History of Greater Iran
Empires of Persia · Kings of Persia
Pre-modern
Before Islam  BCE Zayandeh River Civilization prehistoric–? Sialk civilization 7500–1000 Jiroft civilization (Aratta) 3000–? Proto-Elamite civilization 3200–2800 Bactria-Margiana Complex 2200–1700 Elamite dynasties 2800–550 Kingdom of Mannai 10th–7th cent. Greater Iran (in Irān-e Bozorg, or fa ایران‌زمین Irān-zamīn; the Encyclopedia Iranica uses the term The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The following is a comprehensive list of kings of Persia, which includes all of the empires ruling over geographical Iran The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia Sialk is a large ancient archeological site near Kashan, Iran, tucked away in the suburbs of the city of Kashan, in central Iran, close to The Proto-Elamite period is the time of ca 3200 BC to 2700 BC when Susa, the later capital of the Elamites began to receive influence from the The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (or BMAC, also known as the Oxus civilization) is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. The Mannaeans (country name usually Mannea; Akkadian: Mannai, possibly Biblical Minni, מנּי were an ancient people of unknown origin Median Empire 728–550 Achaemenid Empire 550–330 Seleucid Empire 330–150 Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 250-125 Parthian Empire 248–CE 224 CE Kushan Empire 30–275 Sassanid Empire 224–651 Hephthalite Empire 425–557 Kabul-Shahi dynasty 565–670
After Islamic Conquest  Patriarchal Caliphate 637–651 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Alavid dynasty 864–928 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Samanid dynasty 819–999 Ziyarid dynasty 928–1043 Buyid Dynasty 934–1055 Ghaznavid Empire 975–1187 Ghori dynasty 1149–1212 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Khwarezmid dynasty 1077–1231 Kartids dynasty 1231-1389 Ilkhanate 1256–1353 Muzaffarid dynasty 1314–1393 Chupanid dynasty 1337–1357 Jalayerid dynasty 1339–1432 Timurid Empire 1370–1506 Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans 1407–1468 Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans 1378–1508 Safavid Empire 1501–1722* Mughal Empire 1526–1857 Hotaki dynasty 1722–1729 Afsharid dynasty 1736–1802 * or 1736
Modern SSR = Soviet Socialist Republic
Afghanistan  Durrani Empire 1748–1823 British and Russian influence 1826–1919 Independence and civil war 1919–1929 Mohammedzai rule 1929–1973 Republic of Afghanistan 1973–1978 Communist rule 1978–1992 Recent history of Afghanistan since 1992 Timeline
Azerbaijan  Khanates of the Caucasus 1722–1828 Russian Rule 1828–1917 Democratic Republic 1918–1920 Azerbaijan SSR 1920–1991 Republic of Azerbaijan since 1991
Bahrain  Portuguese rule 1521–1602 British Treaty 1820–1971 Kingdom of Bahrain since 1971
Iran  Zand dynasty 1750–1794 Qajar dynasty 1781–1925 Pahlavi dynasty 1925–1979 Iranian Revolution 1979 Provisional Government 1979 Islamic Republic of Iran since 1979
Iraq  Ottoman Empire 1632–1919 Hashimite monarchy 1920–1958 Coup and Republic 1958–2003 Republic of Iraq since 2004
Tajikistan  Emirate of Bukhara 1785–1920 Bukharan / Uzbek SSR 1920–1929 Tajik Autonomous SSR 1929 Tajik SSR 1929–1991 Republic of Tajikistan since 1991
Uzbekistan  Emirate of Bukhara 1785–1920 Uzbek SSR 1924–1991 Independence 1991 Republic of Uzbekistan since 1991

Iranian revolution

Articles Timeline of Iranian revolution Revolutionary leaders Ruhollah Khomeini Ali Shariati Mortaza Motahhari Mohammad Beheshti Mostafa Chamran Sadegh Ghotbzadeh Ebrahim Yazdi Ali Khamenei Mehdi Bazargan Musavi Ardabili Ali Khamenei Mohammad Javad Bahonar Mahmoud Taleghani Mahdavi Kani Yadollah Sahabi Revolutionary parties and organizations: Tudeh Party of Iran Freedom Movement of Iran Combatant Clergy Association OIPFG IPFG People's Mujahedin of Iran Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization Islamic Republic Party Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line Guerrilla groups of Iran Revolutionary administrations and official institutions: The Interim Government of Iran Islamic republic Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps Basij Assembly of Experts for Constitution Events Movement of 15 Khordad Black Friday Iran hostage crisis Cultural Revolution Ideology of Iranian Revolution Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists Gharbzadegi

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The Iranian Revolution (also known as the Islamic Revolution,^{[1][2][3][4][5][6]} Persian: انقلاب اسلامی, Enghelābe Eslāmi) was the revolution that transformed Iran from a monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic. The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i The Gr(aeco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The Hephthalites or White Huns were a Central Asian Nomadic confederation whose precise origins and composition remain obscure The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia The Tahirid dynasty, (سلسله طاهریان Persian: ( 821 - 873) ruled the northeastern Persian Empire region The Saffarid dynasty ( Persian: سلسله صفاریان ruled a empire in Sistan, which is a historical region now in southeastern Iran and southwestern The Samanids (819–999 ( Sāmāniyān) were a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan, named after its founder Saman The Ziyarids, also spelled Zeyarids (زیاریان or آل زیار were an Iranian dynasty that ruled in the Caspian sea provinces of Gorgan The Buyids (آل بویه Āl-e Buye, Caspian: Bowyiyün also known as Buwaihids or Buyyids, were a Shī‘ah Iranian The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk. The Ghurids (or Ghorids; self-designation Shansabānī) ( were a Persian Sunni - Ismaili Muslim dynasty in Khorasan The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled The Khwarezmian Empire, more commonly known as the empire of the Khwarezm Shahs ( Khwārezmšhāḥīān, "Kings of Khwarezmia " The Kartid Dynasty ( Karts, also known as Kurts) was a Persian dynasty that ruled over a large part of Khorassan during the 13th The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in The Muzaffarids (آل مظفر in Persian were a Sunni family that came to power in Iran following the breakup of the Ilkhanate in the 14th century The Chupanids, also known as the Süldüz or the Chobanids (سلسله امرای چوپانی Amir Chupani) were descendants of a Mongol family The Jalayirids (آل جلایر were a Mongol dynasty which ruled over Iraq and western Persia after the breakup of the Mongol Khanate of Persia The Timurids, self-designated Gurkānī ( were a Persianate Central Asian Sunni Muslim dynasty The Kara Koyunlu or Qara Qoyunlu, also called the Black Sheep Turkomans ( Turkmen: Garagoýunly; Azeri: Qaraqoyunlu The Ak Koyunlu or Aq Qoyunlu, also called the White Sheep Turkomans ( Turkmen: Akgoýunly, Azeri: Ağqoyunlu, The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most The Hotaki dynasty (1709-1738 was founded in 1709 by Mirwais Khan Hotak, an ethnic Pashtun ( Afghan) from the Ghilzai clan of Kandahar province The Afsharids (سلسله افشار were an Iranian dynasty of Turkic descent from Khorasan that ruled the Persian Empire in the 18th century The Republics of the Soviet Union were according to the Article 76 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, Sovereign Soviet Socialist states that had united with other Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The Durrani Empire (also referred to as the Afghan Empire) was a large state based in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and later included northeastern The European influence in Afghanistan refers to political social and sometimes Imperialistic influence various European nations have had on this historical development of the Amanullah Khan reigned in Afghanistan from 1919 achieving full independence from the British Empire shortly afterwards Reign of Mohammed Nadir Shah 1929-1933 Mohammed Nadir Shah quickly abolished most of Amanullah Khan 's reforms but despite his efforts to rebuild an army Mohammed Daoud Khan ( July 18, 1909 – April 28, 1978) was a politician in Afghanistan who overthrew the monarchy of Zahir Shah The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was a Soviet -backed government in Afghanistan between 1978 and 1992. See also Civil war in Afghanistan This article on the History of Afghanistan since 1992 covers the time period from the fall of the Najibullah government in 1992 This is a timeline of Afghanistan. To read about the background to these events see History of Afghanistan. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South This article is about the history of Azerbaijan. For the history of Iranian Azerbaijan, please see the History of Iran Azerbaijan or This article is about the history of Azerbaijan. For the history of Iranian Azerbaijan, please see the History of Iran Azerbaijan or The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic ( ADR; Azərbaycan Xalq Cümhuriyyəti was the first Democratic and Secular Republic in the Muslim world This article is about the former Soviet republic for other similar uses see Azerbaijan (disambiguation. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South The Kingdom of Bahrain (in مملكة البحرين,, literally Kingdom of the Two Seas) is an Island country in the Persian Gulf Bahrain is a borderless Island country in the Persian Gulf. Although Bahrain became an independent country in 1971 the history of these islands starts Bahrain is a borderless Island country in the Persian Gulf. Although Bahrain became an independent country in 1971 the history of these islands starts The Kingdom of Bahrain (in مملكة البحرين,, literally Kingdom of the Two Seas) is an Island country in the Persian Gulf For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Zand dynasty ( (سلسله زندیه ruled southern and central Iran ( 1750 &ndash 1794) in the eighteenth century The Qajar dynasty (also known as Ghajar or Kadjar ( ( - or دودمان قاجار) is a common term to describe Iran (then known as Persia) under The Interim Government of Iran ( 1979 - 1980) was the first government established in Iran after the Islamic Revolution. One of the most dramatic changes in government in Iran's history was seen with the 1979 Iranian Revolution where Shah ( king) Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish This article includes an overview from prehistory to the present in the region of the current state of Iraq in Mesopotamia. This article includes an overview from prehistory to the present in the region of the current state of Iraq in Mesopotamia. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of The Emirate of Bukhara ( Buxoro Amirligi; Аморати Бухоро was a Central Asian state that existed from 1785 to 1920 The Bukharan People's Soviet Republic (Бухарская Народная Советская Республика was the name of Uzbekistan from 1920 to 1925 The Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Ўзбекистон Совет Социалистик Республикаси O`zbekiston Sovet Sotsialistik Respublikasi; Узбекская The Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Республикаи Советии Социалистии Тоҷикистон Respublikai Sovetii Sotsialistii Tocikiston; Таджикская Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly The Emirate of Bukhara ( Buxoro Amirligi; Аморати Бухоро was a Central Asian state that existed from 1785 to 1920 The Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Ўзбекистон Совет Социалистик Республикаси O`zbekiston Sovet Sotsialistik Respublikasi; Узбекская Located in the heart of Central Asia between the Amu Darya (Oxus and Syr Darya (Jaxartes Rivers Uzbekistan has a long and interesting heritage Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed See also Iranian Revolution This article is a timeline of events relevant to the Islamic Revolution in Iran. Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 Ali Shariati ( علی شريعتی‎) ( November 23, 1933 &ndash 1977 was an Iranian sociologist and Revolutionary, well TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ayatollah Morteza Motahhari (مرتضی مطهری February 3, 1920 Ayatollah Dr Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini Beheshti (محمد حسینی بهشتی ( October 24, 1928 - June 28 Mostafa Chamran Savei (1932 &ndash 21 June 1981) was an Iranian Defense minister and member of parliament, as well as commander of paramilitary Sadegh Ghotbzadeh ( b 1936 - d September 15, 1982) was a close aide of Ayatollah Khomeini during his 1978 exile in France, and Iranian Ebrahim Yazdi (ابراهیم یزدی born 1931 in Qazvin) is the Secretary-General of the Freedom Movement of Iran, which has been declared illegal (fa علی حسینی خامنه‌ای born 17 July 1939 also known as Ali Khamenei, is an Iranian Azeri politician and cleric Mehdi Bazargan (مهدی بازرگان In Persian) (September 1907 - January 20, 1995) (also spelled Mahdi Bazargan) was a prominent Ayatollah al-Uzma Sayyed Abdolkarim Mousavi Ardebili (also spelt Ardabili,, born January 28, 1926) is an (fa علی حسینی خامنه‌ای born 17 July 1939 also known as Ali Khamenei, is an Iranian Azeri politician and cleric Hojatoleslam Mohammad Javad Bahonar (محمدجواد باهنر in Persian) ( 1933 - August 30, 1981) was the second prime minister Ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani ( 1911 - September 9, 1979 was an Iranian theologian Muslim reformer and a senior Twelver Shi'a cleric Ayatollah Mohammad Reza Mahdavi Kani ( born 1931 in the village of Kan, Tehran Province) is an Iranian influential Cleric and conservative Yadollah Sahabi ( 1905 - April 12, 2002 was a prominent Iranian scholar writer reformist and politician Formed in 1941 the Tudeh Party of Iran ("Party of the Masses of Iran" حزب توده ایران Hezb-e Tudeh Iran) is an Iranian Communist party The Freedom Movement of Iran ( FMI, also Liberation Movement of Iran (LMI,, Nehzat-e Azadi-e Iran) is an Iranian political organization which The Combatant Clergy Association ( Jame'e-ye Rowhaniyat-e Mobarez) or (جامعه روحانیت مبارز in Persian) is a political party in Iran. The Organization of Iranian People's Fadaian (Majority (سازمان فدائیان خلق ایران اکثریت is the largest socialist party The Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas (in Persian: چريکهای فدايي خلق ايران translit The People's Mujahedin of Iran ( PMOI, also MEK, MKO) ( Persian: سازمان مجاهدين خلق ايران sāzmān-e mojāhedin-e khalq-e Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization (سازمان مجاهدین انقلاب اسلامی sāzmān-e mojāhedin-e enghelāb-e eslāmi) sometimes abbreviated to The Islamic Republican Party (حزب جمهوری اسلامی or IRP was a Political party in Iran, formed in mid- 1979 to assist the Iranian Revolution Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line (faدانشجویان مسلمان پیرو خط امام also translated as Muslim Students of the Imam Khomeini Line, was an Guerrilla groups were particularly notable and active in Iran from 1971 to 1977 when they fought the government of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The Interim Government of Iran ( 1979 - 1980) was the first government established in Iran after the Islamic Revolution. Islamic Republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Mauritania The Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution ( Sepáh e Pásdárán e Enqeláb e Eslámi) is an ideologically motivated branch of the Islamic Republic of Iran's The Basij (also Bassij or Baseej, or Baseej-e Mostaz'afin or "The Mobilized Oppressed"" or بسيج is a volunteer based Iranian The First Assembly of Experts (also known as Assembly of Experts for Constitution) was elected in the summer of 1979 to write a new constitution for the Islamic Movement of 15 Khordad ( نهضت پانزده خرداد) which took place on June 5 in protest against the arrest of Ayatollah Khomeini Black Friday was named after the protests that occurred on September 8, 1978 (17 Shahrivar 1357 AP) in Zhaleh Square Tehran, Iran. The Iran hostage crisis ( Persian: تصرف سفارت آمریکا was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the United States where 52 The Cultural Revolution (1980-1987 (in Persian انقلاب فرهنگي was a period following the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran where the academia of Iran was See also Iranian revolution The Ideology of the Iranian Revolution can be summarized as populist Islamic leadership|Ja'fari jurisprudence Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists ( Arabic: ولاية الفقيه, Persian: ولایت فقیه Gharbzadegi () is a pejorative Persian term often translated as "West-struck-ness" or Occidentosis A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround" is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages Islamic Republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Mauritania Ayatollah ( Persian: آيت‌الله, âyato-llâh, from Arabic: آية الله, āyatu 'llāh, meaning 'the sign of Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 ^[7] It has been called "the third great revolution in history," following the French and Bolshevik revolutions,^[8] and an event that "made Islamic fundamentalism a political force . The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them Islamic fundamentalism Arabic: usul (from usul the "fundamentals"] is a term used to describe religious ideologies seen as advocating a return to the . . from Morocco to Malaysia. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and "^[9]

