • Jacobite: His Majesty The King

The official style of James II was "James the Second, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland, King of Scots, Defender of the Faith, etc. A style of office, or honorific, is a term which by Tradition or Law precedes a reference to a person who holds a post or Title, or to the Majesty is an English word derived ultimately from the Latin Maiestas, meaning Greatness. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio Events 98 - Trajan becomes Roman Emperor after the death of Nerva. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers The Kings of Wessex, who conquered Kent and Sussex from Mercia in 825 became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during The English claims to the French throne have a long and rather complex history between the 1340s and the 1800s The Kingdom of Ireland (Ríocht na hÉireann was the name given to the Irish state from 1541 by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 of the Parliament of Ireland. The monarch of Scotland was the Head of state of the Kingdom of Scotland. "Defender of the Faith" redirects here For the 1984 platinum album of British heavy metal group Judas Priest, see Defenders of the Faith " (The claim to France was only nominal, and was asserted by every English King from Edward III to George III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled. The English claims to the French throne have a long and rather complex history between the 1340s and the 1800s Edward III (13 November 1312 &ndash 21 June 1377 was one of the most successful English monarchs of the Middle Ages. George III (George William Frederick 4 June 1738 George III's long reign was marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdom much of the rest of Europe and places )

Half-Crown coin of James II, 1686

James was created "Duke of Normandy" by King Louis XIV of France, December 31, 1660. Duke of Normandy is a Title held or claimed by various Norman, French, English and British rulers from the 10th century until the Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia. This was a few months after the restoration of his brother Charles II to the English and Irish thrones (Charles II had been crowned King of Scotland in 1651), and probably was done as a political gesture of support for James - since his brother also would have claimed the title "Duke of Normandy. Charles II (Charles Stuart 29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685 was the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland. "

Arms

Prior to his accession, James's arms were those of the kingdom (which he later inherited), differenced by a label argent of three points ermine, although it is noted that, when it become clear that his position as heir-presumptive was not under threat, a label argent of three points was sometimes used. A coat of arms or armorial bearings (often just arms for short in European tradition is a design belonging to a particular person (or group of people ^[121] His arms as King were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). The royal coat of arms of England was the official coat of arms of the monarchs of England, and were used as the official coat of arms of the Kingdom of England The Coat of arms of Ireland is Blazoned as azure a harp or stringed argent - a gold Harp with silver strings on a St

In popular culture

Film and television

James has been portrayed on screen by:

• Josef Moser in the Austrian silent film Das Grinsende Gesicht (1921), based on the novel The Man Who Laughs by Victor Hugo
• Gibb McLaughlin in the silent film Nell Gwynne (1926), based on a novel by Joseph Shearing
• Sam De Grasse in the silent film The Man Who Laughs (1928), also based on the novel by Victor Hugo
• Lawrence Anderson in Nell Gwyn (1934)
• Vernon Steele in Captain Blood (1935), based on the novel by Rafael Sabatini
• Douglas Matthews in the BBC TV drama Thank You, Mr. The Man Who Laughs is a Novel by Victor Hugo, originally published in April 1869 under the French title L'Homme qui rit. Victor-Marie Hugo ( ( February 26, 1802 – May 22, 1885) was a French Poet, Playwright, Novelist Gibb McLaughlin ( 19 July, 1884 &ndash 1960 was an English film actor Samuel Alfred de Grasse (born June 12, 1875, died November 29, 1953) was a Canadian actor The Man Who Laughs ( 1928) is an American Silent film directed by the German Expressionist filmmaker Paul Leni. Captain Blood is a 1935 Swashbuckling Film made by First National Pictures and Warner Brothers. Captain Blood His Odyssey is an Adventure novel by Rafael Sabatini, originally published in 1922 Rafael Sabatini (April 29 1875 - February 13 1950 was an Italian / British Writer of Novels of romance and adventure. Pepys (1938)
• Henry Oscar in Bonnie Prince Charlie (1948)
• John Westbrook in the BBC TV series The First Churchills (1969)
• Guy Henry in England, My England (1995), the story of the composer Henry Purcell
• Charlie Creed-Miles in the BBC TV miniseries Charles II: The Power & the Passion (2003)

