The Islamic Golden Age, also sometimes known as the Islamic Renaissance,[1] is traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century,[2] though some have extended it to the 15th[3] or 16th[4] centuries. During this period, engineers, scholars and traders in the Islamic world contributed to the arts, agriculture, economics, industry, law, literature, navigation, philosophy, sciences, and technology, both by preserving and building upon earlier traditions and by adding inventions and innovations of their own. An engineer is a person professionally engaged in a field of Engineering. Scholarly method &mdash or as it is more commonly called scholarship &mdash is the body of principles and practices used by scholars to make their claims about the world as The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings The arts is a broad subdivision of Culture, composed of many expressive disciplines. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Navigation is the process of reading and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt [5] Howard R. Turner writes: "Muslim artists and scientists, princes and labourers together created a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced societies on every continent. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The definition of an artist is wide-ranging and covers a broad spectrum of Activities to do with creating Art, practicing the Arts and/or demonstrating A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices Prince, from the Latin root Princeps, is a general term for a Monarch, for a member of a monarch's or former monarch's family and is a "[5]
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Foundations
- Further information: Early reforms under Islam and Muslim conquests
During the Muslim conquests of the 7th and early 8th centuries, nomadic Arab armies established the Islamic Empire, which was one of the ten largest empires in history. Many Reforms took place under Islam between 610 and 661, including the period of Muhammad 's mission and the rule of The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that The Rashidun Caliphate Army or Rashidun army was the primary military body of the Rashidun Caliphate 's Armed forces during the Muslim The Islamic Golden Age was soon inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The term Golden age is best known from Greek mythology and legend but can also be found in other ancient cultures (see below A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous The Abbassids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith such as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic During this period the Muslim world became the unrivalled intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established a "House of Wisdom" in Baghdad; where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge into Arabic. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been lost were translated into Arabic and later in turn translated into Turkish, Persian, Hebrew and Latin. During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Iraqi, Roman, Chinese, Indian, Persian, Egyptian, North African, Greek and Byzantine civilizations. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Rival Muslim dynasties such as the Fatimids of Egypt and the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as Cairo and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous [6]
A major innovation of this period was paper - originally a secret tightly guarded by the Chinese. Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. The art of papermaking was obtained from prisoners taken at the Battle of Talas (751), resulting in paper mills being built in Samarkand and Baghdad. Papermaking is the process of making Paper, a material which is used ubiquitously today for writing and packaging The Battle of Talas in 751 CE was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty for control A paper mill is a Factory devoted to making Paper from wood pulp and other ingredients using a Fourdrinier Machine or similar apparatus Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques of using mulberry bark by using starch to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide the Chinese for brushes. By AD 900 there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for books in Baghdad and even public libraries began to become established, including the first lending libraries. A public library (also called circulating library) is a Library which is accessible by the Public and is generally funded from public sources (such From here paper-making spread west to Fez and then to al-Andalus and from there to Europe in the 13th century. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or [7]
Much of this learning and development can be linked to topography. Even prior to Islam's presence, the city of Mecca served as a centre of trade in Arabia. Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) The tradition of the pilgrimage to Mecca became a centre for exchanging ideas and goods. The Hajj (حج is a pilgrimage to Mecca (Makkah It is the largest annual pilgrimage in the world The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to China, India (the Indian subcontinent now has over 450 million followers), South-east Asia (which now has over 230 million followers), and the kingdoms of Western Africa and returned with new inventions. This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. Merchants used their wealth to invest in textiles and plantations.
Aside from traders, Sufi missionaries also played a large role in the spread of Islam, by bringing their message to various regions around the world. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفیگری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف The principal locations included: Persia, Ancient Mesopotamia, Central Asia and North Africa. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Although, the mystics also had a significant influence in parts of Eastern Africa, Ancient Anatolia (Turkey), South Asia, East Asia and South-east Asia. Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity East Africa is the Easternmost Region of the African Continent. The History of Anatolia encompasses the region known as Anatolia ( Turkish Anadolu) known by the Latin name of Asia Minor, considered to be Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches [8][9]
Ethics
- Further information: Islamic democracy and Constitution of Medina
Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational and scientific discourses in their search for knowledge, meaning and values. Islamic ethics ( akhlāq) defined as "good character" historically took shape gradually from the 7th century and was finally established by the 11th Many Reforms took place under Islam between 610 and 661, including the period of Muhammad 's mission and the rule of Known as Islamic democracy, two kinds of democratic states can be recognized in the Islamic countries The Constitution of Medina, also known as the Charter of Medina, was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 622 Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286 Discourse (L discursus, "running to and from" means either "written or spoken communication or debate" or "a formal discussion Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding A personal and cultural value is a Relative ethic value, an assumption upon which implementation can be extrapolated A wide range of Islamic writings on love poetry, history and philosophical theology show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas of individualism, occasional secularism, skepticism and liberalism. History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Philosophical theology is the disciplined employment of philosophical methods in developing or analyzing theological concepts Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs In ordinary usage skepticism or scepticism ( Greek 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to look about to consider see also spelling differences Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal [10][11]
Religious freedom, though limited, helped create cross-cultural networks by attracting Muslim, Christian and Jewish intellectuals and thereby helped spawn the greatest period of philosophical creativity in the Middle Ages from the 8th to 13th centuries. Freedom of religion is the freedom of an individual or community in public or private to manifest religion or belief in teaching practice worship and observance cross-cultural may refer to Cross-cultural studies, a comparative tendency in various fields of cultural analysis any of various forms of interactivity A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ [6] Another reason the Islamic world flourished during this period was an early emphasis on freedom of speech, as summarized by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph al-Ma'mun) in the following letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting to convert through reason:[12]
"Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you please and speak your mind freely. Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation. Abu Jafar al-Ma'mun ibn Harun (also spelled Almamon and el-Mâmoûn) ( September 14, 786 &ndash August 9, 833) (المأمون Religious conversion is the adoption of a new religious identity or a change from one religious identity to another Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empary of passion, and that arbitrator shall be Reason, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For "There is no compulsion in religion" (Qur'an 2:256) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. Sura Al-Baqara ( سورة البقرة, Sūratu al-Baqarah, "The Cow" is the second and the longest Sura (chapter of the Peace be with you and the blessings of God!"
The earliest known treatises dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, especially pollution, were Arabic treatises written by al-Kindi, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Abd-el-latif, and Ibn al-Nafis. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Abu Ja'far Ahmad bin Abi Khalid Ibn al-Jazzar Al-Qayrawani (circa 898-980 ( أبو جعفر أحمد بن أبي خالد بن الجزار القيرواني) was a 10th century This is not the Sub-clan of Quraish, for that see Banu Taim Banī Tamīm or Banu Tamim or Banu Tameem Abu Sahl Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi al-Jurjani (ابو سهل عيسى بن يحيى المسيحي الگرگاني was a Christian physician from Gorgan, east of the Caspian TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri (988–c 1061 was an Egyptian Muslim physician, astrologer and astronomer, born in Giza. Abd-al-latif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-ul-Latif (1162 &ndash 1231 also known as al-Baghdadi ( Arabic, عبداللطيف البغدادي TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities. Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment An ( EIA) is an assessment of the possible impact&ndashpositive or negative&ndashthat a proposed project may have on the Natural environment. [13] Cordoba, al-Andalus also had the first waste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or 'Wastebin' redirects here For the temporary deletion of a computer file see Recycle bin (computing. Waste management is the collection Transport, processing, Recycling or disposal of Waste materials Litter is Waste disposed in the wrong place by Unlawful human action and can vary in size of incident occurrence or items [14]
Institutions
- Further information: Madrasah, Bimaristan, Islamic astronomy, Sharia, Fiqh, and Islamic economics in the world
A number of important educational and scientific institutions previously unknown in the ancient world have their origins in the medieval Islamic world, with the most notable examples being: the public hospital (which replaced healing temples and sleep temples)[15] and psychiatric hospital,[16] the public library and lending library, the academic degree-granting university, and the astronomical observatory as a research institute[15] (as opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times). "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the This is a sub-article of Islamic economic jurisprudence and Muslim world. Institutions are structures and mechanisms of Social order and Cooperation governing the Behavior of a Set of Individuals A public hospital is a Hospital which is owned by a Government and receives government funding Sleep temples (also known as dream temples or Egyptian sleep temples) are regarded by some as an early instance of Hypnosis over 4000 years ago Sleep temples (also known as dream temples or Egyptian sleep temples) are regarded by some as an early instance of Hypnosis over 4000 years ago A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is A public library (also called circulating library) is a Library which is accessible by the Public and is generally funded from public sources (such A lending library is a Library from which books are lent out The earliest reference or use of the term 'lending library located in English correspondence dates back to at A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial and/or celestial events A research institute is an establishment endowed for doing Research. An observation post, temporary or fixed is a position from which soldiers can watch enemy movements to warn of approaching soldiers (such as in Trench warfare [17]
The first universities which issued diplomas were the Bimaristan medical university-hospitals of the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be practicing doctors of medicine from the 9th century. A diploma (from Greek δίπλωµα diploma, meaning "folded paper" is a Certificate or Deed issued by an educational institution Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- Doctor of Medicine ( MD or MD, from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine" is a doctoral [18]
The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE. Guinness World Records, known until 2000 as The Guinness Book of Records (and in previous U The University of Al-Karaouine or Al-Qarawiyyin (جامعة القرويين (other transliterations of the name include Qarawiyin Kairouyine Kairaouine Qairawiyin Qaraouyine Fes or Fez ( Arabic: فاس, French Fès is the fourth largest City in Morocco, after Casablanca, Rabat Events By Place Europe January 15 - Battle of Saint-Quentin Aisne: Humfrid defeats Louis the German. [19] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in the 975 CE, offered a variety of academic degrees, including postgraduate degrees, and is often considered the first full-fledged university. Al-Azhar University (pronounced "az-HAR" الأزهر الشريف, "the Noble Azhar" in Egypt, founded in 975 is the chief centre of Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Events By Place Europe King Edward the Martyr is crowned in England. A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing A graduate school or ("grad school" is a school that awards advanced degrees such as doctoral degrees with the general requirement that students must have earned
By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries, the largest of which had 600,000 books. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger A palace is a grand residence especially the home of a Head of state or some other high-ranking Public figure. A library is a collection of information sources resources and services and the structure in which it is housed it is organized for use and maintained by a public body an institution In the whole al-Andalus, 60,000 treatises, poems, polemics and compilations were published each year. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or A treatise is a formal lengthy systematic Discourse on some subject Arabic poetry ( Arabic, الِشعر العربي ash-shi`ru 'l-`arabiy) is the earliest form of Arabic literature. Polemics (pəˈlɛmɪks/ /poʊ- is the practice of disputing or controverting religious, philosophical, or political matters ANThology is the first Major label album by Alien Ant Farm released on March 6, 2001 in the USA and March 19 [20] The library of Cairo had two million books,[21] while the library of Tripoli is said to have had as many as three million books before it was destroyed by Crusaders. Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Tripoli ( Lebanese Arabic: طرابلس Ṭrāblos or Ṭrēblos locally Ṭrōbles Standard Arabic: Ṭarābulus Τρίπολις Tripolis is the second-largest The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The number of important and original Arabic works on science that have survived is much larger than the combined total of the surviving Greek and Latin works on science which at one time were much greater in number in antiquity and of which the extant Arabic works owe an enormous debt to, though only a small fraction of these surviving Arabic scientific works have been studied and even fewer have been published. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. [22]
A number of distinct features of the modern library were introduced in the Islamic world, where libraries not only served as a collection of manuscripts as was the case in ancient libraries, but also as a public library and lending library, a centre for the instruction and spread of sciences and ideas, a place for meetings and discussions, and sometimes as a lodging for scholars or boarding school for pupils. Lodging or a holiday accommodation is a type of residential Accommodation. A boarding school is a School where some or all pupils not only study but also live during term time with their fellow students and possibly teachers The concept of the library catalogue was also introduced in medieval Islamic libraries, where books were organized into specific genres and categories. A library catalog (or library catalogue) is a register of all bibliographic items found in a Library or group of libraries such as a network of libraries A genre (ˈʒɑːnrə also /ˈdʒɑːnrə/ from French "kind" or "sort" from Latin: genus (stem gener-) is a loose set [23]