Although some might argue that the revolution is still ongoing, its time span can be said to have begun in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations to overthrow the Shah,^[10] and concluded with the approval of the new theocratic Constitution — whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country — in December 1979. Theocracy is a form of government in which a god or deity is recognized as the supreme civil ruler The post of Supreme Leader ( Persian: رهبر انقلاب Rahbare Enqelab, lit In between, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi fled Iran in January 1979 after strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, and on February 1, 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran to a greeting by several million Iranians. Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) ^[11] The final collapse of the Pahlavi dynasty occurred shortly after on February 11 when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Events 660 BC - Traditional founding date of Japan by Emperor Jimmu. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on April 1, 1979 when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so. Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) ^[12]

The revolution was unique for the surprise it created throughout the world:^[13] it lacked many of the customary causes of revolution — defeat at war, a financial crisis, peasant rebellion, or disgruntled military;^[14] produced profound change at great speed;^[15] overthrew a regime thought to be heavily protected by a lavishly financed army and security services;^[16][17] and replaced an ancient monarchy with a theocracy based on Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (or velayat-e faqih). Islamic leadership|Ja'fari jurisprudence Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists ( Arabic: ولاية الفقيه, Persian: ولایت فقیه Its outcome — an Islamic Republic "under the guidance of an 80-year-old exiled religious scholar from Qom" — was, as one scholar put it, "clearly an occurrence that had to be explained. …"^[18]

Not so unique but more intense is the dispute over the revolution's results. For some it was an era of heroism and sacrifice that brought forth nothing less than the nucleus of a world Islamic state — "a perfect model of splendid, humane, and divine life… for all the peoples of the world. "^[19] At the other extreme, disillusioned Iranians explain the revolution as a time when "for a few years we all lost our minds,"^[20] and as a system that, "promised us heaven, but . . . created a hell on earth. " ^[21]

Reasons for the revolution

Explanations advanced for why the revolution happened and took the form it did include actions of the Shah and the mistakes and successes of the different political forces:

The reasons to why the Iranian Revolution occurred can be outlined into THREE main causes:
-The Shah's authoritarian government demanded complete obedience or subjection to authority as opposed to indivual freedom
-The public's discontent with the Shah's attempts for modernization in the country
-They were no longer under the influence of Western views because of their desire to return to traditional Islamic values

More In-depth Analysis:

Errors of the Shah

• His strong policy of Westernization and close identification with a Western power (the United States) despite the resulting clash with Iran's Shi'a Muslim identity. See also Shi'a Islam Twelver Shi'ism ( ar اثنا عشرية Ithnāˤashariyyah) is the largest branch of Shi'a branch of Islam Westernization or occidentalization (from occident, see wiktionary) is a process whereby societies come under or adopt the Western The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[22] This included his original installation by Allied Powers and assistance from the CIA in 1953 to restore him to the throne, the use of large numbers of US military advisers and technicians and the capitulation or granting of diplomatic immunity from prosecution to them, all of which led nationalistic Iranians, both religious and secular^[23] to consider him a puppet of the West;^[24][25]
• Extravagance, corruption and elitism (both real and perceived) of the Shah's policies and of his royal court;^[26][27]
• His failure to cultivate supporters in the Shi'a religious leadership to counter Khomeini's campaign against him;^[28][29]
• Focusing of government surveillance and repression on the People's Mujahedin of Iran, the communist Tudeh Party of Iran, and other leftist groups, while the more popular religious opposition organized, grew and gradually undermined the authority of his regime;^[30][31][32]
• Authoritarian tendencies that violated the Iran Constitution of 1906,^[33][34] including repression of dissent by security services like the SAVAK,^[35] followed by appeasement and appearance of weakness as the revolution gained momentum;^[36][37]
• Failure of his overly ambitious 1974 economic program to meet expectations raised by the oil revenue windfall. The People's Mujahedin of Iran ( PMOI, also MEK, MKO) ( Persian: سازمان مجاهدين خلق ايران sāzmān-e mojāhedin-e khalq-e Formed in 1941 the Tudeh Party of Iran ("Party of the Masses of Iran" حزب توده ایران Hezb-e Tudeh Iran) is an Iranian Communist party Despotism is a Form of government by a single authority either an individual or tightly knit group, which rules with absolute political power The Iran Constitution of 1906 was Iran's first constitution that resulted from the Iranian Constitutional Revolution. Security services are State institutions for the provision of intelligence, primarily of a strategic nature but also including Protective security intelligence SAVAK ( Persian: ساواک short for سازمان اطلاعات و امنیت کشور Sazeman-e Ettela'at va Amniyat-e Keshvar, National Intelligence and Security Bottlenecks, shortages and inflation were followed by austerity measures, attacks on alleged price gougers and black-markets, that angered both the bazaar and the masses;^[38]
• His antagonizing of formerly apolitical Iranians, especially merchants of the bazaars, with the creation of a single party political monopoly (the Rastakhiz Party), with compulsory membership and dues, and general aggressive interference in the political, economic, and religious concerns of people's lives;^[39]
• His overconfident neglect of governance and preoccupation with playing the world statesman during the oil boom,^[40] followed by a loss of self-confidence and resolution^[36] and a weakening of his health from cancer^[41] as the revolution gained momentum;
• Underestimation of the strength of the opposition — particularly religious opposition — and the failure to offer either enough carrots or sticks. A single-party state, one-party system or single-party system is a type of Party system Government in which a single Political party Rastakhiz ( Resurrection) party (also Hizb-i Rastakhiz) was founded on March 2, 1975 by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran Governance relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Carrot and stick (also spelled "carrot-and-stick" is an Idiom that refers to a policy of offering a reward for making progress towards benchmarks or goals but Efforts to please the opposition were "too little too late,"^[42] but no concerted counter-attack was made against the revolutionaries either. ^[36]
• Failure to prepare and train security forces for dealing with protest and demonstration, failure to use crowd control without excessive violence^[43] (troops used live ammunition, not Plexiglas shields or water cannons),^[44] and use of the military officer corps more as a powerbase to be pampered than as a force to control threats to security;^[45]
• The personalised nature of the Shah's government, where prevention of any possible competitor to the monarch trumped efficient and effective government and led to the crown's cultivation of divisions within the army and the political elite,^[46] and ultimately to a lack of support for the regime by its natural allies when needed most (thousands of upper and middle class Iranians and their money left Iran during the beginning of the revolution). ^[47]