Ancestors

Of James II's 16 great-great-grandparents, 3 were Scottish, 3 French, 2 Danish, 2 German, 2 Spanish, 2 Italian, 1 Austrian and 1 Hungarian, giving him a thoroughly cosmopolitan background with ancestors in almost every European country except the one he ruled. Henry Oscar, born Henry Wale on 14 July 1891 in London, England, died 28 December 1969, was an English John Westbrook ( 1 November 1922 - 16 June 1989) was an English Actor. The First Churchills was a BBC miniseries from 1969 about the life of John Churchill 1st Duke of Marlborough and his wife Sarah Churchill Guy Henry (born 17 October 1960) is a British stage and screen actor best known for his role in Rome. Henry Purcell (ˈpɜrsəl 10 September 1659 (? – 21 November 1695 was an English Baroque Composer. Charlie Creed-Miles (born 24 March 1972 in Nottingham, England) is an English Actor. Charles II The Power and the Passion is an award-winning British television mini-series broadcast on BBC One in 2003 and produced by the BBC The Scots people ( Scots Gaelic: Albannaich) are a Nation and an Ethnic group indigenous to Scotland. Legal residents and citizens To be French according to the first article of the Constitution is to be a citizen of France regardless of one's origin race or religion ( The term Dane may refer to People with a Danish ancestral or ethnic identity whether living in Denmark, emigrants or the descendants of emigrants The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as The' Italian people' are a Southern European Ethnic group located primarily in Italy, Switzerland, France and by virtue of a wide-ranging Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary.

Issue

See also

• Divine Right of Kings
• Touch Pieces

Notes

References

• Ashley, Maurice, The Glorious Revolution of 1688, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York 1966. ISBN 0-340-00896-2.
• Belloc, Hilaire, James the Second, J. Joseph Hilaire Pierre René Belloc (27 July 1870 &ndash 16 July 1953 was a French -born Writer who became a Naturalised British subject B. Lippincott Co, Philadelphia 1928.
• Callow, John, The Making of King James II: The Formative Years of a King, Sutton Publishing, Ltd, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire, 2000. Stroud is a Town and Civil parish in the County of Gloucestershire, England. ISBN 0750923989.
• Clarke, James S. (Editor), The Life of James II, London, 1816
• Davis, Richard B. (Editor). (1963). William Fitzhugh and His Chesapeake World, 1676–1701. Chapel Hill: The Virginia Historical Society by University of North Carolina Press.
• Hallam, Henry, The Constitutional History of England from the Accession of Henry VII to the Death of George II, W. Clowes & Sons, London, 1855.
• Harris, Tim, Revolution: The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy, 1685–1720, Penguin Books, Ltd. , 2006. ISBN 0713997591.
• "James II," Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London, 1911: Cambridge University Press.
• Kenyon, J. P. , The Stuart Constitution 1603–1688, Documents and Commentary, 2d ed. , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986. ISBN 0521313279.
• MacLeod, John, Dynasty, the Stuarts, 1560–1807, Hodder and Stoughton, London 1999. ISBN 0340707674.
• Macauley, Thomas Babington, The History of England from the Accession of James the Second, 1848. The History of England from the Accession of James the Second is the full title of the multi-volume work by Lord Macaulay more generally known as " The History Penguin Books Edition, New York 1968, 1986. ISBN 0140431330.
• Miller, John, James II, 3d. ed. Yale University Press, New Haven 2000. ISBN 0-300-08728-4
• McFerran, Noel S. (2003). "James II and VII."
• Prall, Stuart, The Bloodless Revolution: England, 1688, Anchor Books, Garden City, New York 1972.
• Royle, Trevor, The British Civil Wars: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, 1638–1660, Little, Brown, 2004. ISBN 0312292937.
• Turner, Francis C. , James II, Eyre and Spottiswoode, London, 1948
• Waller, Maureen, Ungrateful Daughters: The Stuart Princesses who Stole Their Father's Crown, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 2002. ISBN 031230711X.

External links

• James II Chronology
• King James II on Find-A-Grave