Several fundamental common law institutions may have been adapted from similar legal institutions in Islamic law and jurisprudence, and introduced to England by the Normans after the Norman conquest of England and the Emirate of Sicily, and by Crusaders during the Crusades. Common law refers to law and the corresponding legal system developed through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the The Normans were the people who gave their names to Normandy, a region in northern France. The Emirate of Sicily was an Islamic state on the island of Sicily from 965 to 1072. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents In particular, the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic Aqd, the English assize of novel disseisin is identified with the Islamic Istihqaq, and the English jury is identified with the Islamic Lafif. A contract is an exchange of promises between two or more parties to do or refrain from doing an act which is enforceable in a court of law Debt is that which is owed usually referencing Assets owed but the term can cover other obligations In English law, the Assize of novel disseisin ("recent dispossession" was an action to recover lands of which the plaintiff had been disseised or dispossessed A jury a sworn body of persons convened to render a rational, impartial Verdict (a finding of fact on a question officially submitted to them " Other legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf),[24][25] and the agency and aval (Hawala),[26] and the lawsuit and medical peer review. In Common law legal systems a trust is an arrangement whereby Property (including real tangible and intangible is managed by one person (or persons or organizations A charitable trust is a trust established for charitable purposes and is a more specific term than " charitable organisation " A waqf ( plural, awqāf; vakıf wæqəf is an inalienable religious endowment in Islam, typically devoting a building or plot of land for Muslim Agency is an area of Commercial law dealing with a Contractual or Quasi-contractual Tripartite set of relationships when an Agent Aval or Endorsement is a shared-in-common commitment of Payment of an obligation in favor of the creditor or Beneficiary, granted by a third Hawala (also known as hundi) is an Informal value transfer system based on performance and honor of a huge network of money brokers which are primarily located in In law a lawsuit is a civil action brought before a Court in which the party commencing the action the Plaintiff, seeks a legal or equitable remedy Medical peer review is the process by which a committee of physicians examines the work of a peer and determines whether the physician under review has met accepted standards of care in [27] Other English legal institutions such as "the scholastic method, the license to teach," the "law schools known as Inns of Court in England and Madrasas in Islam" and the "European commenda" (Islamic Qirad) may have also originated from Islamic law. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries The verb license or grant license means to give permission The noun license is the document demonstrating that permission Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency A law school (also known as a school of law or college of law) is an institution specializing in Legal education. The Inns of Court in London are the professional associations to one of which every barrister in England and Wales (and those judges who were formerly barristers "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. A limited partnership is a form of Partnership similar to a General partnership, except that in addition to one or more general partners (GPs there are The qirad was one of the basic financial instruments of the medieval Islamic world. These influences have led some scholars to suggest that Islamic law may have laid the foundations for "the common law as an integrated whole". [28]
Polymaths
Another common feature during the Islamic Golden Age was the large number of Muslim polymath scholars, who were known as "Hakeems", each of whom contributed to a variety of different fields of both religious and secular learning, comparable to the later "Renaissance Men" (such as Leonardo da Vinci) of the European Renaissance period. A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere During the Islamic Golden Age, polymath scholars with a wide breadth of knowledge in different fields were more common than scholars who specialized in any single field of learning. [29]
Notable medieval Muslim polymaths included al-Biruni, al-Jahiz, al-Kindi, Avicenna, al-Idrisi, Ibn Bajjah, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Tufail, Averroes, al-Suyuti,[30] Geber,[31] Abbas Ibn Firnas,[32] Alhacen,[33] Ibn al-Nafis,[34] Ibn Khaldun,[35] al-Khwarizmi, al-Masudi, al-Muqaddasi, and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, among others. Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, c ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abu Abd Allah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani al-Sabti or simply El Idrisi ( Arabic أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي Latin: Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Imam Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti (c For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 &ndash 887 AD) was also known as Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas and العباس بن فرناس ( Arabic language) TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn íbn Ali al-Mas'udi (transl) (born c Muhammad ibn Ahmad Shams al-Din Al-Muqaddasi (محمد بن أحمد شمس الدين المقدسي also Transliterated as Al-Maqdisi and el-Mukaddasi [29]
Economy
Age of discovery
- Further information: Islamic economics in the world - Age of discovery
- See also: Muslim navigational technology, Ibn Battuta and Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories
The Islamic Empire significantly contributed to globalization during the Islamic Golden Age, when the knowledge, trade and economies from many previously isolated regions and civilizations began integrating due to contacts with Muslim explorers, sailors, scholars, traders, and travelers. This is a sub-article of Islamic economic jurisprudence and Muslim world. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February Globalization (or globalisation) in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional phenomena into global ones Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area Isolationism is a Foreign policy which combines a non-interventionist military policy and a political policy of Economic nationalism ( Protectionism A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Travel is the change in location of people on a trip through the means of Transport from one location to another Some have called this period the "Pax Islamica" or "Afro-Asiatic age of discovery", in reference to the Muslim South-west Asian and North African traders and explorers who travelled most of the Old World, and established an early global economy[36] across most of Asia and Africa and much of Europe, with their trade networks extending from the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Indian Ocean and China Sea in the east. The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century during which Europeans explored Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia (largely overlapping with the Middle East) is the southwestern portion of Asia. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans Asians and Africans in the 15th century The rising Technology has allowed our environment to be characterized as a global one The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface The China Seas consists of the seas of the Western Pacific Ocean Yellow Sea East China Sea South China Sea [37] This helped establish the Islamic Empire (including the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th-13th centuries. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history [36] Several contemporary medieval Arabic reports also suggest that Muslim explorers from al-Andalus and the Maghreb may have travelled in expeditions across the Atlantic Ocean between the 9th and 14th centuries. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset [38]
Agricultural Revolution
The Islamic Golden Age witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as the "Muslim Agricultural Revolution", "Arab Agricultural Revolution", or "Green Revolution". Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture The Green Revolution refers to the transformation of Agriculture that began in 1945 at the request of the Mexican government to establish an agricultural research station to [39] Due to the global economy established by Muslim traders across the Old World, this enabled the diffusion of many plants and farming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. The rising Technology has allowed our environment to be characterized as a global one The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans Asians and Africans in the 15th century Diffusion is the net movement of particles (typically molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration by uncoordinated random movement Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Crops from Africa such as sorghum, crops from China such as citrus fruits, and numerous crops from India such as mangos, rice, and especially cotton and sugar cane, were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops. Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, some of which are raised for grain and many of which are used as Fodder plants either cultivated or as part China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Citrus is a common term and Genus of Flowering plants in the family Rutaceae, originating in tropical and subtropical southeast regions of India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Mangoes belong to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous species of tropical fruiting Trees in the Flowering plant family Anacardiaceae Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae [40] Some have referred to the diffusion of numerous crops during this period as the "Globalisation of Crops",[41] which, along with an increased mechanization of agriculture (see Industrial growth below), led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover,[42] agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, linked industries, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world. Globalization (or globalisation) in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional phenomena into global ones Mechanization or mechanisation ( BE) is providing human operators with machinery to assist them with the physical requirements of work An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area Population distribution redirects here For the probability distribution of a statistical population see Probability distribution and Statistical population Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region it refers to the Ground cover provided by plants Income, refers to consumption opportunity gained by an entity within a specified time frame which is generally expressed in monetary terms In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology Urbanizationn (also spelled urbanisation) is the physical growth of Urban areas into rural or natural land as a result of population in-migration to an existing For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" Cooking is the process of preparing Food by applying Heat, selecting measuring and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure for producing safe and edible This article is primarily about the human diet For a discussion of animal diets see List of feeding behaviours. Clothing (also called clothes, accoutrements, accouterments, or habiliments) protects the Human body from extreme Weather Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism [40]
During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, sugar production was refined and transformed into a large-scale industry by the Arabs, who built the first sugar refineries and sugar plantations. Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding A Sugar Refinery or sugar Mill is a Factory which refines sugar from various organic sources like sugar cane or beets into a Fundamentally a plantation is usually a large Farm or estate, especially in a tropical or semitropical country on which Cotton, Tobacco The Arabs and Berbers diffused sugar throughout the Islamic Empire from the 8th century. Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. [43]
Muslims introduced cash cropping[44] and the modern crop rotation system where land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. In Agriculture, a cash crop is a crop which is grown for Money. Winter crops were followed by summer ones, and in some cases there was in between. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as spinach and eggplants, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. Spinach ( Spinacia oleracea) is a Flowering plant in the family of Amaranthaceae. The eggplant, aubergine, or brinjal ( Solanum melongena) is a plant of the family Solanaceae (also known as the nightshades In parts of Yemen, wheat yielded two harvests a year on the same land, as did rice in Iraq. Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. In Agriculture, the harvest is the process of Gathering mature crops from the fields Reaping is the cutting of Grain Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many [40] Muslims developed a scientific approach to agriculture based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed irrigation techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of crops which were studied and catalogued according to the season, type of land and amount of water they require. Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact natural economic and Social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops A season is one of the major divisions of the Year, generally based on yearly periodic changes in Weather. A LAND attack is a DoS (Denial of Service attack that consists of sending a special poison spoofed packet to a computer causing it to lock up Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Numerous encyclopaedias on farming and botany were produced, containing accurate, precise detail. An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life [45]
Market economy
Early forms of proto-capitalism and free markets were present in the Caliphate,[46] where an early market economy and early form of merchant capitalism was developed between the 8th-12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism". This is a sub-article of Islamic economic jurisprudence and Muslim world. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where A free market is a Market in which property rights are voluntarily exchanged at a price arranged completely by the mutual consent of sellers and buyers A market economy is a realized Social system based on the Division of labour in which the prices of Goods and Services are determined in a Mercantilism is the idea that a colony should export more goods than it imports and that a colony should sell at higher prices and buy at lower prices [47] A vigorous monetary economy was created on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar) and the integration of monetary areas that were previously independent. The monetary economy is that part of a society's Economic system where products and services are traded in exchange for money Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This list of circulating currencies contains the 182 current A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is The Dinar is the name of the official currency in several countries Monetary policy is the process by which the Government, Central bank, or monetary authority of a country controls (i the Supply of Money, Innovative new business techniques and forms of business organisation were introduced by economists, merchants and traders during this time. A business (also called firm or an enterprise) is a legally recognized organizational entity designed to provide goods and/or services to Companies law (or the law of business associations) is the field of Law concerning business and other organizations An economist is an expert in the Social science of Economics. Merchants function as professionals who deal with Trade, dealing in commodities that they do not produce themselves in order to produce Profit. Such innovations included early trading companies, credit cards, big businesses, contracts, bills of exchange, long-distance international trade, early forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships (mudaraba), and early forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama al-mal),[44] circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes,[48] trusts (waqf), startup companies,[49] savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates, bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double-entry bookkeeping system,[50] and lawsuits. A joint stock company (JSC is a type of business entity it is a type of Corporation or Partnership. Big Business or big business is a term used to describe large corporations in either an individual or collective sense A contract is an exchange of promises between two or more parties to do or refrain from doing an act which is enforceable in a court of law A negotiable instrument is a specialized type of " Contract " for the payment of money that is unconditional and capable of transfer by negotiation International trade is exchange of Capital, Goods, and Services across International borders or Territories. For partnership in cricket terminology see List of cricket terms A partnership is a type of Business entity in which partners A limited partnership is a form of Partnership similar to a General partnership, except that in addition to one or more general partners (GPs there are Credit is the provision of resources (such as granting a Loan) by one party to another party where that second party does not reimburse the first party immediately thereby generating Debt is that which is owed usually referencing Assets owed but the term can cover other obligations loss may refer to A negative difference between retail Price and Cost of production An event in which the team or individual in question In Economics, capital or capital Goods or real capital refers to items of extensive value Most generally the accumulation of capital refers simply to the gathering or amassment of objects of value the increase in wealth or the creation of wealth Circulating capital is a term used by classical economists such as Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Marx. Capital expenditures (CAPEX or capex are expenditures creating future benefits In business revenue or revenues is Income that a company receives from its normal business activities usually from the sale of goods and services A cheque (spelled check in American English) is a Negotiable instrument instructing a Financial institution to pay a specific amount of A promissory note, also referred to as a note payable in Accounting, is a Contract where one party (the maker or issuer) makes an In Common law legal systems a trust is an arrangement whereby Property (including real tangible and intangible is managed by one person (or persons or organizations A waqf ( plural, awqāf; vakıf wæqəf is an inalienable religious endowment in Islam, typically devoting a building or plot of land for Muslim A startup company or start-up is a Company with a limited operating history Savings accounts are accounts maintained by retail Financial institutions that pay Interest but can not be used directly as Money (by for example A transactional account ( North America: checking account or chequing account, United Kingdom and some other countries current account A loan is a type of Debt. This article focuses exclusively on monetary loans although in practice any material object might be lent In Finance, the exchange rates (also known as the foreign-exchange rate, forex rate or FX rate) between two currencies specifies how A banker or bank is a Financial institution whose primary activity is to act as a payment agent for customers and to borrow and lend money A bureau de change is an organisation or facility which allows customers to exchange one Currency for another A ledger or lieger (from the English dialect forms liggen or leggen, to lie or lay in sense adapted from the Dutch substantive An assignment (Latin cessio) is a term used with similar meanings in the Law of Contracts and in the law of Real estate. In Accountancy, the double-entry In law a lawsuit is a civil action brought before a Court in which the party commencing the action the Plaintiff, seeks a legal or equitable remedy [51] Organizational enterprises similar to corporations independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world. An organization (or organisation &mdash see spelling differences) is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals which controls its own performance and A corporation is a separate legal entity usually used to conduct business A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. [52][53] Many of these early proto-capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards. [44]