Failures and successes of other political forces

• Overconfidence of the secularists and modernist Muslims, of liberals and leftists in their power and ability to control the revolution;^[48]
• Shrewdness of the Ayatollah Khomeini in winning the support of these liberals and leftists when he needed them to overthrow the Shah by underplaying his hand and avoiding issues (such as rule by clerics or "guardianship of the jurists") he planned to implement but knew would be a deal breaker for his more secular and modernist Muslim allies;^[49]
• Cleverness and energy of Khomeini's organizers in Iran who outwitted the Shah's security forces and won broad support with their tactical ingenuity — amongst other things, convincing Iranians that the Shah's security was more brutal than it was;^[45]
• The Ayatollah Khomeini's self-confidence, charisma, and most importantly his ability to cast himself as following in the footsteps of the beloved Shi'a Imam Husayn ibn Ali, while portraying the Shah as a modern day version of Hussein's foe, the hated tyrant Yazid I;^[50] and so to be seen by millions as a savior figure,^[51] and inspiring hundreds to feats of martyrdom fighting the regime. Ḥusayn ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar حسين بن علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب)‎ (third of Shaban 4 AH / 8th January 626 AD at Medina Yazid ibn Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan (يزيد بن معاوية بن أبي سفيان ( July 23[[ 45]] - 683 was the second Caliph of the Umayyad
• Policies of the American government, which helped create an image of the Shah as American "puppet" with their high profile and the 1953 subversion of the government on his behalf, but helped trigger the revolution by pressuring the Shah to liberalize, and then finally may have heightened the radicalism of the revolution by failing to read its nature accurately (particularly the goals of Khomeini), or to clearly respond to it. ^[52][53][54]

Ideology of Iranian revolution

Main article: Ideology of Iranian Revolution

The ideology of the revolution can be summarized as populist, nationalist and most of all Shi'a Islamic. See also Iranian revolution The Ideology of the Iranian Revolution can be summarized as populist Populism is a discourse which supports "the people" versus "the Elites " Populism may involve either a political philosophy urging social and political The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation

One of Tehran's major hospitals is named after renowned Iranian sociologist Ali Shariati (located in Amir abad district. Tehran (or Teheran) ( Persian: تهران Tehrān) is the capital and largest City of Iran, and the administrative center of Ali Shariati ( علی شريعتی‎) ( November 23, 1933 &ndash 1977 was an Iranian sociologist and Revolutionary, well Amir Abad ( Persian: امیرآباد) is a district in the city of Tehran, Iran. )

Contributors to the ideology included Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, who formulated Gharbzadegi -- the idea that Western culture was a plague or an intoxication that alienated Muslims from their roots and identity and must be fought and expelled. Jalal Al-e-Ahmad ( December 2, 1923 &mdash September 9, 1969) was a prominent Iranian writer thinker and social and political critic Gharbzadegi () is a pejorative Persian term often translated as "West-struck-ness" or Occidentosis ^[55] Ali Shariati influenced many young Iranians with his interpretation of Islam as the one true way of awakening the oppressed and liberating the Third World from colonialism and neo-colonialism. Ali Shariati ( علی شريعتی‎) ( November 23, 1933 &ndash 1977 was an Iranian sociologist and Revolutionary, well Third World is a name given to nations that are generally considered to be underdeveloped economically See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism Neocolonialism is a term used by post-colonial critics of Developed countries ' involvement in the developing world ^[56]

And most of all Ayatollah Khomeini, the man who dominated the revolution itself. He preached that revolt, and especially martyrdom, against injustice and tyranny was part of Shia Islam,^[57] that Muslims should reject the influence of both Soviet and American superpowers in Iran with the slogan "not Eastern, nor Western - Islamic Republican" (Persian: نه شرقی نه غربی جمهوری اسلامی)

Even more importantly he developed the ideology of velayat-e faqih, that Muslims, in fact everyone, required "guardianship," in the form of rule or supervision by the leading Islamic jurist or jurists -- such as Khomeini himself. ^[58] Rule by Islamic jurists would protect Islam from innovation and deviation by following traditional sharia law exclusively, and in so doing would prevent poverty, injustice, and the "plundering" of Muslim land by foreign unbelievers. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. ^[59]

Main article: Hokumat-e Islami : Velayat-e faqih (book by Khomeini)

Establishing and obeying this Islamic government was so important it was "actually an expression of obedience to God," ultimately "more necessary even than prayer and fasting" for Islam because without it true Islam will not survive. Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih ( ولاية الفقيه) (also known as Hokumat-e Islami or Islamic Government ^[60] It was a universal principle, not one confined to Iran. All the world needed and deserved just government, i. e. true Islamic government. ^[61]

This revolutionary vision of theocratic government was in stark contrast to that of other revolutionaries - traditionalist Shia clerics, Iran's democratic secularists and Islamic leftists. Consequently, prior to the overthrow of the Shah, the revolution's ideology was known for its "imprecision"^[62] or "vague character,"^[63] with the specific character of velayat-e faqih/theocratic waiting to be made public when the time was right. ^[64] Khomeini believed the opposition to velayat-e faqih/theocratic government by the other revolutionaries was the result of propaganda campaign by foreign imperialists eager to prevent Islam from putting a stop to their plundering. This propaganda was so insidious it had penetrated even Islamic seminaries and made it necessary to "observe the principles of taqiyya" (i. Persecution of Shia MuslimsWithin Shi'ite Islamic tradition the concept of Taqiyya (تقية - 'fear guard against' refers to a dispensation allowing believers to conceal e. dissimulation of the truth in defense of Islam), when talking about (or not talking about) Islamic government. ^[65][66]

In the end, the revolutionary ideology prevailed. Khoemini and his core supporters worked determinedly to establish a government led by Islamic clerics, and opposition from the different factions was defeated, sometimes violently. (see below: Khomeini takes power, Consolidation of power by Khomeini and Opposition to the revolution)

Background of the revolution

Anti-clericalism of the Pahlavi dynasty

Following the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, Iran's first constitution came into effect, approved by the Majlis. The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed The Iranian Constitutional Revolution (also known as the Persian Constitutional Revolution or Constitutional Revolution of Iran) took place between 1905 and 1911 The Iran Constitution of 1906 was Iran's first constitution that resulted from the Iranian Constitutional Revolution. The Majlis of Iran ( Persian: مجلس شورای اسلامی lit The constitution established a special place for Twelver Shi'a Islam. See also Shi'a Islam Twelver Shi'ism ( ar اثنا عشرية Ithnāˤashariyyah) is the largest branch of Shi'a branch of Islam For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. It declared Islam the official religion of Iran, specified that the Shi'a clergy were to determine whether laws passed in the majlis were "comfortable to the principles of Islam", and that of committee of the clergy were to approve all laws, and required the Shah to promote the Twelver Shi'a Islam, and adhere to its principles. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially See also Shi'a Islam Twelver Shi'ism ( ar اثنا عشرية Ithnāˤashariyyah) is the largest branch of Shi'a branch of Islam For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. ^[67] (See: Supplementary Fundamental Laws)

However, after the rise of the Pahlavi dynasty, Reza Pahlavi, like his contemporary Atatürk, tried to secularize and westernize Iran. The Iran Constitution of 1906 was Iran's first constitution that resulted from the Iranian Constitutional Revolution. For the Afghan serial killer see Reza Khan (Taliban. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (19 May 1881 &ndash 10 November 1938 was an army officer revolutionary Statesman He marginalized the Shi'a clergy, and put an end to Islamic laws and tried unveiling women. Reza Pahlavi tried to secularize Iran by ignoring the religious constitution. By the mid-1930s, Reza Shah's style of rule had caused intense dissatisfaction to the Shi'a clergy throughout Iran, thus creating a gap between religious institutions and the government. Twelver Usooli and Akhbari Shia Twelver Muslims believe that the study of Islamic Literature is a continual ^[68] He banned traditional Iranian dress for both men and women, in favour of western dress. ^[69] Women who resisted this compulsory unveiling had their chadors forcibly removed and torn. A chador or chadar ( Persian چادر‎) from Sanskrit chattram) is an outer Garment or open Cloak worn by He dealt harshly with opposition: troops were sent to massacre protesters at mosques and nomads who refused to settle. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that Both liberal and religious newspapers were closed and many imprisoned. ^[69]

1940s: The Shah comes to power

Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi came to power in 1941 after the deposing of his father, Reza Shah, by an invasion of allied British and Soviet troops in 1941. Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages For the Afghan serial killer see Reza Khan (Taliban. Reza Shah, a military man, had been known for his determination to modernize Iran and his hostility to the clerical class (ulema). For the Afghan serial killer see Reza Khan (Taliban. Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi held power until the 1979 revolution with a brief interruption in 1953; when he had faced an attempted revolution. In that year he briefly fled the country after a power-struggle had emerged between himself and his Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh, who had nationalized the country's oil fields and sought control of the armed forces. This article is about the government position For other uses see Prime Minister (disambiguation. Mohammad Mosaddeq ( (, pronounced mosæddeq}} also Mosaddegh or Mossadegh) ( May 19 1882 – 5 March 1967) was a major Nationalization, also spelled nationalisation, is the act of taking an industry or assets into the Public ownership of a national government An oil field is a region with an abundance of Oil wells extracting Petroleum (crude oil from below ground Mossadegh had been voted into power through a democratic election. Through a military coup d'etat aided by a CIA and MI6 covert operation, codenamed Operation Ajax, Mossadegh was overthrown and arrested and the Shah returned to the throne. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all The Secret Intelligence Service ( SIS) colloquially known as MI6 is the United Kingdom 's external Intelligence agency. A covert operation is a Military or political activity carried out in such a way that the parties responsible for the action can be an Open secret, but A code name or cryptonym is a word or name used clandestinely to refer to another name or word The 1953 Iranian Coup d'état deposed the government of Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq and his cabinet, it was effected by Gen Iranian sentiment has remembered this undermining of Iranian democratic process as a chief complaint against the United States and Britain.

Like his father, Shah Pahlavi vainly sought to modernize and "westernize" a country severely underdeveloped by his own politics. As R. Kapuchinsky has authoritatively stated, these attempts were daunted by the lack of education of Iran's labor force and big gaps in technical and industrial facilities. He retained close relationships with the United States and several other western countries, and was frequently recognized by the American presidential administrations for his policies and steadfast opposition to Communism. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Opposition to his government came from leftist, nationalist and religious groups who criticized it for violating the Iranian constitution, political corruption, and the savage political oppression of the SAVAK (secret police). Political corruption is the use of governmental powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain SAVAK ( Persian: ساواک short for سازمان اطلاعات و امنیت کشور Sazeman-e Ettela'at va Amniyat-e Keshvar, National Intelligence and Security Of ultimate importance to the opposition were the religious figures of the Ulema, or clergy, who had shown themselves to be a vocal political voice in Iran with the 19th century Tobacco Protests against a concession to a foreign interest. Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given Religion. The Tobacco Protest, a Shi'a clerical-led revolt against tobacco concessions granted to the Western imperial power of Great Britain, occurred in Persia The clergy had a significant influence on the majority of Iranians who tended to be the religious, traditional and alienated from any process of Westernization.

1960s: Rise of Ayatollah Khomeini

Ayatollah Khomeini

See also: Movement of 15 Khordad

Khomeini, the future leader of the Iranian revolution was declared as a marja, by the Society of Seminary Teachers of Qom in 1963, following the death of Grand Ayatollah Seyyed Husayn Borujerdi. Movement of 15 Khordad ( نهضت پانزده خرداد) which took place on June 5 in protest against the arrest of Ayatollah Khomeini Marja ( Arabic / Persian: مرجع also appearing as Marja Taqlid or Marja Dini ( Arabic / Persian: مرجع تقليد Society of Seminary Teachers of Qom (جامعهٔ مدرسین حوزهٔ علمیهٔ قم was founded 1961 by the leading Shia clerics of Qom to organize TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Grand Ayatollah Seyyed Hossein Borujerdi (1875-1961 ( Persian He also came to political prominence that year leading opposition to the Shah and his program of reforms known as the White Revolution. The White Revolution (انقلاب سفید Enghelāb-e Sefid) was a far-reaching series of reforms launched in 1963 by the last Shah of Iran Khomeini attacked the Shah's program — breaking up property owned by some Shi’a clergy, universal suffrage (voting rights for women), changes in the election laws that allowed election of religious minorities to office, and changes in the civil code which granted women legal equality in marital issues — declaring that the Shah had "embarked on the destruction of Islam in Iran. Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to An election is a Decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office A minority religion is a Religion held by a minority of the population of a country state or region A civil code is a systematic compilation of laws designed to comprehensively deal with the core areas of Private law. "^[70]

Following Khomeini's public denunciation of the Shah as a "wretched miserable man" and arrest on June 5, 1963, three days of major riots erupted throughout Iran with police using deadly force to quell it. Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem Year 1963 ( MCMLXIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Pahlavi government said 86 killed in the rioting; Khomeini supporters stated at least 15,000 killed;^[71] while some say that post-revolutionary reports from police files indicate more than 380 were killed. ^[72] Khomeini was kept under house arrest for 8 months and released. He continued to agitate against the Shah on issues including the Shah's close cooperation with Israel and especially the Shah's "capitulations" of extending diplomatic immunity to American military personnel. Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. In November 1964 Khomeini was re-arrested and sent into exile where he remained for 14 years until the revolution.

A period of "disaffected calm" followed. ^[73] Dissent was suppressed by SAVAK security service but the budding Islamic revival began to undermine the idea of Westernization as progress that was the basis of the Shah's secular regime. SAVAK ( Persian: ساواک short for سازمان اطلاعات و امنیت کشور Sazeman-e Ettela'at va Amniyat-e Keshvar, National Intelligence and Security Jalal Al-e-Ahmad's idea of Gharbzadegi (the plague of Western culture), Ali Shariati's leftist interpretation of Islam, and Morteza Morahhari's popularized retellings of the Shia faith, all spread and gained listeners, readers and supporters. Jalal Al-e-Ahmad ( December 2, 1923 &mdash September 9, 1969) was a prominent Iranian writer thinker and social and political critic Gharbzadegi () is a pejorative Persian term often translated as "West-struck-ness" or Occidentosis Ali Shariati ( علی شريعتی‎) ( November 23, 1933 &ndash 1977 was an Iranian sociologist and Revolutionary, well ^[55] Most importantly, Khomeini developed and propagated his theory that Islam requires an Islamic government by wilayat al-faqih, i. e. rule by the leading Islamic jurist. In a series of lectures in early 1970, later published as a book (Hokumat-e Islami, Velayat-e faqih, or Islamic government, Guardianship of the jurist in English), Khomeini argued that Islam requires obedience to sharia law alone, and this in turn requires that the leading Islamic jurist or jurists must not only guide Muslims but run the government. Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih ( ولاية الفقيه) (also known as Hokumat-e Islami or Islamic Government Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law.

Main article: Hokumat-e Islami : Velayat-e faqih (book by Khomeini)

While Khomeini did not talk about this concept in interviews and talks with outsiders, the book was widely distributed in religious circles, especially among Khomeini's students (talabeh), ex-students (clerics), and small business leaders. Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih ( ولاية الفقيه) (also known as Hokumat-e Islami or Islamic Government This group also began to develop what would become a powerful and efficient network of opposition^[74] inside Iran, employing mosque sermons, smuggled cassette speeches by Khomeini, and other means. Added to this religious opposition were more modernist students and guerrilla groups^[75] who admired Khomeini's leadership though they were to clash with and be suppressed by his movement after the revolution.

1970s: Pre-revolutionary conditions and events inside Iran

Several events in the 1970s set the stage for the 1979 revolution:

In October 1971, the 2,500th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire was held at the site of Persepolis. The 2500 year celebration of Iran’s monarchy ( Persian جشن‌های ۲۵۰۰ سالۀ شاهنشاهی ایران consisted Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial Only foreign dignitaries were invited to the three-day party whose extravagances included over one ton of caviar, and preparation by some two hundred chefs flown in from Paris. Caviar is the processed, Salted Roe of certain species of Fish, most notably the Sturgeon ( black caviar) and the Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Cost was officially $40 million but estimated to be more in the range of $100–120 million. ^[76] Meanwhile, the provinces of Baluchistan and Sistan, and even Fars where the celebrations were held, were suffering from drought. "As the foreigners reveled on drink forbidden by Islam, Iranians were not only excluded from the festivities, some were starving. "^[77]

By late 1974 the oil boom had begun to produce not "the Great Civilization" promised by the Shah, but an "alarming" increase in inflation and waste and an "accelerating gap" between the rich and poor, the city and the country. ^[78] Nationalistic Iranians were angered by the tens of thousand of skilled foreign workers who came to Iran, many of them to help operate the already unpopular and expensive American high-tech military equipment that the Shah had spent hundreds of millions of dollars on.

The next year the Rastakhiz party was created. Rastakhiz ( Resurrection) party (also Hizb-i Rastakhiz) was founded on March 2, 1975 by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran It became not only the only party Iranians could belong to, but one the "whole adult population" was required to belong and pay dues to. ^[79] Attempts by this party to take a populist stand with "anti-profiteering" campaigns fining and jailing merchants, proved not only economically harmful but also politically counterproductive. Inflation was replaced by a black market and declining business activity. Merchants were angered and alienated. ^[80]

In 1976, the Shah's government angered pious Iranian Muslims by changing the first year of the Iranian solar calendar from the Islamic hijri to the ascension to the throne by Cyrus the Great. "Iran jumped overnight from the Muslim year 1355 to the royalist year 2535. "^[81] The same year the Shah declared economic austerity measures to dampen inflation and waste. The resulting unemployment disproportionately affected the thousands of recent poor and unskilled migrants to the cities. Culturally and religiously conservative and already disposed to view the Shah's secularism and Westernization as "alien and wicked",^[82] many of these same people went on to form the core of revolution's demonstrators and "martyrs". ^[83]

In 1977 a new American President, Jimmy Carter, was inaugurated. James Earl "Jimmy" Carter Jr (born October 1 1924 was the thirty-ninth President of the United States, serving from 1977 to 1981 and the recipient of the 2002 In hopes of making post-Vietnam American power and foreign policy more benevolent, he created a special Office of Human Rights which sent the Shah a "polite reminder" of the importance of political rights and freedom. The Shah responded by granting amnesty to 357 political prisoners in February, and allowing Red Cross to visit prisons, beginning what is said to be 'a trend of liberalization by the Shah'. Through the late spring, summer and autumn liberal opposition formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the regime. ^[84] Later that year a dissent group (the Writers' Association) gathered without the customary police break-up and arrests, starting a new era of political action by the Shah's opponents. ^[85]

That year also saw the death of the very popular and influential modernist Islamist leader Ali Shariati, allegedly at the hands of SAVAK, removing a potential revolutionary rival to Khomeini. Ali Shariati ( علی شريعتی‎) ( November 23, 1933 &ndash 1977 was an Iranian sociologist and Revolutionary, well Finally, in October Khomeini's son Mostafa died. Though the cause appeared to be a heart attack, anti-Shah groups blamed SAVAK poisoning and proclaimed him a 'martyr. ' A subsequent memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back in the spotlight and began the process of building Khomeini into the leading opponent of the Shah. ^[86][87]

Opposition groups and organizations

Opposition groups under the Shah tended to fall into three major categories: constitutionalist, Marxist, and Islamist. For the revolt in Brazil, see Constitutionalist Revolution. The term Constitutionalism is a word with a variety of meanings Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Islamism ( Islam + ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only

Constitutionalists, including National Front of Iran, wanted to revive constitutional monarchy including free elections. The National Front of Iran or Jebhe Melli is a Democratic political opposition group founded by Muhammad Mossadegh and other secular Iranian leaders of Nationalist A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is Without elections or outlets for peaceful political activity though, they had lost their relevance and had little following.

Marxists groups were illegal and heavily suppressed by SAVAK internal security apparatus. SAVAK ( Persian: ساواک short for سازمان اطلاعات و امنیت کشور Sazeman-e Ettela'at va Amniyat-e Keshvar, National Intelligence and Security They included the Tudeh Party of Iran; the Organization of Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas (OIPFG) and the breakaway Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas (IPFG), two armed organizations; and some minor groups. Formed in 1941 the Tudeh Party of Iran ("Party of the Masses of Iran" حزب توده ایران Hezb-e Tudeh Iran) is an Iranian Communist party The Organization of Iranian People's Fadaian (Majority (سازمان فدائیان خلق ایران اکثریت is the largest socialist party The Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas (in Persian: چريکهای فدايي خلق ايران translit ^[88] Their aim was to defeat the Pahlavi regime by assassination and guerilla war. Although they played an important part in the revolution, they never developed a large base of support.

Islamists were divided into several groups. The Freedom Movement of Iran was formed by religious members of the National Front of Iran. The Freedom Movement of Iran ( FMI, also Liberation Movement of Iran (LMI,, Nehzat-e Azadi-e Iran) is an Iranian political organization which The National Front of Iran or Jebhe Melli is a Democratic political opposition group founded by Muhammad Mossadegh and other secular Iranian leaders of Nationalist It also was a constitutional group and wanted to use lawful political methods against the Shah. This movement comprised Bazargan and Taleqani. Mehdi Bazargan (مهدی بازرگان In Persian) (September 1907 - January 20, 1995) (also spelled Mahdi Bazargan) was a prominent Ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani ( 1911 - September 9, 1979 was an Iranian theologian Muslim reformer and a senior Twelver Shi'a cleric The People's Mujahedin of Iran was a quasi-Marxist armed organization that opposed the influence of the clergy and later fought the Islamic government. The People's Mujahedin of Iran ( PMOI, also MEK, MKO) ( Persian: سازمان مجاهدين خلق ايران sāzmān-e mojāhedin-e khalq-e Individual writers and speakers like Ali Shariati and Morteza Morahhari did important work outside of these parties and groups.