The systems of contract relied upon by merchants was very effective. A contract is an exchange of promises between two or more parties to do or refrain from doing an act which is enforceable in a court of law Merchants function as professionals who deal with Trade, dealing in commodities that they do not produce themselves in order to produce Profit. Merchants would buy and sell on commission, with money loaned to them by wealthy investors, or a joint investment of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. The payment of commission as Remuneration for services rendered or products sold is a common way to reward sales people. A loan is a type of Debt. This article focuses exclusively on monetary loans although in practice any material object might be lent See Investor AB for the Swedish investment company An investor is any party that makes an Investment. Investment or investing is a term with several closely-related meanings in Business management, Finance and Economics, related to saving Recently, a collection of documents was found in an Egyptian synagogue shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of Business partnerships would be made for many commercial ventures, and bonds of kinship enabled trade networks to form over huge distances. For partnership in cricket terminology see List of cricket terms A partnership is a type of Business entity in which partners A joint venture (often abbreviated JV) is an entity formed between two or more parties to undertake economic activity together Kinship is a relationship between any entities that share a genealogical origin through either biological cultural or historical descent Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which money could be promised by a bank in Baghdad and cashed in Spain, creating the cheque system of today. Money is anything that is generally accepted as Payment for Goods and services and repayment of Debts. A banker or bank is a Financial institution whose primary activity is to act as a payment agent for customers and to borrow and lend money Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. A cheque (spelled check in American English) is a Negotiable instrument instructing a Financial institution to pay a specific amount of Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a tax, resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern economic system. An economic system is a System that involves the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services between
Though medieval Islamic economics appears to have been closer to proto-capitalism, some scholars have also found a number of parallels between Islamic economic jurisprudence and communism, including the Islamic ideas of zakat and riba. This is a sub-article of Fiqh and Law and economics. Islamic economics is Economics in accordance with Islamic law Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based This is a sub-article of Islamic economical jurisprudence. Zakaat ( زكاة zækæːh zakaat or zakāh, has the implied Riba ( Arabic: ربا rɪbæː means Usury and is forbidden in Islamic economic jurisprudence. [54]
Industrial growth
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Industrial growth and Inventions in the Muslim world
Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, steam power,[55] fossil fuels such as petroleum, and early large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic). For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" Hydropower, hydraulic power or water power is power that is derived from the Force or Energy of moving water which may Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of Hydropower that converts the energy of Tides into electricity or other useful forms of power Wind Power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form such as electricity using Wind turbines At the end of 2007 worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was A steam engine is a Heat engine that performs Mechanical work using Steam as its Working fluid. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial Building where workers manufacture goods [56] The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. This article is about a type of structure For other locational uses see Milldam. A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills. A gristmill or grist mill is a building where Grain is ground into Flour, or the grinding mechanism itself A huller (or sometimes called a rice husker) is a kind of Agricultural machinery to hull Rice. A paper mill is a Factory devoted to making Paper from wood pulp and other ingredients using a Fourdrinier Machine or similar apparatus A sawmill is a facility where logs are cut into boards Sawmill process A sawmill's basic operation is much like those of 100 years ago a log enters A stamp mill (or stamp battery) is a type of mill that crushes material by pounding rather than grinding either for further processing or for extraction of metallic ores Steel Mill was one of Bruce Springsteen 's early bands and performed regularly on the Jersey Shore, in Virginia, and also in California from 1969 A Sugar Refinery or sugar Mill is a Factory which refines sugar from various organic sources like sugar cane or beets into a A tide mill is a specialist type of water mill driven by tidal rise and fall A windmill is a machine that is powered by the energy of the wind By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south [57] Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an Engine which translates reciprocating Linear A water turbine is a rotary Engine that takes energy from moving water This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water while other structures such as Floodgates, Levees [43] Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. Manual labour (or manual labor) is physical work done with the hands especially in an unskilled job such as fruit and vegetable picking road building or any "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. Mechanization or mechanisation ( BE) is providing human operators with machinery to assist them with the physical requirements of work A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the [58]
A number of industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including early industries for agribusiness, astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies, clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles, water, weapons, and the mining of minerals such as sulphur, ammonia, lead and iron. In Agriculture, agribusiness is a generic term that refers to the various Businesses involved in Food production including Farming, Seed The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικός ( keramikos) The chemical industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Circadian Locomotor Output Cycles Kaput, or Clock is a gene which encodes proteins regulating Circadian rhythm. Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many Hydropower, hydraulic power or water power is power that is derived from the Force or Energy of moving water which may Wind Power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form such as electricity using Wind turbines At the end of 2007 worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity A mat is a generic term for a piece of fabric or flat material generally placed on a Floor or other flat surface and serving a range of purposes including Art History Mosaics of the 4th century BC are found in the Macedonian palace-city of Aegae, and they enriched the floors of Hellenistic The global pulp and paper industry is dominated by North American ( United States, Canada) Northern European ( Finland, Sweden Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living The petroleum industry includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting (often by Oil tankers and pipelines A rope is a length of Fibers twisted or Braided together to improve strength for pulling and Connecting. Shipping is physical process of Transporting goods and Cargo. See also Shipbuilding (song. Shipbuilding is the construction of Ships It normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. The Textile industry (also known in the United Kingdom and Australia as the Rag Trade) is a term used for industries primarily concerned with the design The water industry provides Drinking water and Wastewater services (including Sewage treatment) to households and industry A weapon is a Tool used either in Hunting, or attack or defence in Combat for the purpose of subduing enemy personnel or to destroy enemy weapons Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Early large factory complexes (tiraz) were built for many of these industries, and knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the 12th century, as well as before and after. A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial Building where workers manufacture goods The Renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning which led them to the Arabic fringes of Europe especially to Islamic For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Greece. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία [59] The agricultural and handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Handicraft, also known as craftwork or simply Craft, is a type of work where useful and decorative devices are made completely by hand or using only simple tools [37]
Labour
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Labour
The labour force in the Caliphate were employed from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and economic activities. The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos · See also · External links A Administrator Agronomist Archaeologist An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area [60] Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations[61] in the primary sector (as farmers for example), secondary sector (as construction workers, dyers, spinners, etc. A farmer is a person who raises living organisms for food or raw materials Construction workers are employed in the Construction industry and work predominately on Construction sites and are typically engaged in aspects of the industry A dye can generally be described as a Colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied Spinning is an ancient textile art in which plant, animal or synthetic Fibers are twisted together to form Yarn (or thread ) and tertiary sector (as investors, doctors, nurses, presidents of guilds, brokers, peddlers, lenders, scholars, etc. See Investor AB for the Swedish investment company An investor is any party that makes an Investment. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health A nurse is responsible—along with other Health care Professionals —for the treatment safety and recovery of acutely or chronically President is a Title leaders of Organizations companies, Trade unions universities, and countries. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers A broker is a party that mediates between a Buyer and a Seller. A loan is a type of Debt. This article focuses exclusively on monetary loans although in practice any material object might be lent Scholarly method &mdash or as it is more commonly called scholarship &mdash is the body of principles and practices used by scholars to make their claims about the world as ). [62] Muslim women also had a monopoly over certain branches of the textile industry. In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network of natural or artificial Fibres often referred to as thread or Yarn. [61]
Technology
- Further information: Inventions in the Muslim world and Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Industrial growth
- See also: Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
A significant number of inventions were produced by medieval Muslim engineers and inventors, such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, the Banū Mūsā, Taqi al-Din, and most notably al-Jazari. Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 &ndash 887 AD) was also known as Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas and العباس بن فرناس ( Arabic language) The Banū Mūsā brothers (بنو موسى "Sons of Mūsā" were three 9th century Persian Scholars of Baghdad, active in the House Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585 Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري
Some of the inventions believed to have come from the Islamic Golden Age include the camera obscura, coffee, soap bar, shampoo, pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, filtration, distilled alcohol, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, crankshaft, valve, reciprocating suction piston pump, mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, programmable humanoid robot, combination lock, quilting, pointed arch, scalpel, bone saw, forceps, surgical catgut, windmill, inoculation, smallpox vaccine, fountain pen, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis, three-course meal, stained glass and quartz glass, Persian carpet, modern cheque, celestial globe, explosive rockets and incendiary devices, torpedo, and artificial pleasure gardens. The camera obscura (Latin dark chamber) is an optical device used for example in drawing or for entertainment CoFFEE is an Open source Software for computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL in a digital classroom Shampoo is a Hair care product used for the removal of oils, dirt skin particles Dandruff, environmental pollutants and other contaminant particles that Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Crystallization is the (natural or artificial process of formation of solid Crystals precipitating from a homogeneous --> identical Solution Beta oxidation is the process by which Fatty acids in the form of Acyl-CoA molecules are broken down in Mitochondria and/or in Peroxisomes to Evaporation is the process by which Molecules in a Liquid state (e Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases by interposing a medium to fluid flow through which the fluid In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Uric acid (or urate) is an Organic compound of Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Hydrogen with the formula C5H4N4O3 Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and An alembic (from Arabic Al-inbiq الأنبيق is an alchemical Still consisting of two Retorts connected by a tube The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an Engine which translates reciprocating Linear For other uses see Valve (disambiguation. For the electronic component see Thermionic valve. A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a Heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating Pistons to convert Suction is the flow of a fluid into a partial Vacuum, or region of low pressure A piston is a component of Reciprocating engines Pumps and Gas compressors It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by Piston For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump. A pendulum clock is a Clock that uses a Pendulum, a swinging weight as its Timekeeping element A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object A Humanoid Robot is a Robot with its overall appearance based on that of the Human body. A combination lock is a type of lock in which a sequence of numbers or symbols is used to open the lock Quilting is a Sewing method done either by hand by Sewing machine, or by a longarm quilting system An arch is a structure that spans a space while supporting weight (e A scalpel is a small but extremely sharp knife used for Surgery, anatomical Dissection, and various Arts and crafts. A saw is a Tool that uses a hard blade or wire with an abrasive edge to cut through softer materials Forceps are a handheld hinged instrument used for grasping and holding objects Catgut is the name applied to cord of great toughness and tenacity prepared from the Intestines of the Sheep or Goat, or occasionally from those of the A windmill is a machine that is powered by the energy of the wind Inoculation is the placement of something to where it will grow or reproduce and is most commonly used in respect of the introduction of a serum Vaccine, or antigenic substance The smallpox vaccine was the first successful vaccine ever to be developed A fountain pen is a Pen that contains a reservoir of water-based liquid ink. Cryptanalysis (from the Greek kryptós, "hidden" and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie" is the study of methods for In Cryptanalysis, frequency analysis is the study of the frequency of letters or groups of letters in a Ciphertext. For the coarsely ground flour see Flour. A meal is an instance of Eating, specifically one that takes place at a specific time and includes For the Blackford Oakes novel see Stained Glass (novel The term stained glass refers either to the material of coloured Glass or to the art Fused quartz and fused silica are types of Glass containing primarily Silica in amorphous (non- Crystalline form The Persian carpet ( Pahlavi bōb Persian farš فرش meaning "to spread" and qāli) is an essential part of A cheque (spelled check in American English) is a Negotiable instrument instructing a Financial institution to pay a specific amount of An explosive material is a material that either is chemically or otherwise Energetically unstable or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied A rocket or rocket vehicle is a Missile, Aircraft or other Vehicle which obtains Thrust by the reaction of the Incendiary devices or incendiary bombs are Bombs designed to start Fires or destroy sensitive equipment using materials such as Napalm, Thermite The modern torpedo (historically called an automotive automobile locomotive or fish torpedo is a self-propelled explosive Projectile weapon launched above or below A pleasure garden is usually a Garden that is opened to the Public for Recreation. [63]
Urbanization
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Urbanization
As urbanization increased, Muslim cities grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city streets and neighbourhoods separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural Urbanizationn (also spelled urbanisation) is the physical growth of Urban areas into rural or natural land as a result of population in-migration to an existing A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status A street is a Public thoroughfare in the built environment It is a Public parcel of land adjoining Buildings in an urban context A neighbourhood or neighborhood (see spelling differences) is a geographically localised Community within a larger City, Town or These qualities proved efficient for transporting goods to and from major commercial centres while preserving the privacy valued by Islamic family life. Commerce is a division of trade or production which deals with the exchange of goods and services from producer to final consumer Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, Military Training grounds were found near a main gate.