Amongst the close followers of Ayatollah Khomeini, there were some minor armed Islamist groups which joined together after the revolution in the Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization. Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization (سازمان مجاهدین انقلاب اسلامی sāzmān-e mojāhedin-e enghelāb-e eslāmi) sometimes abbreviated to The Coalition of Islamic Societies was founded by religious bazaaris^[89] (traditional merchants). The Combatant Clergy Association comprised Motahhari, Beheshti, Bahonar, Rafsanjani and Mofatteh who later became the major governors of Islamic Republic. The Combatant Clergy Association ( Jame'e-ye Rowhaniyat-e Mobarez) or (جامعه روحانیت مبارز in Persian) is a political party in Iran. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ayatollah Morteza Motahhari (مرتضی مطهری February 3, 1920 Ayatollah Dr Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini Beheshti (محمد حسینی بهشتی ( October 24, 1928 - June 28 Ayatollah Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani ( Persian:اکبر هاشمی رفسنجانی Akbar Hāshemī Rafsanjānī) Hashemi Bahramani They used a cultural approach to fight the Shah.

Because of internal repression, opposition groups abroad, like the Confederation of Iranian students, the foreign branch of Freedom Movement of Iran and the Islamic association of students, were important to the revolution. The Freedom Movement of Iran ( FMI, also Liberation Movement of Iran (LMI,, Nehzat-e Azadi-e Iran) is an Iranian political organization which

1978: Outbreak of the Revolution

The early visible opposition by liberals was based in the urban middle class, a section of the population that was fairly secular and wanted the Shah to adhere to the Iranian Constitution of 1906, not a republic ruled by Islamic clerics. The middle class, in colloquial usage consists of those who have some economic independence but not a great deal of social Influence or power. The Iran Constitution of 1906 was Iran's first constitution that resulted from the Iranian Constitutional Revolution. ^[90] Prominent in it was Mehdi Bazargan and his liberal, moderate Islamic group Freedom Movement of Iran, and the more secular National Front. Mehdi Bazargan (مهدی بازرگان In Persian) (September 1907 - January 20, 1995) (also spelled Mahdi Bazargan) was a prominent The Freedom Movement of Iran ( FMI, also Liberation Movement of Iran (LMI,, Nehzat-e Azadi-e Iran) is an Iranian political organization which The National Front of Iran or Jebhe Melli is a Democratic political opposition group founded by Muhammad Mossadegh and other secular Iranian leaders of Nationalist

The clergy were divided, some allying with the liberal secularists, and others with the Marxists and Communists. Khomeini, who was in exile in Iraq, worked to unite clerical and secular, liberal and radical opposition under his leadership^[91] by avoiding specifics — at least in public — that might divide the factions. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. ^[92]

The various anti-Shah groups operated from outside Iran, mostly in London, Paris, Iraq, and Turkey. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Speeches by the leaders of these groups were placed on audio cassettes to be smuggled into Iran. The Compact Cassette, often referred to as audio cassette, cassette tape, cassette, or simply tape, is a Magnetic tape sound

The first major demonstration

The first of the major demonstrations against the Shah led by Islamic groups came in January 1978. Angry students and religious leaders in the city of Qom demonstrated against a libelous story attacking Khomeini run in the official press. The army was sent in, dispersing the demonstrations and killing several students (two according to the government, 70 according to the opposition). ^[93]

According to the Shi'ite customs, memorial services are held forty days after a person's death. A memorial is an object which serves as a memory of something usually a person (who has died or an event In mosques across the nation, calls were made to honour the dead students. Thus on February 18 groups in a number of cities marched to honour the fallen and protest against the rule of the Shah. Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy This time, violence erupted in Tabriz, and over a hundred demonstrators were killed. Tabriz ( تبریز, تبریز) is the largest city in northwestern Iran. The cycle repeated itself, and on March 29, a new round of protests began across the nation. Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Luxury hotels, cinemas, banks, government offices, and other symbols of the Shah regime were destroyed; again security forces intervened, killing many. On May 10 the same occurred. Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England.

Ayatollah Shariatmadari joins the opposition

In May, government commandos burst into the home of Ayatollah Kazem Shariatmadari, a leading cleric and political moderate, and shot dead one of his followers right in front of him. Shariatmadari abandoned his quietist stance and joined the opposition to the Shah. ^[94]

The Shah attempted to appease protestors by dampening inflation, making appeals to the moderate clergy, and by firing his head of SAVAK and promising free elections the next June. ^[95] But the anti-inflationary cutbacks in spending led to layoffs — particularly among young, unskilled workers living in city slums. By summer 1978, these workers, often from traditional rural backgrounds, joined the street protests in massive numbers. Other workers went on strike and by November the economy was crippled by shutdowns. ^[96]

The Shah approaches the United States

The Iranian Shah meeting with Alfred Atherton, William Sullivan, Cyrus Vance, President Carter, and Zbigniew Brzezinski, 1977. Alfred Leroy Atherton Jr (born in Allegheny County Pennsylvania on November 22 1921 – 30 October 2002 was a career United States Foreign Service officer William Healy Sullivan (born October 12, 1922) is a career United States Foreign Service officer and served as United States Ambassador to Cyrus Roberts Vance ( Clarksburg West Virginia, March 27, 1917 &ndash January 12, 2002) was the United States Secretary of State James Earl "Jimmy" Carter Jr (born October 1 1924 was the thirty-ninth President of the United States, serving from 1977 to 1981 and the recipient of the 2002 Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzezinski (Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzeziński ˈzbigɲev bʐɛˈʑiɲski: (born March 28 1928 Warsaw, Poland) is a Polish-American

Facing a revolution, the Shah appealed to the United States for support. A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround" is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively Because of its history and strategic location, Iran was important to the United States. The foreign policy of the United States is highly influential on the world stage as it is a Superpower. It was a pro-American country sharing a long border with America's cold war rival, the Soviet Union, and the largest, most powerful country in the oil-rich Persian Gulf. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 But the Pahlavi regime had also recently garnered unfavorable publicity in the West for its human rights record. ^[97]

The Carter administration followed "no clear policy" on Iran. ^[98] The U. S. ambassador to Iran, William H. Sullivan, recalls that the U.S. National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski “repeatedly assured Pahlavi that the U. William Healy Sullivan (born October 12, 1922) is a career United States Foreign Service officer and served as United States Ambassador to The Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, commonly referred to as the National Security Adviser (abbreviated NSA, or sometimes ANSA Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzezinski (Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzeziński ˈzbigɲev bʐɛˈʑiɲski: (born March 28 1928 Warsaw, Poland) is a Polish-American S. backed him fully. " President Carter arguably failed at following up on those assurances. On November 4, 1978, Brzezinski called the Shah to tell him that the United States would "back him to the hilt. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani Year 1978 ( MCMLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1978 Gregorian calendar) " At the same time, certain high-level officials in the State Department believed the revolution was unstoppable. ^[99] After visiting the Shah in summer of 1978, Secretary of the Treasury Blumenthal complained of the Shah's emotional collapse, reporting, "You've got a zombie out there. "^[100] Brzezinski and Energy Secretary James Schlesinger (Secretary of Defense under Ford) were adamant in their assurances that the Shah would receive military support. The United States Secretary of Energy is the head of the United States Department of Energy, a member of the President's Cabinet, and fifteenth in the James Rodney Schlesinger (born February 15, 1929) was United States Secretary of Defense from 1973 to 1975 under presidents Richard Nixon and The United States Secretary of Defense ( SECDEF) is the head of the U Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr (July 14 1913 December 26 2006 was the thirty-eighth President of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977 and the fortieth Vice President Brzezinski still advocated a U. S. military intervention to stabilize Iran even when the Shah's position was believed to be untenable. President Carter could not decide how to stabilize the situation; he was certainly against another coup. Initially, there appeared to be support for a peaceful transfer of power, however this option evaporated when Khomeini and his followers swept through the country, taking power on February 12, 1979. Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 Events 1429 - English Forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orleans from attack by the Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar)

Conspiracy theories

Many Iranians believe the lack of intervention and sometime sympathy for the revolution by high-level American officials indicate the U. S. "was responsible for Khomeini's victory. "^[101] A more extreme position asserts that the Shah's overthrow was the result of a "sinister plot to topple a nationalist, progressive, and independent-minded monarch. "^[102]

Abadan arson attack

As violence continued, over 400 people died in the Cinema Rex Fire arson attack in August in Abadan. On August 20, 1978, Cinema Rex in Abadan, Iran, was set ablaze by Islamist militants (see Byman killing approximately 500 individuals Although movie theaters had been a common target of Islamist demonstrators^[103][104] such was the distrust of the regime and effectiveness of its enemies' communication skills that the public believed SAVAK had set the fire in an attempt to frame the opposition. ^[105] The next day 10,000 relatives and sympathizers gathered for a mass funeral and march shouting, ‘burn the Shah’, and ‘the Shah is the guilty one. ’^[106]

Black Friday

By September, the nation was rapidly destabilizing, with major protests becoming a regular occurrence. The Shah introduced martial law, and banned all demonstrations. Martial law is the system of rules that takes effect when the military takes control of the normal administration of justice A massive protest broke out in Tehran, in what became known as Black Friday. Black Friday was named after the protests that occurred on September 8, 1978 (17 Shahrivar 1357 AP) in Zhaleh Square Tehran, Iran.

The clerical leadership spread rumours that "thousands have been massacred by Zionist troops. "^[107] The troops were actually ethnic Kurds who had been fired on, and the number killed not 15,000 but closer to 700,^[108] but in the mean time the appearance of government brutality alienated much of the rest of the Iranian people and the Shah's allies abroad. A general strike in October resulted in the paralysis of the economy, with vital industries being shut down, "sealing the Shah's fate". A general strike is a Strike action by a critical mass of the labour force in a city region or country ^[109]

Ayatollah Khomeini in Paris

Ayatollah Khomeini at Neauphle-leChateau surrounded by journalists.

Shah decided to seek the deportation of Ayatollah Khomeini from Iraq and on September 24, 1978, Iraqi regime sieged the house of Khomeini in Najaf. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Events 622 - Prophet Muhammad completes his hegira from Mecca to Medina. Year 1978 ( MCMLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1978 Gregorian calendar) Najaf ( BGN: An Najaf) is a city in Iraq about 160 km south of Baghdad. He was informed that his continued residence in Iraq was contingent on his abandoning political activity, a condition he rejected. On October 3, he left Iraq for Kuwait, but was refused entry at the border. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's The State of Kuwait ( دولة الكويت IPA [dawlatt̪ alkuwajt̪]) is a sovereign Arab Emirate on the coast of the Persian Gulf, enclosed Finally October 6 Ayatollah Khomeini embarked for Paris. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city On October 10 he took up residence in the suburb of Neauphle-le-Château in a house that had been rented for him by Iranian exiles in France. Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated Neauphle-le-Château is a commune of the Yvelines département, in France. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. From now on the journalists from across the world made their way to France, and the image and the words of the Ayatollah Khomeini soon became a daily feature in the world's media. ^[110]

Muharram protests

On December 2, during the Islamic month of Muharram, over two million people filled the streets of Tehran's Azadi Square (then Shahyad Square), to demand the removal of the Shah and return of Khomeini. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Muharram ( Arabic: ar محرم is the first month of the Islamic calendar. The Azadi Tower ( Borj-e Azadi meaning in Freedom Tower (previously known as the Shahyād Āryāmehr, King Memorial Tower is the symbol of Tehran ^[111]

Casualties

"60,000 men, women and children were martyred by the Shah's regime," according to the Islamic Republic of Iran. However, a former researcher at the Martyrs Foundation (Bonyad Shahid), Emad al-Din Baghi, believes the number of casualties suffered by the anti-Shah movement between 1963 and 1979 is 3,164, with 2,781 killed in the 1978 and 1979 clashes between demonstrators and the Shah's army and security forces. ^[112]

Victory of revolution and fall of monarchy

The Shah leaves

Mass demonstration in Tehran.

On January 16, 1979 the Shah and the empress left Iran at the demand of prime minister Dr. Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate. Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) Shapour Bakhtiar (a long time opposition leader himself) and to scenes of spontaneous joy and the destruction "within hours of almost every sign of the Pahlavi dynasty. Shapour Bakhtiar ( (also Shapur Bakhtiar) ( Persian: شاپور بختیار Shāpūr Bakhtīār) (born 1914 or 1915 - August "^[113] Bakhtiar dissolved SAVAK, freed political prisoners, ordered the army to allow mass demonstrations, promised free elections and invited Khomeinists and other revolutionaries into a government of "national unity". ^[114] After stalling for a few days he allowed Ayatollah Khomeini to return to Iran, asking him to create a Vatican-like state in Qom and called upon the opposition to help preserve the constitution. Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989

Khomeini's return and fall of the monarchy

Arrival of Ayatollah Khomeini on Feb 1st. Ayatollah ( Persian: آيت‌الله, âyato-llâh, from Arabic: آية الله, āyatu 'llāh, meaning 'the sign of Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989

On February 1, 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran to rapturous greeting by several million Iranians. Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 Khomeini had flown back to Iran in a chartered Air France Jumbo Jet. ^[115] Not only the undisputed leader of the revolution,^[116] he had now become what some called a "semi-divine" figure, greeted as he descended from his airplane with cries of ‘Khomeini, O Imam, we salute you, peace be upon you. ’^[117] Crowds were now known to chant "Islam, Islam, Khomeini, We Will Follow You," and even "Khomeini for King. "^[118]

On the day of his arrival Khomeini made clear his fierce rejection of Bakhtiar's regime in a speech promising ‘I shall kick their teeth in. ’ He appointed his own competing interim prime minister Mehdi Bazargan on February 4, `with the support of the nation’ and demanding ‘since I have appointed him, he must be obeyed. Mehdi Bazargan (مهدی بازرگان In Persian) (September 1907 - January 20, 1995) (also spelled Mahdi Bazargan) was a prominent ’ It was ‘God's government,’ he warned, disobedience against which was a ‘revolt against God. ’^[119] As Khomeini's movement gained momentum, soldiers began to defect to his side. On February 9 about 10 P. M. a fight broke out between loyal Immortal Guards and pro-Khomeini rebel Homafaran of Iran Air Force. Origins In 1921 a Persian Royal Guard was in existence comprising 20000 men The Homafaran was a large group of lower-ranking Iranian Air Force and Army officers and Soldiers in the Imperial Army of the Shah of Iran, who secretly Khomeini declaring jihad on loyal soldiers who did not surrender. ^[120] Revolutionaries and rebel soldiers gained the upper hand and began to take over police stations and military installations, distributing arms to the public. The final collapse of the provisional non-Islamist government came at 2 p. m. February 11 when the Supreme Military Council declared itself "neutral in the current political disputes… in order to prevent further disorder and bloodshed. "^[121][122] TV and Radio stations, palaces of Pahlavi dynasty and government buildings were then occupied by revolutionaries.

This period, from February 1 to 11, known as the "Decade of Fajr," is celebrated every year in Iran. ^[123][124] February 11 is "Islamic Revolution's Victory Day", a national holiday with state sponsored demonstrations in every city. ^[125][126]

Revolutionary organizations

Further information: Organizations of the Iranian Revolution

Revolutionary Council

The "Revolutionary Council" was formed by Khomeini to manage the revolution on 12 January of 1979, shortly before he returned to Iran. Many organizations parties and guerilla movements were involved in the 1978-9 revolution in Iran. Events 475 - Basiliscus becomes Byzantine Emperor, with a coronation ceremony in the Hebdomon palace in Constantinople Its existence was kept a secret during the early, less secure time of the revolution. Rafsanjani says Ayatollah Khomeini chose Beheshti, Motahhari, Rafsanjani, Bahonar and Musavi Ardabili as members. Ayatollah Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani ( Persian:اکبر هاشمی رفسنجانی Akbar Hāshemī Rafsanjānī) Hashemi Bahramani Ayatollah Dr Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini Beheshti (محمد حسینی بهشتی ( October 24, 1928 - June 28 TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ayatollah Morteza Motahhari (مرتضی مطهری February 3, 1920 Ayatollah Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani ( Persian:اکبر هاشمی رفسنجانی Akbar Hāshemī Rafsanjānī) Hashemi Bahramani Ayatollah al-Uzma Sayyed Abdolkarim Mousavi Ardebili (also spelt Ardabili,, born January 28, 1926) is an These invited others to serve: Bazargan, Taleqani, Khamenei, Banisadr, Mahdavi Kani, Yadollah Sahabi, Katirayee, Ahmad Sadr Haj Seyed Javadi, Qarani and Ali Asqr Masoodi. Ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani ( 1911 - September 9, 1979 was an Iranian theologian Muslim reformer and a senior Twelver Shi'a cleric (fa علی حسینی خامنه‌ای born 17 July 1939 also known as Ali Khamenei, is an Iranian Azeri politician and cleric Abol-hassan Banisadr ( Persian: ابوالحسن بنی‌صدر born 22 March 1933) was the first President of Iran, following the 1979 Ayatollah Mohammad Reza Mahdavi Kani ( born 1931 in the village of Kan, Tehran Province) is an Iranian influential Cleric and conservative Yadollah Sahabi ( 1905 - April 12, 2002 was a prominent Iranian scholar writer reformist and politician ^[127] This council suggested Mahdi Bazargan as the prime minister of the temporary government of Khomeini, and he accepted it. Mehdi Bazargan (مهدی بازرگان In Persian) (September 1907 - January 20, 1995) (also spelled Mahdi Bazargan) was a prominent ^[23]

After the revolution took power, the council became a legislative body issuing decrees until the formation of first parliament on 12 August 1980. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) ^[128] The laws passed by this council were recognized as legitimate in the Islamic republic of Iran.

The Provisional Revolutionary Government

Main article: The Interim Government of Iran

Iranian prime minister Mehdi Bazargan was an advocate of democracy and civil rights. The Interim Government of Iran ( 1979 - 1980) was the first government established in Iran after the Islamic Revolution. Mehdi Bazargan (مهدی بازرگان In Persian) (September 1907 - January 20, 1995) (also spelled Mahdi Bazargan) was a prominent He also opposed the cultural revolution and US embassy takeover. The Cultural Revolution (1980-1987 (in Persian انقلاب فرهنگي was a period following the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran where the academia of Iran was

The Provisional Revolutionary Government or "Interim Government of Iran" (1979–1980) was the first government established in Iran following the overthrow of the monarchy. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. It was formed by order of Ayatollah Khomeini on February 4, 1979, while Shapour Bakhtiar (the Shah's last Prime Minister) was still claiming power. Events 211 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus dies leaving the Roman Empire in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) Shapour Bakhtiar ( (also Shapur Bakhtiar) ( Persian: شاپور بختیار Shāpūr Bakhtīār) (born 1914 or 1915 - August ^[23]

Ayatollah Khomeini appointed Bazargan as the prime minister of "The Provisional Revolutionary Government" on February 4, 1979. Events 211 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus dies leaving the Roman Empire in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar)

Khomeini made it clear Iranians were commanded to obey Bazargan as a religious duty.

As a man who, though the guardianship [Velayat] that I have from the holy lawgiver [the Prophet], I hereby pronounce Bazargan as the Ruler, and since I have appointed him, he must be obeyed. The nation must obey him. This is not an ordinary government. It is a government based on the sharia. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Opposing this government means opposing the sharia of Islam . . . Revolt against God's government is a revolt against God. Revolt against God is blasphemy. Blasphemy is the disrespectful use of the name of one or more gods. ^[129]

Mehdi Bazargan introduced his 7-member cabinet on February 14, 1979, three days after the victory of the revolution when the army announced its neutrality in conflicts between Khomeini's and Bakhtiar's supporters. Mehdi Bazargan (مهدی بازرگان In Persian) (September 1907 - January 20, 1995) (also spelled Mahdi Bazargan) was a prominent Events 842 - Charles the Bald and Louis the German swear the Oaths of Strasbourg in the French and German Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) Bakhtiar resigned on the same day, February 11. Events 660 BC - Traditional founding date of Japan by Emperor Jimmu.