Muslim cities also had advanced domestic water systems with sewers, public baths, drinking fountains, piped drinking water supplies,[64] and widespread private and public toilet and bathing facilities. Tap water ( running water) is part of indoor Plumbing, which became available in the late 19th century and common in the mid-20th century Public baths originated from a communal need for cleanliness Often the term public is misleading to some people as they will have restrictions based upon who can use the facility A traditional fountain is an arrangement where water issues from a source ( Latin fons) fills a basin of some kind and is drained away For the various smoking devices see Hookah or Bong. For other uses see Pipe. Water of sufficient quality to serve as drinking water is termed potable water whether it is used for drinking or not See also Toilet A washroom, public toilet, public convenience, comfort room, toilet room, bathroom, water closet Bathing is the immersion of the body in a Fluid, usually Water or an aqueous solution [65] By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger [20]
Sciences
- Further information: Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe, Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world, and List of Muslim scientists
The traditional view of Islamic science was that it was chiefly a preserver and transmitter of ancient knowledge. [66] For example, Donald Lach argues that modern science originated in Europe as an amalgam of medieval technology and Greek learning. [67] These views have been disputed in recent times, with some scholars suggesting that Muslim scientists laid the foundations for modern science,[68][69][70][71][72] for their development of early scientific methods and an empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry. A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or A quantitative attribute is one that exists in a range of magnitudes and can therefore be measured. Inquiry or enquiry is any process that has the aim of augmenting Knowledge, resolving Doubt, or solving a Problem. [73] Some scholars have referred to this period as a "Muslim scientific revolution",[74][3][75][76] a term which expresses the view that Islam was the driving force behind the Muslim scientific achievements,[77] and should not to be confused with the early modern European Scientific Revolution leading to the rise of modern science. The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published The early modern period is a term initially used by historians to refer mainly to the period roughly from 1500 to 1800 in Western Europe ( Early modern Europe) The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published [78][79][80] Edward Grant argues that modern science was due to the cumulative efforts of the Hellenic, Islamic and Latin civilizations. Edward Grant is Distinguished Professor Emeritus, Department of History and Philosophy of Science, Indiana University, Bloomington This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. [81]
Scientific method
- Further information: Islamic science: Scientific method
Early scientific methods were developed in the Islamic world, where significant progress in methodology was made, especially in the works of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, who is considered the pioneer of experimental physics. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Within the field of Physics, experimental physics is the category of disciplines and sub-disciplines concerned with the Observation of physical Phenomena [73][82] The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Book of Optics, in which he significantly reformed the field of optics, empirically proved that vision occurred because of light rays entering the eye, and invented the camera obscura to demonstrate the physical nature of light rays. The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni In Optics, a ray is an idealized narrow Beam of light. Rays are used to model the propagation of Light through an optical system by dividing the real light The camera obscura (Latin dark chamber) is an optical device used for example in drawing or for entertainment [83][84]
Ibn al-Haytham has also been described as the "first scientist" for his introduction of the scientific method,[85] and his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception[86][87] is considered a precursor to psychophysics and experimental psychology. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also Psychophysics is a subdiscipline of Psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their subjective correlates or Percepts Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. [88]
Peer review
The earliest medical peer review, a process by which a committee of physicians investigate the medical care rendered in order to determine whether accepted standards of care have been met, is found in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha in Syria. Medical peer review is the process by which a committee of physicians examines the work of a peer and determines whether the physician under review has met accepted standards of care in Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would review the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. See also Critic. A review is an evaluation of a publication such as a movie, Video game, Musical composition If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient. In law a lawsuit is a civil action brought before a Court in which the party commencing the action the Plaintiff, seeks a legal or equitable remedy [89]
The first scientific peer review, the evaluation of research findings for competence, significance and originality by qualified experts, was described later in the Medical Essays and Observations published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1731. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting an author's scholarly work research or Ideas to the scrutiny of others who are The Royal Society of Edinburgh is Scotland 's National academy of science and letters The present-day scientific peer review system evolved from this 18th century process. [90]
Astronomy
- Further information: Maragheh observatory, Islamic astrology, List of Muslim astronomers, and List of Arabic star names
Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors in astronomy as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution" or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance". Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study [3] Advances in astronomy by the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors include the construction of the first observatory in Baghdad during the reign of Caliph al-Ma'mun,[91] the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of universal astrolabes,[92] the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning of astrophysics and celestial mechanics after Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir discovered that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth,[93] the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena and the first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology by Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[94] the use of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques,[95] the discovery that the celestial spheres are not solid and that the heavens are less dense than the air by Ibn al-Haytham,[96] the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham and Ibn al-Shatir,[97] the first non-Ptolemaic models by Ibn al-Haytham and Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi, the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than philosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir,[3] the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji, and al-Birjandi's early hypothesis on "circular inertia. An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial and/or celestial events Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Abu Jafar al-Ma'mun ibn Harun (also spelled Almamon and el-Mâmoûn) ( September 14, 786 &ndash August 9, 833) (المأمون In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators Astrophysics is the branch of Astronomy that deals with the Physics of the Universe, including the physical properties ( Luminosity, Celestial mechanics is the branch of Astrophysics that deals with the motions of Celestial objects The field applies principles of Physics, historically s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle A solid' object is in the States of matter characterized by resistance to Deformation and changes of Volume. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi (d 1266 was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, architect and engineer working at the Maragheh Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time Ali Kuşçu (? 1403 - 16 December, 1474) was a Turkish astronomer, mathematician, physicist and scientist Abd al-Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn al-Birjandi (d 934 AH /1528 CE prominent 16th century Muslim astronomer, mathematician and physicist who lived in The vis insita or innate force of matter is a power of resisting by which every body as much as in it lies endeavors to preserve in its present state whether it be of rest or of moving "[98]
Several Muslim astronomers also considered the possibility of the Earth's rotation on its axis and perhaps a heliocentric solar system. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. [99][71] It is known that the Copernican heliocentric model in Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus was adapted from the geocentric model of Ibn al-Shatir and the Maragha school (including the Tusi-couple) in a heliocentric context,[100] and that his arguments for the Earth's rotation were similar to those of Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji. See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer The Tusi-couple is a mathematical device in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the radius of the smaller circle [98]
Chemistry
Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) is considered a pioneer of chemistry,[101][102] as he was responsible for introducing an early experimental scientific method within the field, as well as the alembic, still, retort,[63] and the chemical processes of pure distillation, filtration, sublimation,[103] liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation and evaporation. For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena An alembic (from Arabic Al-inbiq الأنبيق is an alchemical Still consisting of two Retorts connected by a tube A still is an apparatus used to distill Miscible or immiscible (eg In a Chemistry laboratory a retort is a glassware device used for Distillation or Dry distillation of substances In a " scientific " sense a chemical process is a method or means of somehow changing one or more Chemicals or Chemical compounds Such a chemical Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases by interposing a medium to fluid flow through which the fluid Sublimation of an element or compound is a transition from the Solid to Gas phase with no intermediate liquid stage Crystallization is the (natural or artificial process of formation of solid Crystals precipitating from a homogeneous --> identical Solution Beta oxidation is the process by which Fatty acids in the form of Acyl-CoA molecules are broken down in Mitochondria and/or in Peroxisomes to Evaporation is the process by which Molecules in a Liquid state (e [63]
The study of traditional alchemy and the theory of the transmutation of metals were first refuted by al-Kindi,[104] followed by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[105] Avicenna,[106] and Ibn Khaldun. Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of The philosopher's stone (lapis philosophorum Greek: Chrysopoeia) is a Legendary substance supposedly capable of turning inexpensive Metals ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 In his Doubts about Galen, al-Razi was the first to prove both Aristotle's theory of classical elements and Galen's theory of humorism false using an experimental method. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers [107] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī stated an early version of the law of conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to disappear. The law of conservation of mass/matter, also known as law of mass/matter conservation (or the Lomonosov - Lavoisier law says that the Mass of Matter is commonly defined as being anything that has mass and that takes up space. [108] Alexander von Humboldt and Will Durant consider medieval Muslim chemists to be founders of chemistry. (September 14 1769 &ndash May 6 1859 was a German naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian minister philosopher and linguist William James Durant ( November 5, 1885 &ndash November 7, 1981) was a prolific American popularizer in the fields of History [71][69]
Mathematics
Among the achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development of algebra and algorithms by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī,[109][110] the invention of spherical trigonometry,[111] the addition of the decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals, the discovery of all the trigonometric functions besides sine, al-Kindi's introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis, al-Karaji's introduction of algebraic calculus and proof by mathematical induction, the development of analytic geometry and the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus by Ibn al-Haytham, the beginning of algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam, the first refutations of Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the first attempt at a non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din, the development of symbolic algebra by Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī,[112] and numerous other advances in algebra, arithmetic, calculus, cryptography, geometry, number theory and trigonometry. Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. In Mathematics, Computing, Linguistics and related subjects an algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions often used for Calculation Spherical trigonometry is a part of Spherical geometry that deals with Polygons (especially Triangles on the Sphere and explains how to find relations In a positional Numeral system, the decimal separator is a Symbol used to mark the boundary between the integral and the fractional The arabic numerals (often capitalized are the ten Digits (0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 which—along with the system ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Cryptanalysis (from the Greek kryptós, "hidden" and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie" is the study of methods for In Cryptanalysis, frequency analysis is the study of the frequency of letters or groups of letters in a Ciphertext. (or) (c 953 in Karaj or Karkh &ndash c 1029 was a 10th century Persian Muslim mathematician and engineer. Calculus ( Latin, calculus, a small stone used for counting is a branch of Mathematics that includes the study of limits, Derivatives In Mathematics, a proof is a convincing demonstration (within the accepted standards of the field that some Mathematical statement is necessarily true Mathematical induction is a method of Mathematical proof typically used to establish that a given statement is true of all Natural numbers It is done by proving that Analytic geometry, also called coordinate geometry and earlier referred to as Cartesian geometry or analytical geometry, is the study of Geometry Infinitesimals (from a 17th century Modern Latin coinage infinitesimus, originally referring to the " Infinite[[ th]]" member of a series have The European Space Agency 's INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory ( INTEGRAL) is detecting some of the most energetic radiation that comes from space TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Algebraic geometry is a branch of Mathematics which as the name suggests combines techniques of Abstract algebra, especially Commutative algebra, with For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the Greek Mathematician Euclid of Alexandria. In Geometry, the parallel postulate, also called Euclid 's fifth postulate since it is the fifth postulate in Euclid's ''Elements'', is a distinctive In mathematics non-Euclidean geometry describes how this all works--> hyperbolic and Elliptic geometry, which are contrasted with Euclidean geometry See also Table of mathematical symbols Mathematical notation is used in Mathematics, and throughout the Physical sciences, Engineering Abū al-Hasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī (1412 in Baza, Spain &ndash 1486 in Béja, Tunisia) was an Arab Muslim mathematician Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone Cryptography (or cryptology; from Greek grc κρυπτός kryptos, "hidden secret" and grc γράφω gráphō, "I write" Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Number theory is the branch of Pure mathematics concerned with the properties of Numbers in general and Integers in particular as well as the wider classes Circle-trig6svg|300px|thumb|right|All of the Trigonometric functions of an angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O.