The PRG is often described as "subordinate" to the Revolutionary Council, and having had difficulties reigning in the numerous komiteh which were competing with its authority. ^[130]

Prime Minister Bazargan resigned and his government fell after American Embassy officials were taken hostage on November 4, 1979. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) Power then passed into the hands of the Revolutionary Council. Bazargan had been a supporter of the original revolutionary draft constitution rather than theocracy by Islamic jurist, and his resignation was received by Khomeini without complaint, saying "Mr. Bazargan . . . was a little tired and preferred to stay on the sidelines for a while. " Khomeini later described his appointment of Bazargan as a "mistake. "^[131]

The Committees of Islamic Revolution

The first committees "sprang up everywhere" as autonomous organizations in late 1978. Organized in mosques, schools and workplaces, they mobilized people, organized strikes and demonstrations, and distributed scarce commodities. After February 12th, many of the 300,000 rifles and sub-machine guns seized from military arsenals^[132] ended up with the committees who confiscated property and arrested those they believed to be counter-revolutionaries. In Tehran alone there were 1500 committees. Inevitably there was conflict between the committees and the other sources of authority, particularly the Provisional Government. ^[133]

To deal with this, on February 12th, the committees of the Islamic revolution were charged with gathering weapons, organizing the armed revolutionaries, and generally fighting anarchy in the wake of the collapse of the police and weakness of the army. Khomeini put Ayatollah Mahdavi Kani in charge of the komiteh. Ayatollah Mohammad Reza Mahdavi Kani ( born 1931 in the village of Kan, Tehran Province) is an Iranian influential Cleric and conservative ^[134] They also served as "the eyes and ears" of the new regime, and are credited by critics with "many arbitrary arrests, executions and confiscations of property". ^[135] In the summer of 1979, the komitehs were purged to eradicate the influence of the leftist guerilla movements that had infiltrated them. ^[136] In 1991 they were merged with the conventional police in a new organisation known as the Niruha-ye Entezami (Forces of Order). ^[137]

Islamic Republic Party

Main article: Islamic Republic Party

The Islamic republic party was started by Khomeini lieutenant Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini Beheshti and the Coalition of Islamic Societies within a few days of the Khomeini's arrival in Iran. The Islamic Republican Party (حزب جمهوری اسلامی or IRP was a Political party in Iran, formed in mid- 1979 to assist the Iranian Revolution Ayatollah Dr Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini Beheshti (محمد حسینی بهشتی ( October 24, 1928 - June 28 It was made up of the Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution (OMIR), merchants of the bazaar and "a large segment of the politically active clergy. " It "operated on every level of society, from government offices to almost all city quarters. . . "^[138] and worked to establish theocratic government by velayat-e faqih in Iran outmaneuvering opponents and wielding power on the street through the Hezbollah. Islamic leadership|Ja'fari jurisprudence Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists ( Arabic: ولاية الفقيه, Persian: ولایت فقیه

The party achieved a large majority in the first parliament but clashed with first president, Banisadr, who was not a member of the party. Abol-hassan Banisadr ( Persian: ابوالحسن بنی‌صدر born 22 March 1933) was the first President of Iran, following the 1979 Banisadr supporters were suppressed and Banisadr impeached and removed from office June 21, 1981. Events 524 - Godomar, King of the Burgundians defeats the Franks at the Battle of Vézeronce. Year 1981 ( MCMLXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays the 1981 A campaign of terror against the IRP followed, mounted by the guerrilla group MEK. On the 28 of June, 1981, a bombing of the office of the Islamic Republic Party by People's Mujahedin of Iran resulted in the death of around 70 high-ranking officials, cabinet members and members of parliament, including Mohammad Beheshti, the secretary-general of the party and head of the Islamic Party's judicial system. Year 1981 ( MCMLXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays the 1981 The Islamic Republican Party (حزب جمهوری اسلامی or IRP was a Political party in Iran, formed in mid- 1979 to assist the Iranian Revolution The People's Mujahedin of Iran ( PMOI, also MEK, MKO) ( Persian: سازمان مجاهدين خلق ايران sāzmān-e mojāhedin-e khalq-e Ayatollah Dr Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini Beheshti (محمد حسینی بهشتی ( October 24, 1928 - June 28 Mohammad Javad Bahonar then became the secretary-general of the party, but was in turn assassinated on September 2. Hojatoleslam Mohammad Javad Bahonar (محمدجواد باهنر in Persian) ( 1933 - August 30, 1981) was the second prime minister Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. Because of these events and other assassinations the Islamic Party was weakened in 1981. It was dissolved in 1987. ^[139]

Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps

Main article: Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps

The Revolutionary Guard or Pasdaran-e Enqelab, was established by a decree issued by Khomeini on May 5, 1979 "to protect the revolution from destructive forces and counter-revolutionaries,`^[140] i. The Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution ( Sepáh e Pásdárán e Enqeláb e Eslámi) is an ideologically motivated branch of the Islamic Republic of Iran's Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) e. as a counterweight both to the armed groups of the left, and to the Iranian military, which had been part of the Shah's power base. 6,000 persons were initially enlisted and trained,^[141] but the guard eventually grew into "a full-scale" military force "with air force and navy branches". Its work involves both conventional military duties, helping Islamic forces abroad, such as Hezbollah in Lebanon, and internal security, such as the suppression of narcotics trafficking, riots by the discontented, and unIslamic behavior by members of the public. ^[142] It has been described as "without a doubt the strongest institution of the revolution"^[143]

Oppressed Mobilization

Main article: Basij

"Oppressed mobilization" or Baseej-e Mostaz'afin was founded at the command of Khomeini in 1980, to be organized by the Revolutionary Guard. The Basij (also Bassij or Baseej, or Baseej-e Mostaz'afin or "The Mobilized Oppressed"" or بسيج is a volunteer based Iranian ^[144] Its purpose was to mobilize volunteers of many skills -- doctors, engineers, but primarily to mobilize those too old or young^[145] to serve in other bodies. Baseej (also Basij) often provided security, and helped police and the army. Baseej were also used to attack opposition demonstrators and ransack opposition newspaper offices, who were believed to be enemies of the revolution. . ^[146]

Hezbollah

Main article: Hezbollah of Iran

The Hezbollah or Party of God, were the "strong-arm thugs" who attacked demonstrators and offices of newspapers critical of Khomeini, and later a wider variety of activities found to be undesirable for "moral" or "cultural" reasons. Ansar-e Hezbollah The Hezbollah or Party of God is an Iranian movement formed at the time of the Iranian Revolution to assist the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini ^[147] Hezbollah is/was not a tightly structured independent organisation but more a movement of loosely bound groups usually centered around a mosque. ^[148] Although in the early days of the revolution Khomeinists -- those in the Islamic Republican Party -- denied connection to Hezbollah, maintaining its attacks were the spontaneous will of the people over which the government had no control, in fact Hezbollah was supervised by "a young protegee of Khomeini," Hojjat al-Islam Hadi Ghaffari. ^[149]

Jihad of Construction

Jihad of construction, or Jahad-e Sazandegi, began as a movement of "volunteers to help with the 1979 harvest", but soon took on a "broader, more official role" in the countryside. It is involved with "road building, piped water, electrification, clinics, schools, and irrigation canals. "^[150] It also provides "extension services, seeds, loans," etc. to small farmers^[151] Finally it was merged with agriculture ministry in 2001 to form the Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture. ^[152]

The Islamic republic

Khomeini takes power

There was great jubilation in Iran at the ousting of the Shah, but the glue that stuck together the dozens of religious, liberal, secularist, Marxist, and Communist, revolutionary factions—opposition to the Shah—was now gone. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Each of the many groups vying for influence had different interpretations of the broad goals of the revolution: an end to tyranny, more Islamic and less American and Western influence, more social justice and less inequality.

Khomeini had "overwhelming ideological, political and organizational hegemony,"^[153] but this was in large part because his non-theocratic allies believed he had neither the interest in nor ability to rule,^[154] and intended to be more a spiritual guide than a power holder. Khomeini was in his mid-70s, had never held public office, been out of Iran for more than a decade, and had told questioners things like "the religious dignitaries do not want to rule,"^[155][156]

There is some dispute over whether "what began as an authentic and anti-dictatorial popular revolution based on a broad coalition of all anti-Shah forces was soon transformed into an Islamic fundamentalist power-grab"^[157] after the return of Khomeini, or whether the non-theocratic groups played a role in the early days of the revolution, but did not seriously challenge Khomeini's movement in popular support. ^[158] Whichever was the case, Khomeini's forces prevailed, eliminating with skillful timing both adversaries and unwanted allies from power^[159] and implemented his wilayat al-faqih design for an Islamic Republic led by himself as Supreme Leader. The post of Supreme Leader ( Persian: رهبر انقلاب Rahbare Enqelab, lit ^[160]

In the first year of revolution there were two centers of power: the Provisional Revolutionary Government, and the revolutionary organizations. Foundation of revolutionary organizations and councils was begun by leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini. These official and popular organizations managed revolutionary situation and established new Islamic state.

Establishment of Islamic republic government

Referendum of 12 Farvardin

On March 30 and 31 (Farvardin 10, 11) Iranians voted on whether Iran should become an "Islamic Republic," . On Farvardin 12 a 98. 2% vote in favor was announced, with Khomeini declaring the result a victory of "the oppressed . . . over the arrogant. "^[161] Several secularist and communist groups boycotted the vote but turnout was very high. The opposition claims Islamic Republic not being defined.

Assembly of Experts of Constitution

Main article: Assembly of Experts for Constitution

The seventy-three-member Assembly of Experts for Constitution was elected in the summer of 1979 to write a new constitution for the Islamic Republic. The First Assembly of Experts (also known as Assembly of Experts for Constitution) was elected in the summer of 1979 to write a new constitution for the Islamic Islamic Republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Mauritania The Assembly was originally conceived of as a way expediting the draft constitution which Khomeini supporters had started working when Khomeini was still in exile, but which leftists found too conservative and wanted to make major changes to. Ironically, it was the Assembly that made major changes, instituting principles of theocracy by velayat-e faqih, adding on a faqih Supreme Leader, and increasing the power and clerical character of the Council of Guardians which could veto un-Islamic legislation. The post of Supreme Leader ( Persian: رهبر انقلاب Rahbare Enqelab, lit The Guardian Council of the Constitution (شورای نگهبان قانون اساسی or Guardian Council and also Council of Guardians is an appointed and The new constitution was opposed by some clerics, including Ayatollah Shariatmadari, and secularists who urged a boycott. It was approved by referendum on December 2 and 3, 1979, by over 98 percent of the vote. ^[162]

Consolidation of power by Khomeini

The Khomeini-appointed Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan supported the establishment of a reformist, democratic parliamentary government. Mehdi Bazargan (مهدی بازرگان In Persian) (September 1907 - January 20, 1995) (also spelled Mahdi Bazargan) was a prominent ^[163] Operating separately were the Revolutionary Council made up of Khomeini and his clerical supporters, the Revolutionary Guards, revolutionary tribunals, and at the local level revolutionary cells turned local committees (komitehs). The Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution ( Sepáh e Pásdárán e Enqeláb e Eslámi) is an ideologically motivated branch of the Islamic Republic of Iran's ^[164] While the moderate Bazargan and his Provisional Revolutionary Government (temporarily) reassured the Westernized middle class, it became apparent they did not have power over the "Khomeinist" revolutionary bodies, particularly the Revolutionary Council and later the Islamic Revolutionary Party. Inevitably the overlapping authority of the Revolutionary Council (which had the power to pass laws) and Revolutionary government was a source of conflict,^[165] despite the fact that both had been approved by and/or put in place by Khomeini.