Medicine
- Further information: Islamic psychology, Bimaristan, and Ophthalmology in medieval Islam
Muslim physicians made many significant contributions to medicine, including anatomy, experimental medicine, ophthalmology, pathology, the pharmaceutical sciences, physiology, surgery, etc. Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Ophthalmology is the branch of Medicine which deals with the diseases and surgery of the visual pathways including the Eye, Brain Pathology (from Greek grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study and The pharmaceutical sciences are a group of Interdisciplinary areas of study involved with the design action delivery disposition and use of Drugs This field draws Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental They also set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals,[113] including the first medical schools[114] and psychiatric hospitals. A hospital is an institution for Health care providing treatment by specialised staff and equipment and often but not always providing for Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is [115] Al-Kindi wrote the De Gradibus, in which he first demonstrated the application of quantification and mathematics to medicine and pharmacology, such as a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs and the determination in advance of the most critical days of a patient's illness. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c De Gradibus was an Arabic book published by the Arab physician Al-Kindi (c Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body [116] Al-Razi (Rhazes) discovered measles and smallpox, and in his Doubts about Galen, proved Galen's humorism false. Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers [107]
Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) helped lay the foudations for modern surgery,[117] with his Kitab al-Tasrif, in which he invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,[118] as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,[119] and bone saw. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia A surgical instrument is a specially designed tool or device for performing specific actions of carrying out desired effects during a Surgery or operation such as modifying Catgut is the name applied to cord of great toughness and tenacity prepared from the Intestines of the Sheep or Goat, or occasionally from those of the Forceps are a handheld hinged instrument used for grasping and holding objects In medicine a ligature is a device similar to a Tourniquet, usually of thread or string tied around a limb blood vessel or similar to restrict blood flow A scalpel is a small but extremely sharp knife used for Surgery, anatomical Dissection, and various Arts and crafts. A curette is a Spoon -shaped surgical instrument for cleaning a diseased surface A spoon is a Utensil consisting of a small shallow bowl at the end of a handle used primarily for serving and eating Liquid, or semi-liquid foods and solid foods In Medicine, sounds are instruments for probing and dilating passages within the body the best-known examples of which are urethral sounds and uterine speculum is a medical tool for investigating body cavities with a form dependent on the body cavity for which it is designed A saw is a Tool that uses a hard blade or wire with an abrasive edge to cut through softer materials [63] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Eye surgery, also known as orogolomistician surgery or ocular surgery, is Surgery performed on the Eye or its Adnexa, typically by In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni [118]
Avicenna helped lay the foundations for modern medicine,[120] with The Canon of Medicine, which was responsible for introducing systematic experimentation and quantification in physiology,[121] the discovery of contagious disease, introduction of quarantine to limit their spread, introduction of experimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, clinical trials,[122] randomized controlled trials,[123][124] efficacy tests,[125][126] and clinical pharmacology,[127] the first descriptions on bacteria and viral organisms,[128] distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, distribution of diseases by water and soil, skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, nervous ailments,[113] use of ice to treat fevers, and separation of medicine from pharmacology. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic For other uses see Quarantine (disambiguation Quarantine is voluntary or compulsory isolation typically to contain the spread of something Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Evidence-based medicine (EBM aims to apply Evidence gained from the Scientific method to certain parts of medical practice In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices A randomized controlled trial (RCT is a type of scientific Experiment most commonly used in testing the Efficacy or Effectiveness of Healthcare Efficacy is the capacity to produce a desired size of an effect under Ideal or Optimal conditions Clinical pharmacology is the science of drugs and their Clinical use The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable Mediastinitis is Inflammation of the tissues in the mid-chest or Mediastinum. Pleurisy, also known as pleuritis, is an Inflammation of the pleura the lining of the Pleural cavity surrounding the Lungs Pleurisy has a variety Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans Perversion is a concept describing those types of Human behavior that are perceived to be a serious deviation from what is considered to be orthodox or normal The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. Fever (also known as pyrexia, from the Greek pyretos meaning fire or a febrile response, from the Latin word Febris [118]
Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) was the earliest known experimental surgeon. Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or [129] In the 12th century, he was responsible for introducing the experimental method into surgery, as he was the first to employ animal testing in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients. Animal testing or animal research is the use of non-human Animals in scientific experimentation. [130] He also performed the first dissections and postmortem autopsies on humans as well as animals. Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy, or obduction, is a Medical procedure that consists of a thorough Examination [131]
Ibn al-Nafis laid the foundations for circulatory physiology,[132] as he was the first to describe the pulmonary circulation[133] and coronary circulation,[134][135] which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered "the greatest physiologist of the Middle Ages. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Cardiovascular physiology is the study of the Circulatory system. Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the Cardiovascular system which carries Oxygen -depleted Blood away from the heart to the Lungs, and Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the Blood vessels that supply Blood to and from the Heart muscle This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical "[136] He also described the earliest concept of metabolism,[137] and developed new systems of physiology and psychology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on humorism, pulsation,[138] bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, etc. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the In Anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the Stomach to the Anus and in humans and other mammals consists See also Sense A sensory system is a part of the Nervous system responsible for processing sensory information Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green Alkaline fluid secreted by Hepatocytes from the Liver of most Vertebrates In many species In Anatomy, a canal (or canalis in Latin) is a tubular passage or channel which connect different regions of the body The esophagus or oesophagus (see American and British English spelling differences) sometimes known as the gullet, is an organ in In Human anatomy, the stomach is a J-shaped hollow muscular organ of the Gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of Digestion, following [139]
Ibn al-Lubudi rejected the theory of humorism, and discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, women cannot produce sperm, the movement of arteries are not dependent upon the movement of the heart, the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus' body, and the bones forming the skull can grow into tumors. Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products The term sperm is derived from the Greek word (σπέρμα sperma (meaning "seed" and refers to the male reproductive cells. Arteries are Blood vessels that carry blood away from the Heart. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce See also Cancer A tumor or tumour is the name for a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (termed neoplastic [140] Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms which enter the human body. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually [141] Mansur ibn Ilyas drew comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems. Manṣūr ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf Ibn Ilyās (ar منصور ابن محمد ابن احمد ابن يوسف ابن الياس was a late 14th century physician from The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" [5]
Physics
- Further information: Islamic science: Optics and Islamic science: Mechanics
The study of experimental physics began with Ibn al-Haytham,[142] a pioneer of modern optics, who introduced the experimental scientific method and used it to drastically transform the understanding of light and vision in his Book of Optics, which has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in the history of physics,[143] for initiating a scientific revolution in optics[144] and visual perception. Within the field of Physics, experimental physics is the category of disciplines and sub-disciplines concerned with the Observation of physical Phenomena TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 VisiCorp 's VisiOn was a short-lived but influential Graphical user interface -based Operating environment program for IBM PC compatible The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia The modern discipline of Physics emerged in the 17th century following in traditions of inquiry established by Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Isaac The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also [145]
The experimental scientific method was soon introduced into mechanics by Biruni,[146] and early precursors to Newton's laws of motion were discovered by several Muslim scientists. Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements Newton's laws of motion are three Physical laws which provide relationships between the Forces acting on a body and the motion of the The law of inertia, known as Newton's first law of motion, and the concept of momentum were discovered by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)[147][148] and Avicenna. The vis insita or innate force of matter is a power of resisting by which every body as much as in it lies endeavors to preserve in its present state whether it be of rest or of moving In Classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta SI unit kg · m/s, or equivalently N · s) is the product TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born [149][150] The proportionality between force and acceleration, considered "the fundamental law of classical mechanics" and foreshadowing Newton's second law of motion, was discovered by Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi,[151] while the concept of reaction, foreshadowing Newton's third law of motion, was discovered by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace). In Physics, a force is whatever can cause an object with Mass to Accelerate. Classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of Macroscopic objects from Projectiles to parts of Machinery, as well as Astronomical objects Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (c 1080-1165 was a Muslim physicist, philosopher, psychologist and scientist of Jewish-Arab In Classical mechanics, Newton's third law states that Forces occur in pairs one called the Action and the other the Reaction ( actio et Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian [152] Theories foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation were developed by Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir,[153] Ibn al-Haytham,[154] and al-Khazini. Newton 's law of universal Gravitation is a physical law describing the gravitational attraction between bodies with mass TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist [155] Galileo Galilei's mathematical treatment of acceleration and his concept of impetus[156] was enriched by the commentaries of Avicenna[149] and Ibn Bajjah to Aristotle's Physics as well as the Neoplatonist tradition of Alexandria, represented by John Philoponus. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher The vis insita or innate force of matter is a power of resisting by which every body as much as in it lies endeavors to preserve in its present state whether it be of rest or of moving TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by John Philoponus ( ca 490&ndash ca 570 also known as John Grammarian of Alexandria was a Christian and Aristotelian commentator and the author of a considerable [157]
Other sciences
- Further information: Islamic geography, Islamic psychology, Early Muslim sociology, and Historiography of early Islam
Many other advances were made by Muslim scientists in biology (anatomy, botany, evolution, physiology and zoology), the earth sciences (anthropology, cartography, geodesy, geography and geology), psychology (experimental psychology, psychiatry, psychophysics and psychotherapy), and the social sciences (demography, economics, sociology, history and historiography). The Historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early origins of Islam based on a critical analysis evaluation and examination of authentic Primary Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the Sciences related to the planet Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Psychophysics is a subdiscipline of Psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their subjective correlates or Percepts Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Demography is the statistical study of all Populations. It can be a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population that is one that changes over Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology
Other famous Muslim scientists during the Islamic Golden Age include al-Farabi (a polymath), Biruni (a polymath who was one of the earliest anthropologists and a pioneer of geodesy),[158] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (a polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (considered to be a pioneer of several social sciences[159] such as demography,[160] economics,[161] cultural history,[162] historiography[163] and sociology),[164] among others. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Demography is the statistical study of all Populations. It can be a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population that is one that changes over Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term cultural history (from the German term) refers both to an Academic discipline and to its subject matter Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge"
Other achievements
Architecture
The Great Mosque of Xi'an in China was completed circa 740, and the Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq was completed in 847. Islamic architecture has encompassed a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day influencing the design and construction The Great Mosque of Xi'an (西安大清真寺 located near the Drum Tower (Gu Lou on Huajue Lane of Xi'an, Shaanxi province China, is one of the The Great Mosque of Samarra is a Mosque located in the Iraqi city of Samarra and was built in the 9th century The Great Mosque of Samarra combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed. In Architecture, a hypostyle Hall has a flat ceiling which is supported by columns as in the Great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. For the mountain formation see Minarets (California. Minarets ( Arabic manara (lighthouse منارة but more usually مئذنة
The Spanish Muslims began construction of the Great Mosque at Cordoba in 785 marking the beginning of Islamic architecture in Spain and Northern Africa (see Moors). The Mezquita (Spanish for " Mosque " of Cordoba is a Roman Catholic Cathedral and former mosque situated in the Andalusian city of Córdoba The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. Moorish architecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificent palace/fortress of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. This article is about the Alhambra in Granada Spain For other meanings see Alhambra (disambiguation. Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous region of Andalusia, Spain. The walls are decorated with stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque design work, with walls covered in glazed tiles. The arabesque is an elaborative application of repeating geometric forms that often echo the forms of plants and animals
Another distinctive sub-style is the architecture of the Mughal Empire in India in the 15-17th centuries. The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Blending Islamic and Hindu elements, the emperor Akbar constructed the royal city of Fatehpur Sikri, located 26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, in the late 1500s and his grandson Shah Jahan had constructed the mausoleum of Taj Mahal for Mumtaz Mahal in the 1650s, though this time period is well after the Islamic Golden Age. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar Agra ( pronounced) (आगरा آگرا is a city on the banks of the Yamuna River in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi A mausoleum ( plural: mausolea is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or persons The Taj Mahal (tɑdʒ Mumtāz Mahal (April 1593 - 17 June 1631 ( Persian, Urdu: ممتاز محل; pronunciation /mumtɑːz mɛhɛl/ meaning "beloved ornament of the palace"
In the Sunni Muslim Ottoman Empire massive mosques with ornate tiles and calligraphy were constructed by a series of sultans including the Süleymaniye Mosque , Sultanahmet Mosque, Selimiye Mosque, and Bayezid II Mosque
Arts
- Further information: Islamic calligraphy, Arabesque, Iranian art, and Persian miniature
- See also: Islamic music, Arabic music, and Persian traditional music
The golden age of Islamic (and/or Muslim) art lasted from 750 to the 16th century, when ceramics, glass, metalwork, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, and woodwork flourished. Islamic art encompasses the arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic calligraphy, equally known as Arabic calligraphy, is the art of writing and by extension of bookmaking The arabesque is an elaborative application of repeating geometric forms that often echo the forms of plants and animals The Iranian cultural region - consisting of the modern nations of Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and A Persian miniature is a small painting whether a book illustration or a separate work of art intended to be kept in an album of such works Islamic music is Muslim religious Music, as sung or played in public services or private devotions Arabic music or Arab music ( Arabic: موسيقى عربية;) includes several genres and styles of Music ranging from Arabic classical Persian traditional music (also known as Iranian traditional music, Musiqi-e Sonati-e Irani, also Persian classical music or Iranian classical music An illuminated manuscript is a Manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration such as decorated Initials borders and Lusterous glazing became the greatest Islamic contribution to ceramics. Glaze is a layer or coating of a Vitreous substance which has been fired to fuse to a ceramic object to color decorate strengthen or waterproof it Manuscript illumination became an important and greatly respected art, and portrait miniature painting flourished in Persia. A portrait miniature is a miniature Portrait painting usually executed in Gouache or watercolor. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural decoration. Calligraphy (from Greek kallos "beauty" + graphẽ "writing" is the art of writing (Mediavilla 1996 17
Literature
The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales. Islamic literature refers to literature written with an Islamic perspective in any language Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers Arabic epic literature encompasses Epic poetry and Epic fantasy in Arabic literature. Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Fiction is the telling of stories which are not real More specifically fiction is an imaginative form of Narrative, one of the four basic Rhetorical modes. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. [165] All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as "Arabian Nights" despite existing in no Arabic manuscript. Fantasy is a Genre that uses magic and other Supernatural forms as a primary element of plot, theme, and/or setting English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States [165]
This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland. Antoine Galland ( April 4, 1646 &mdash February 17, 1715) was a French Orientalist and Archaeologist, most [166] Many imitations were written, especially in France. [167] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. Aladdin (an Anglicisation of the Arabic name (originally Syrian Alāʼ ad-Dīn, Arabic: علاء الدين literally "nobility of the faith" Ali Baba ( Arabic, Persian: علي بابا is a Fictional character based in Ancient Arabia. However, no medieval Arabic source has been traced for Aladdin, which was incorporated into The Book of One Thousand and One Nights by its French translator, Antoine Galland, who heard it from an Arab Syrian Christian storyteller from Aleppo. Aladdin (an Anglicisation of the Arabic name (originally Syrian Alāʼ ad-Dīn, Arabic: علاء الدين literally "nobility of the faith" French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Antoine Galland ( April 4, 1646 &mdash February 17, 1715) was a French Orientalist and Archaeologist, most The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. Part of its popularity may have sprung from the increasing historical and geographical knowledge, so that places of which little was known and so marvels were plausible had to be set further "long ago" or farther "far away"; this is a process that continues, and finally culminate in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. A fantasy world is a type of Imaginary world, part of a Fictional universe used in Fantasy novels and games A number of elements from Arabian mythology and Persian mythology are now common in modern fantasy, such as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc. This is a sub-article to Pre-Islamic Arabia Arabian mythology comprises the ancient Pre-Islamic beliefs of the Arabs Prior to the By Persian Mythology is meant the myths and sacred narratives of the culturally and linguistically related group of ancient peoples who inhabited the Iranian Plateau Fantasy is a Genre that uses magic and other Supernatural forms as a primary element of plot, theme, and/or setting GEnie (General Electric Network for Information Exchange was an online service Bahamut ( بهموت Bahamūt) is a vast fish that supports the earth in Arabian mythology. A magic carpet, also called a flying carpet, is a legendary Carpet that can be used to Transport persons who are on it instantaneously or quickly to their [167] When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go. Lyman Frank Baum ( May 15 1856 &ndash May 5 1919) was an American Author, Actor, and Independent filmmaker [168]
Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. See Also Persian Empire History of Iran and Greater Iran (also referred to as the " Iranian Cultural Continent Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan. Amir Arsalan-e Namdar (in Persian امیرارسلان نامدار is a popular Persian legend which was narrated to the Qajar Shah of The Heroic Legend of Arslan is the title of a Japanese Fantasy Novel, which is known in Japan as.
A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. Arabic poetry ( Arabic, الِشعر العربي ash-shi`ru 'l-`arabiy) is the earliest form of Arabic literature. Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost NOTICE TO WOULD-BE-ROMEOS*************** For the film see Leyli o Majnun (1936 film. Layla and Majnun, also known as The Madman of Layla - in Arabic It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layli and Majnun to an extent. Love is any of a number of Emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong Affection. Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written early in the Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. [169]
Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Philosophical novels are works of Fiction in which a significant proportion of the novel is devoted to a discussion of the sort of questions normally addressed in discursive Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a fictional novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān ( حي بن يقظان " Alive son of Awake " Philosophus Autodidactus " The Self-Taught Philosopher Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. The Protagonist or main character is the central figure of a story. Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is self-education or self-directed learning A feral child ( Feral, Wild, or undomesticated) is a human child who has lived isolated from human contact from a very young age and has no (or little The term desert island, or deserted island, refers to an Island which is uninhabited or sparsely inhabited However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel. Coming of age is a young person's transition from Adolescence to Adulthood The age at which this transition takes place varies in society as does the nature [170][171]
Theologus Autodidactus, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( It deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation, futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the afterlife. In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic Futures Studies, Foresight, or Futurology is the science art and practice of postulating possible probable and preferable futures and the worldviews Eschatology (from the Greek, Eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of" is a part of Theology This article concerns itself with Jesus Christ Christian, Islamic and other religious interpretations of resurrection in general AfterLife is a film drama set in Scotland directed by Alison Peebles made in 2003 about an ambitious Scottish journalist forced to choose between Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explnations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy through the use of fiction. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar [172]
A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Edward Pococke (1604-1691 was an English Orientalist and biblical scholar Simon Ockley (1678 – August 9, 1720) was a British Orientalist. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English. Daniel Defoe (1659/1661 — April 24, 1731 was an English Writer, Journalist, and Pamphleteer, who gained enduring fame for The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (of York Mariner Who lived Eight and Twenty Years all alone in an un-inhabited Island on the Coast of America near the Mouth The following works of literature have each been claimed as the first Novel in English. [173][174][175][176] Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist. Robert Boyle was a Natural philosopher, chemist physicist inventor and early Gentleman scientist, noted for his work in Physics and Chemistry [177] The story also anticipated Rousseau's Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli's story in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf. Emile or On Education (1762 which Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed to be the “best and most important of all my writings” is largely a philosophical treatise Mowgli (ˈmaʊɡli is a fictional character who originally appeared in Rudyard Kipling 's Short story "In the Rukh" (collected in Many Inventions Joseph Rudyard Kipling (30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936 was an English Author and poet The Jungle Book (1894 is a collection of stories written by Rudyard Kipling. Tarzan is a Fictional character, an archetypal Feral child raised in the African jungle by Apes who later returns to civilization only to The grey wolf or gray wolf ( Canis lupus) also known as the timber wolf or simply wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora [178]
Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before[179] as Liber Scale Machometi, "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning Muhammad's ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi. The Divine Comedy Islamic eschatology is concerned with the al-Qiyāmah "Last Judgement" Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic The Kitab al Miraj (Arabic كتاب المعراج "Book of Ascension" is a Muslim book concerned with Muhammad 's ascension into the Heavens (known as IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Arabi (ابن عربي ( July 28, 1165 - November 10, 1240) was an The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent George Peele (born in London and baptized 25 July 1556 &ndash buried 9 November 1596) was an English Dramatist William Shakespeare ( baptised Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. The Battle of Alcazar is a play by George Peele, probably written and first staged in the late 1580s published in 1594. The Merchant of Venice is a play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1596 and 1598 Titus Andronicus may be Shakespeare's earliest Tragedy; it is believed to have been written sometime between 1584 and the early 1590s Othello is the Title character of William Shakespeare's Othello. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century. Delegation (also called deputation) is the assignment of authority and responsibility to another person (normally from a manager to a subordinate to carry out specific activities Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Romance and reality The Victorian era and the early twentieth century idealised the Elizabethan era [180]
Philosophy
- Further information: Logic in Islamic philosophy, Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400), and List of Muslim philosophers
- See also: Early Muslim sociology, Historiography of early Islam, Avicennism, and Averroism
Arab philosophers like al-Kindi (Alkindus) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Persian philosophers like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) played a major role in preserving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. They would also absorb ideas from China, and India, adding to them tremendous knowledge from their own studies. Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), fused Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, such as Kalam and Qiyas. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Aristotelianism is a tradition of Philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. In Sunni Islamic jurisprudence,the qiyas ( Arabic قياس is the process of analogical reasoning in which the teachings of the Quran are compared This led to Avicenna founding his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. Avicennism ( is a school of Early Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. Avicenna was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, and he developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence. The Organon is the name given by Aristotle 's followers the Peripatetics to the standard collection of his six works on Logic. Avicennism ( is a school of Early Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Tabula rasa ( Latin: blank slate) refers to the epistemological thesis that individual human beings are born with no built-in mental content In Philosophy, essence is the attribute or set of attributes that make an object or substance what it fundamentally is and which it has by necessity In common usage existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses but in Philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning and is often contrasted with
From Spain the Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, Muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the African who translated Greek medical texts, and the Muslim Al-Khwarzimi's collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the Golden Age. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Constantine the African ( Latin Constantinus Africanus c 1020 Carthage or Sicily&ndash1087 monastery of Monte Cassino, near Cassino Principality Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly
One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Averroism is the term applied to either of two philosophical trends among scholastics in the late 13th century, the first of which was based on the Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' [181] He also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence". The proposition that existence precedes essence is a central claim of Existentialism, which reverses the traditional philosophical view that the Essence or nature [182]
Another infuential philosopher who had a significant influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. Modern philosophy is Philosophy done in Europe and North America between the 17th and early 20th centuries. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,[183] condition of possibility, materialism,[184] and Molyneux's Problem. Philosophical novels are works of Fiction in which a significant proportion of the novel is devoted to a discussion of the sort of questions normally addressed in discursive Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān ( حي بن يقظان " Alive son of Awake " Philosophus Autodidactus " The Self-Taught Philosopher The nature versus nurture debates concern the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities ("nature" i Condition of possibility ( Bedingungen der Möglichkeit) is a Philosophical Concept made popular by Immanuel Kant. The Philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is Matter, and is considered a form of Physicalism. Molyneux's Problem is an unsolved problem in philosophy. In response to John Locke 's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, scientist and politician [185] European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke,[186] Gottfried Leibniz,[176] Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,[187] George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,[188] and Samuel Hartlib. John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. Melchisédech (or Melchisédec) Thévenot (c 1620 - October 29, 1692) was a French author scientist traveler cartographer John Wallis ( November 23, 1616 - October 28, 1703) was an English mathematician who is given partial credit for the Christiaan Huygens (ˈhaɪgənz in English ˈhœyɣəns in Dutch) ( April 14, 1629 &ndash July 8, 1695) was a Dutch George Keith (1638/9 – March 27, 1716) was a Scottish Missionary. Robert Barclay ( December 23, 1648 – October 3, 1690) one of the most eminent Writers belonging to the Religious Society Samuel Hartli(eb (ca 1600 &ndash 1662 was a German Briton Polymath, an expert in many subjects called "the Great Intelligencer of Europe" [177]
Al-Ghazali also had an important influence on Jewish thinkers like Maimonides[189][190] and Christian medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas[191] and René Descartes, who expressed similar ideas to that of al-Ghazali in Discourse on the Method. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Medieval philosophy is the Philosophy of Europe and the Middle East in the era now known as Medieval or the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from Organization How to think correctly The Method of Science Morals Maxims deduced from this Method Proof of God and the Soul Physics the heart [192] However, al-Ghazali also wrote a devastating critique in his The Incoherence of the Philosophers on the speculative theological works of Kindi, Farabi and Ibn Sina. The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic The study of metaphysics declined in the Muslim world due to this critique, though Ibn Rushd (Averroes) responded strongly in his The Incoherence of the Incoherence to many of the points Ghazali raised. The Incoherence of the Incoherence by Andalusian Arab, Polymath and philosopher Averroes ( Ibn Rushd) (1126 - 1198 is an Nevertheless, Avicennism continued to flourish long after and Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent Theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism. Avicennism ( is a school of Early Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. Sadr al-Din Moḥammad Shirazi also called Mulla Sadra ( also spelt Molla Sadra or Mollasadra or sadrol mote allehin; (c Transcendent theosophy or al-hikmat al-muta’li ( حكمت متعالي) the doctrine and Philosophy that has been developed and perfected by the Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine which posits that individuals create the meaning and essence of their lives and that this essence follows from their existence [193]
Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer of evolutionary thought and natural selection; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history[164] and social philosophy. Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, c eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. The Greek Philosopher Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC) developed many theories on the nature of Physics that are completely different Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. In Mathematics, a topos (plural "topoi" or "toposes" is a type of category that behaves like the category of sheaves of sets TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Philosophical novels are works of Fiction in which a significant proportion of the novel is devoted to a discussion of the sort of questions normally addressed in discursive Shahab al-Din Yahya as-Suhrawardi ( Persian شهاب الدين يحيى سهروردى, also known as Sohrevardi) was a Persian philosopher Sufi For other uses see Illuminati (disambiguation. Illuminationist Philosophy ( Arabic: حكمة الإشراق ḥikmah al-ishrāq, Persian TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Umar ibn al-Husayn al-Taymi al-Bakri al-Tabaristani Fakhr al-Din al-Razi ( Arabic / Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. Social philosophy is the philosophical study of questions about social Behavior (typically of Humans.
End of the Golden Age
Mongolian invasion
After the Crusades from the West which resulted in the instability of the Islamic world during the 13th century, a new threat came from the East during the 12th century: the Mongol invasions. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Mongol Empire emerged in the course of the 13th century by a series of conquests and invasions throughout Central and Western Asia, reaching Eastern Europe In 1206, Genghis Khan from Central Asia established a powerful Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire A Mongolian ambassador to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad is said to have been murdered,[194] which may have been one of the reasons behind Hulagu Khan's sack of Baghdad in 1258. This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as The Battle of Baghdad in 1258 was a victory for the Mongol leader Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan.
The Mongols conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and parts of the old Islamic Caliphate and Islamic Khwarezm, as well as Russia and Eastern Europe in the west, and subsequent invasions of the Levant. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai The Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia lasted from 1219 to 1221. It marked the beginning of the Mongol Conquest of the Islamic States and it also expanded Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Later Mongol leaders, such as Timur, though he himself became a Muslim, destroyed many cities, slaughtered thousands of people and did irrevocable damage to the ancient irrigation systems of Mesopotamia. Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding These invasions transformed a civil society to a nomadic one.
Traditionalist Muslims at the time, including the polymath Ibn al-Nafis, believed that the Crusades and Mongol invasions may have been a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the Sunnah. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” As a result, the falsafa, some of whom held ideas incompatible with the Sunnah, became targets of criticism from many traditionalist Muslims, though other traditionalists such as Ibn al-Nafis made attempts at reconciling reason with revelation and blur the line between the two. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication [195]
Eventually, the Mongols that settled in parts of Persia, Central Asia and Russia converted to Islam, and as a result, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde and Chagatai Khanates became Islamic states. The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. The Chagatai Khanate was a Mongol and later more Turko-Islamic in language and culture Khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan In many instances, Mongols assimilated into various Muslim Iranian or Turkic peoples (for instance, one of the greatest Muslim astronomers of the 15th century, Ulugh Beg, was a grandson of Timur). The Iranian people are a collection of Ethnic groups defined along linguistic lines as speaking Iranian languages. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family Ulugh Beg ( Chaghatay / - also Uluğ Bey, Ulugh Bek and Ulug Bek) (c Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among By the time the Ottoman Empire rose from the ashes, the Golden Age is considered to have come to an end. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish
Causes of decline
"The achievements of the Arabic speaking peoples between the ninth and twelfth centuries are so great as to baffle our understanding. The decadence of Islam and of Arabic is almost as puzzling in its speed and completeness as their phenomenal rise. Scholars will forever try to explain it as they try to explain the decadence and fall of Rome. Such questions are exceedingly complex and it is impossible to answer them in a simple way. "
— George Sarton , The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East' [196]
The Islamic civilization which had at the outset been creative and dynamic in dealing with issues, began to struggle to respond to the challenges and rapid changes it faced during the 12th and 13th centuries onwards towards the end of the Abbassid rule. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. Despite a brief respite with the new Ottoman rule, the decline continued until its eventual collapse and subsequent stagnation in the 20th century.
Despite a number of attempts by many writers, historical and modern, none seem to agree on the causes of decline. The main views on the causes of decline comprise the following: political mismanagement after the early Caliphs (10th century onwards), closure of the gates of ijtihad (12th century), institutionalisation of taqlid rather than bid'ah (13th century), foreign involvement by invading forces and colonial powers (11th century Crusades, 13th century Mongol Empire, 15th century Reconquista, 19th century European empires), and the disruption to the cycle of equity based on Ibn Khaldun's famous model of Asabiyyah (the rise and fall of civilizations) which points to the decline being mainly due to political and economic factors. Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources Taqlid or taqleed ( Arabic تَقْليد taqlīd) is an Arabic term meaning "to follow (someone" or "to imitate" In Islam, bid‘ah ( is any type of Innovation. Though innovations in worldly matters are acceptable to an extent innovation within the religion is seen as a sin The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 `Asabiyya or asabiyah ( Arabic: عصبية ʕaṣabīya) refers to Social solidarity with an emphasis on Unity, group consciousness A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements [4]
Tolerance about different ideas reduced and faded, with some seminaries systematically forbidding speculative philosophy, while polemic debates also appear to have been abandoned after the 13th century. Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. A significant intellectual shift in Islamic philosophy is perhaps demonstrated by al-Ghazali's late 11th century polemic work The Incoherence of the Philosophers, which was later criticized in The Incoherence of the Incoherence by Averroes but nonetheless proved effective in lambasting metaphysical philosophy in favor of the primacy of scripture. Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic The Incoherence of the Incoherence by Andalusian Arab, Polymath and philosopher Averroes ( Ibn Rushd) (1126 - 1198 is an Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Institutions of science comprising Islamic universities, libraries (including the House of Wisdom), observatories, and hospitals, were later destroyed by foreign invaders like the Crusaders and particularly the Mongols, and were rarely promoted again in the devastated regions. "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. The House of Wisdom ( Arabic: بيت الحكمة; Bait al-Hikma) was a library and translation institute in Abbassid -era Baghdad, Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents [197] Not only wasn't new publishing equipment accepted but also wide illiteracy overwhelmed the devastated lands, especially in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding
Some historians have recently come to question the traditional picture of decline, pointing to continued astronomical activity as a sign of a continuing and creative scientific tradition through to the 15th and 16th centuries, with the works of Ibn al-Shatir, Ulugh Beg, Ali Kuşçu, al-Birjandi and Taqi al-Din considered noteworthy examples. Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer Ulugh Beg ( Chaghatay / - also Uluğ Bey, Ulugh Bek and Ulug Bek) (c Ali Kuşçu (? 1403 - 16 December, 1474) was a Turkish astronomer, mathematician, physicist and scientist Abd al-Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn al-Birjandi (d 934 AH /1528 CE prominent 16th century Muslim astronomer, mathematician and physicist who lived in Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585 [198][199] This was also the case for other fields, such as medicine, notably the works of Ibn al-Nafis, Mansur ibn Ilyas and Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu; mathematics, notably the works of al-Kashi and al-Qalasadi; philosophy, notably Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Theosophy; and the social sciences, notably Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah (1370), which itself points out that though science was declining in Iraq, al-Andalus and Maghreb, it continued to flourish in Persia, Syria and Egypt during his time. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Manṣūr ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf Ibn Ilyās (ar منصور ابن محمد ابن احمد ابن يوسف ابن الياس was a late 14th century physician from Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385-1468 ( Ottoman Turkish:شرف الدّین صابونجی اوغلی was a medieval Ottoman Surgeon and Physician Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and (or, Persian: غیاثالدین جمشید کاشانی (c Abū al-Hasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī (1412 in Baza, Spain &ndash 1486 in Béja, Tunisia) was an Arab Muslim mathematician Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Sadr al-Din Moḥammad Shirazi also called Mulla Sadra ( also spelt Molla Sadra or Mollasadra or sadrol mote allehin; (c Transcendent theosophy or al-hikmat al-muta’li ( حكمت متعالي) the doctrine and Philosophy that has been developed and perfected by the The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The Muqaddimah, or the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun ( Arabic: ar مقدّمة ابن خلدون Amazigh: Tazwarit n Ibn Xldun For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. [4]
Notes
- ^ Joel L. Kraemer (1992), Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam, p. 1 & 148, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004072594. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ Matthew E. Falagas, Effie A. Zarkadoulia, George Samonis (2006). "Arab science in the golden age (750–1258 C. E. ) and today", The FASEB Journal 20, p. The Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, abbreviated FASEB, is a Non-profit organization that is the principal umbrella organization of 1581-1586.
- ^ a b c d George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, p. George Saliba has been Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures Columbia University, 245, 250, 256-257. New York University Press, ISBN 0814780237. New York University Press (or NYU Press) founded in 1916 is a University press that is part of New York University.
- ^ a b c Ahmad Y Hassan, Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century
- ^ a b c Howard R. Ahmad Y Hassan أحمد يوسف الحسن(born 1925 is a chevalier of the Légion d'honneur and a historian of Arabic and Islamic science and technology Turner, Science in Medieval Islam, University of Texas Press, November 1, 1997, ISBN 0-292-78149-0, pg. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar 270 (book cover, last page)
- ^ a b Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pg 26-38 ISBN 081573283X
- ^ Arnold Pacey, "Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History", MIT Press, 1990, ISBN 0262660725 pg 41-42
- ^ Bülent Þenay. Sufism. Retrieved on 2007-06-26. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian is killed during the retreat from the Sassanid Empire.
- ^ Muslim History and the Spread of Islam from the 7th to the 21st century. The Islam Project. Retrieved on 2007-06-26. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian is killed during the retreat from the Sassanid Empire.
- ^ Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. 155, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195135806.
- ^ Joel L. Kraemer (1992), Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004072594. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), “The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study”, Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity, Al Akhawayn University, <http://images.agustianwar.multiply.com/attachment/0/RxbYbQoKCr4AAD@kzFY1/IslamicCalendar-A-Case-Study.pdf>. Al Akhawayn University or AUI ( جامعة الأخوين, literally meaning The Two Brothers' University referring to the King of Saudi Arabia Retrieved on 31 January 2008
- ^ L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", Environment and History 8 (4), pp. 475-488.
- ^ S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire in Europe, 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London.
F. B. Artz (1980), The Mind of the Middle Ages, Third edition revised, University of Chicago Press, pp 148-50. The University of Chicago Press is the largest University press in the United States
(cf. References, 1001 Inventions) - ^ a b Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding, p. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" Peter Barrett (born 1935 is a British painter, Illustrator, Graphic designer and Children's book Author. 18, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 056708969X. The Continuum International Publishing Group is a publisher of Books, with its editorial offices in London and New York City.
- ^ Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 2002 (2), p. IMANA Logogif|frame|right|The IMANA Logo]] The Islamic Medical Association of North America ( "IMANA") is the largest Muslim medical organization in 2-9 [7-8].
- ^ Micheau, Francoise, “The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East”, pp. 992-3, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985-1007)
- ^ John Bagot Glubb (cf. Quotations on Islamic Civilization)
- ^ The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2, P. Lieutenant-General Sir John Bagot Glubb KCB, CMG, DSO, OBE, better known as Glubb Pasha (born 16 April cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" 242
- ^ a b Dato' Dzulkifli Abd Razak, Quest for knowledge, New Sunday Times, 3 July 2005. The New Straits Times is a Malaysian Newspaper. It is Malaysia's oldest newspaper still in print (though not the first having been founded as Events 324 - Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Patricia Skinner (2001), Unani-tibbi, Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine
- ^ N. M. Swerdlow (1993). "Montucla's Legacy: The History of the Exact Sciences", Journal of the History of Ideas 54 (2), p. 299-328 [320].
- ^ Micheau, Francoise, “The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East”, pp. 988-991 in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985-1007)
- ^ (Gaudiosi 1988)
- ^ (Hudson 2003, p. 32)
- ^ Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring, 1978), “Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems”, The American Journal of Comparative Law 26 (2 - Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24-25, 1977): 187-198 [196-8]
- ^ Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", Trends in Biotechnology 20 (8), p. 357-358 [357].
- ^ Makdisi, John A. (June 1999), "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law", North Carolina Law Review 77 (5): 1635-1739
- ^ a b Karima Alavi, Tapestry of Travel, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University. The North Carolina Law Review is the flagship Law journal of the University of North Carolina School of Law. Georgetown University is a Jesuit Private university located in Georgetown Washington D
- ^ Sardar, Ziauddin (1998), “Science in Islamic philosophy”, Islamic Philosophy, Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, <http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H016.htm>. Ziauddin Sardar (born 1951) is a London -based writer who specializes in topics dealing with the future of Islam, as well as Islamic science and Retrieved on 3 February 2008
- ^ Bio-Bibliographies, United States National Library of Medicine. The United States National Library of Medicine ( NLM) operated by the United States federal government, is the world's largest Medical library.
- ^ Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). Lynn Townsend White Jr ( April 29 1907 – March 30 1987) was a professor of medieval History at Princeton, "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", Technology and Culture 2 (2), p. 97-111 [100-101].
- ^ Sami Hamarneh (March 1972), "Review: Hakim Mohammed Said, Ibn al-Haitham", Isis 63 (1), p. 118–119.
- ^ Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi, Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World.
- ^ Marvin E. Gettleman and Stuart Schaar (2003), The Middle East and Islamic World Reader, p. 54, Grove Press, ISBN 0802139361. Grove Press is an American publishing imprint that was founded in 1951
- ^ a b John M. Hobson (2004), The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, p. 29-30, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521547245. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534
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- ^ a b Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
- ^ a b John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arabian fantasy", p 51 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
- ^ L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 10 ISBN 0-87054-076-9
- ^ a b John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arabian fantasy", p 52 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
- ^ James Thurber, "The Wizard of Chitenango", p 64 Fantasists on Fantasy edited by Robert H. Lyon Sprague de Camp, ( November 27 1907 – November 6 2000) was an American science fiction and fantasy author Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers the Makers of Heroic Fantasy is a 1976 work of collective Biography on the formative authors of the Heroic fantasy Boyer and Kenneth J. Zahorski, ISBN 0-380-86553-X
- ^ NIZAMI: LAYLA AND MAJNUN - English Version by Paul Smith
- ^ Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World). cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult"
- ^ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 95-101, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. The University of Notre Dame du Lac (or simply Notre Dame) (ˌnoʊtɚˈdeɪm is a private Roman Catholic Research university located in [3]
- ^ Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World). cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult"
- ^ Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
- ^ Cyril Glasse (2001), New Encyclopedia of Islam, p. The Encyclopaedia of Islam ( EI) is the standard Encyclopaedia of the Academic discipline of Islamic studies. 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0759101906.
- ^ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [369].
- ^ a b Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts, The Guardian, 22 March 2003. The Guardian (until 1959 The Manchester Guardian) is a British Newspaper owned by the Guardian Media Group.
- ^ a b G. J. Toomer (1996), Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 222, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198202911.
- ^ Latinized Names of Muslim Scholars, FSTC.
- ^ I. Heullant-Donat and M. -A. Polo de Beaulieu, "Histoire d'une traduction," in Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet, Latin edition and French translation by Gisèle Besson and Michèle Brossard-Dandré, Collection Lettres Gothiques, Le Livre de Poche, 1991, p. 22 with note 37.
- ^ Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor, Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre (cf. Mayor of London (2006), Muslims in London, pp. Sam Wanamaker ( June 14, 1919 &ndash December 18, 1993) was an American Film director and Actor, credited The Globe Theatre was a Theatre in London associated with William Shakespeare. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" The Mayor of London is an elected politician who along with the London Assembly of 25 members is accountable for the strategic government of Greater London (see 14-15, Greater London Authority)
- ^ a b Majid Fakhry (2001). Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851682694.
- ^ Irwin, Jones (Autumn 2002), “Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam”, The Philosopher LXXXX (2)
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-262, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān, pp. 38-46, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004093001. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufayl and Léon Gauthier (1981), Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan, p. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name 5, Editions de la Méditerranée. [4]
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-239, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 227, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 247, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ H-Net Review: Eric Ormsby on Averroes (Ibn Rushd): His Life, Works and Influence
- ^ The Influence of Islamic Thought on Maimonides (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
- ^ Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazali: The Mystic (London 1944)
- ^ Najm, Sami M. Margaret Smith (born 1884 was a female scholar writing on early Christian and Muslim mysticism from an openminded Christian perspective (July-October 1966), “The Place and Function of Doubt in the Philosophies of Descartes and Al-Ghazali”, Philosophy East and West 16 (3-4): 133-41
- ^ Kamal, Muhammad (2006), Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. , pp. 9 & 39, ISBN 0754652718
- ^ talk then walk
- ^ Fancy, p. 49 & 59
- ^ George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East, A George C. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. Keiser Foundation Lecture, March 29, 1950, Washington DC, 1951
- ^ Erica Fraser. Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary. The University of Calgary is a research-intensive Public university in Calgary Alberta, Canada.
- ^ David A. King, "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", Isis, 74 (1983):531-555
- ^ George Saliba, "Writing the History of Arabic Astronomy: Problems and Differing Perspectives (Review Article), Journal of the American Oriental Society, 116 (1996): 709-718. George Saliba has been Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures Columbia University,
References
- Gaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988), "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College", University of Pennsylvania Law Review 136 (4): 1231-1261
- Graham, Mark (2006). The University of Pennsylvania Law Review is a scholarly journal focusing on legal issues published by an organization of second and third year J How Islam Created the Modern World. Amana Publications. ISBN 1-59008-043-2.
- Donald Routledge Hill, Islamic Science And Engineering, Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3
- Morelon, Régis & Roshdi Rashed (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. Donald Routledge Hill (1922–1994 was an Engineer and historian of science and technology. The Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science is a three-volume Encyclopedia covering the history of Arabic contributions to science, mathematics 3, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107
- Hudson, A. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals (2003), Equity and Trusts (3rd ed. ), Cavendish Publishing, ISBN 1-85941-729-9
- George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East, A George C. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. Keiser Foundation Lecture, March 29, 1950, Washington DC, 1951
- Shatzmiller, Maya (1994), Labour in the Medieval Islamic World, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004098968
- Shoja-e-din Shafa, Rebirth (1995) (Persian Title: تولدى ديگر)*Shoja-e-din Shafa, After 1400 Years (2000) (Persian Title: پس از 1400 سال)
See also
- Islamic studies
- List of Islamic studies scholars
- Muslim conquests
- Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
- Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe
External links
- Golden age of Arab and Islamic Culture
- Islamic web
- Muslim Heritage
- The Islam Project: Overview of Muslim History
- Islamic Banking, Finance & Economics by Maryam Ayaz
- The Story of Islam's Gift of Paper to the West
- Gaston Wiet, Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid Caliphate, Chapter 5
- Free, downloadable PDF's online version of Lane's Arabic-English dictionary
- Islamic Medicine on Line - By Dr. Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E This is a sub-article to Religious education, Academic discipline, and Islam. The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural Scholars in Islamic studies are both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars who work in one or more fields of Islamic studies. Science in the Islamic world has played an important role in the History of science. This is a list of scientists and scholars from the Arab World and Islamic Spain ( Al-Andalus) that lived from antiquity up until the beginning Classical (pre-modern Era The following is a non-comprehensive list of Iranian scientists and engineers that lived from antiquity up until the beginning of the modern The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab Scholars debate what exactly constitutes an Empire. Generally they may define an empire as a State that extends Dominion over areas and populations distinct A global empire involves the extension of a state's sovereignty over territories all around the World. For the period of Spanish cultural flourishing in the 17th century see Spanish Golden Age. Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe were numerous affecting such varied areas as art, architecture, medicine, argriculture, music The Renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning which led them to the Arabic fringes of Europe especially to Islamic Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal
- Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis) - A light in the middle ages in Europe - Dr. Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal
- The Influence of Islamic Philosophy and Ethics on The Development of Medicine During the Islamic Renaissance - By Dr. Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal
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