In June, the Freedom Movement released its draft constitution; it referred to Iran as an Islamic Republic and included a Guardian Council to veto unIslamic legislation, but had no guardian jurist ruler. ^[166] The constitution was sent for review to the newly-elected Assembly of Experts for the Constitution which was dominated by allies of Khomeini. The First Assembly of Experts (also known as Assembly of Experts for Constitution) was elected in the summer of 1979 to write a new constitution for the Islamic Despite the fact that Khomeini had originally declared it ‘correct’,^[167][156] Khomeini (and the assembly) rejected the constitution, Khomeini declaring that the new government should be based "100% on Islam. "

A new constitution drawn up by the Assembly of Experts for the Constitution created a powerful post of Supreme Leader for Khomeini, [3] who was in charge of the military and security services, and appointed several top government and judicial officials. The First Assembly of Experts (also known as Assembly of Experts for Constitution) was elected in the summer of 1979 to write a new constitution for the Islamic The post of Supreme Leader ( Persian: رهبر انقلاب Rahbare Enqelab, lit A less powerful president was to be elected every four years. The President of Iran is the highest elected official in the Islamic Republic of Iran, second only to the Supreme Leader. Another theocratic body, the Council of Guardians) was given veto power over candidates for president, parliament, and the body that elected the Supreme Leader (the Assembly of Experts) as well as laws passed by the legislature. The Guardian Council of the Constitution (شورای نگهبان قانون اساسی or Guardian Council and also Council of Guardians is an appointed and The Assembly of Experts (also Assembly of Experts of the Leadership) of Iran ( Persian: مجلس خبرگان رهبری Majles-e-Khobregan or

Hostage Crisis

Main article: Iran hostage crisis

In October 1979 the United States admitted the exiled and ailing Shah into the country for cancer treatment. The Iran hostage crisis ( Persian: تصرف سفارت آمریکا was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the United States where 52 In Iran there was an immediate outcry in Iran with both Khomeini and leftist groups demanding the Shah's return to Iran for trial and execution. Revolutionaries were reminded of Operation Ajax, 26 years earlier when the Shah fled abroad while American CIA and British intelligence organized a coup d'état to overthrow his nationalist opponent. The 1953 Iranian Coup d'état deposed the government of Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq and his cabinet, it was effected by Gen

Youthful supporters of Khomeini, calling themselves Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line invaded the embassy compound. Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line (faدانشجویان مسلمان پیرو خط امام also translated as Muslim Students of the Imam Khomeini Line, was an Although the students later said they did not expect to occupy the embassy for long, their action received official support and triggered the Iran hostage crisis where 52 American diplomats were held hostage for 444 days. The Iran hostage crisis ( Persian: تصرف سفارت آمریکا was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the United States where 52 Khomeini supported the hostage-taking not only out of his enmity for the ex-Shah but to advance the cause of theocratic government and outflank his opponents, or as he told his future President, "This action has many benefits. . . . This has united our people. Our opponents do not dare act against us. We can put the constitution to the people's vote without difficulty, and carry out presidential and parliamentary elections. "^[168] The anti-theocratic liberals who opposed keeping the hostages split from anti-theocratic leftist guerilla organizations who supported it.

Attempts to extradite the Shah for execution were unsuccessful. The Shah left America for Egypt, where he had been given exile by Pres. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Anwar Sadat, and where he died less than a year after the hostage taking. This did not end the crisis, however, which switched focus to allegations that the American embassy was a "nest of spies". Embassy documents were released by Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line showing moderates had met with U. Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line (faدانشجویان مسلمان پیرو خط امام also translated as Muslim Students of the Imam Khomeini Line, was an S. officials, although similar evidence of high ranking Islamists having also done so did not see the light of day. ^[169]

After over a year of captivity (444 days) the hostages were released in a settlement that "did not meet any of Iran's original demands" and was considered "almost wholly favorable to the United States. "^[170] The crisis did succeed in radicalizing the revolution and further weakening Iranian moderates. Among the moderate causualties of the hostage crisis was Prime Minister Bazargan who resigned in November unable to enforce the government's order to release the hostages. ^[171] Another legacy was the weakening of the Iranian economy from economic sanctions placed on Iran by America which are still in place. This article outlines economic trade scientific and military sanctions against Iran, which have been imposed by the U ^[172][173]

Opposition to the revolution

Iranian dissent and its suppression

The first to be executed by revolutionary leadership were members of the old regime: senior generals, and a couple of months later over 200 of the Shah's senior civilian officials^[174] as punishment and to eliminate the danger of coup d’État. Brief trials lacking defense attorneys, juries, transparency or opportunity for the accused to defend themselves^[175] were held by revolutionary judges such as Sadegh Khalkhali, the Sharia judge. Ayatollah Sadeq Givi aka Sadegh Khalkhali ( Persian) ( July 27, 1926 – November 26, 2003) was a hardline Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Among those executed was Amir Abbas Hoveida, former Prime Minister of Iran. Amir-Abbas Hoveyda (امیرعباس هویدا Amīr `Abbās Hoveyda) February 18, 1920 &ndash April 7, 1979) was an Those who escaped Iran were not immune. A decade later, another former Prime Minister, Dr. Shapour Bakhtiar, was assassinated in Paris, one of at least 63 Iranians abroad killed or wounded since the Shah was overthrown,^[176] although these attacks are thought to have stopped after the early 1990s. Shapour Bakhtiar ( (also Shapur Bakhtiar) ( Persian: شاپور بختیار Shāpūr Bakhtīār) (born 1914 or 1915 - August ^[177]

Communist guerrillas and federalist parties revolted in some regions comprising Khuzistan, Kurdistan and Gonbad-e Qabus which resulted in fighting among them and revolutionary forces. Khūzestān (خوزستان is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. History See also History of the Kurdish people Ancient period See also Hurrians, Guti, Mannaeans, Medes Gonbad-e Qābus (گنبدقابوس or Gonbad-e Kāvus (گنبدكاووس (also transcribed Gonbad-e Ghābus or Gonbad-i Ghāboos) is a city in These revolts began in April and lasted for several months or years depending on the region.

By early March revolutionaries hoping for a government based on liberal democracy were given a taste of disappointments to come when Khomeini announced "Do not use this term, ‘democratic. The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of ’ That is the Western style. "^[178] In mid August several dozen newspapers and magazines opposing Khomeini's idea of Islamic government — theocratic rule by jurists or velayat-e faqih — were shut down. ^[179][180] Khomeini angrily denounced protests against the press closings, saying "we thought we were dealing with human beings. It is evident we are not. "^[181] Half a year later the moderate opposition Muslim People's Republican Party was suppressed with many of the aides of its elderly figurehead, the Grand Ayatollah Shari'atmadari, put under house arrest. ^[182] In March 1980 the "Cultural Revolution" began. The Cultural Revolution (1980-1987 (in Persian انقلاب فرهنگي was a period following the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran where the academia of Iran was Universities, a leftist bastion, were closed for two years to purge them of opponents to theocratic rule. In July the state bureaucracy began the dismissal of 20,000 teachers and nearly 8,000 military officers deemed too "Westernized"^[183]

Khomeini sometimes used takfir (declaring someone guilty of apostasy, a capital crime) to deal with his opponents. When leaders of the National Front party called for a demonstration in mid-1981 against a new law on qesas, or traditional Islamic retaliation for a crime, Khomeini threatened its leaders with the death penalty for apostasy "if they did not repent. "^[184]

One of the last organized opponents of theocratic rule was the People's Mujahedin of Iran, a guerrilla group that unlike most of the opposition was armed and accustomed to using violence. The People's Mujahedin of Iran ( PMOI, also MEK, MKO) ( Persian: سازمان مجاهدين خلق ايران sāzmān-e mojāhedin-e khalq-e In February 1980 concentrated attacks by hezbollahi toughs began on the meeting places, bookstores, newsstands of Mujahideen and other leftists^[185] driving the left underground. People's Mujahideen retaliated with a campaign of bombing assassination including the killing of 72 at the Islamic Republican Party headquarters on June 28, 1981^[186] President Mohammad Ali Rajai and Prime Minister Mohammad Javad Bahonar were also assassinated that year. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1981 ( MCMLXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays the 1981 Mohammad Ali Rajai (محمد علی رجائی in Persian) ( 15 June 1933 – August 30, 1981) was the second elected President Hojatoleslam Mohammad Javad Bahonar (محمدجواد باهنر in Persian) ( 1933 - August 30, 1981) was the second prime minister ^[187]

Western/U. S. -Iranian relations

Main article: United States-Iran relations

Neighboring regimes and the Iran-Iraq War

The Islamic Republic positioned itself as a revolutionary beacon under the slogan "neither East nor West" (i. e. follow neither Soviet nor American/West European models), and called for the overthrow of capitalism, American influence, and social injustice in the Middle East and the rest of the world. Revolutionary leaders in Iran gave and sought support from non-Islamic as well as Islamic Third World causes — e. g. the PLO, Sandinistas in Nicaragua, Irish IRA and anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa — even to the point of favoring non-Muslim revolutionaries over more conservative Islamic causes such as the neighboring Afghan Mujahideen. The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO) (منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية or Munazzamat al-Tahrir al-Filastiniyyah) is a political and paramilitary The Sandinista National Liberation Front ( Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional) is a socialist Nicaraguan Political party. Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America The Provisional Irish Republican Army (Óglaigh na hÉireann ( IRA; also referred to as the PIRA, the Provos, or by some of its supporters as the The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa ^[188]

In its region, Iranian Islamic revolutionaries called specifically for the overthrow of monarchies and their replacement with Islamic republics, much to the alarm of its smaller Sunni-run Arab neighbors Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf States. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The State of Kuwait ( دولة الكويت IPA [dawlatt̪ alkuwajt̪]) is a sovereign Arab Emirate on the coast of the Persian Gulf, enclosed The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi The Arab states of the Persian Gulf are made of the kingdoms of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia, the Sultanate of Oman, the States Most of these countries were monarchies and all had sizable Shi'a populations - including a majority population in Iraq and Bahrain. In 1980, Iraq whose government was Sunni Muslim and Arab nationalist, invaded Iran in an attempt to seize the oil-rich predominantly Arab province of Khuzistan and destroy the revolution in its infancy. Thus began the eight year Iran-Iraq War, one of the most destructive and bloody wars of the 20th century.

A combination of fierce patriot resistance by Iranians and military incompetence by Iraqi forces soon stalled the Iraqi advance and by early 1982 Iran regained almost all the territory lost to the invasion. The invasion rallied Iranians behind the new regime, and past differences were largely abandoned in the face of the external threat. The war also became an opportunity for the regime to crush its remaining opponents, mostly the Soviet-backed leftist groups, dishing out harsh treatment, including torture and imprisonment. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991

Realizing its mistake, the Iraqis offered Iran a truce. Khomeini rejected it, announcing the only condition for peace was that "the regime in Baghdad must fall and must be replaced by an Islamic Republic. "^[189] The war continued for another six years with hundreds of thousands of lives lost and great destruction from air attacks. While in the end the revolutionaries failed to expand the Islamic revolution into Iraq, they did solidify their control of Iran. ^[190]

Post-revolutionary impact

Further information: History of the Islamic Republic of Iran

International

Internationally, the initial impact of the Islamic revolution was immense. One of the most dramatic changes in government in Iran's history was seen with the 1979 Iranian Revolution where Shah ( king) Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown In the non-Muslim world it has changed the image of Islam, generating much interest in the politics and spirituality of Islam. ^[191] In the Mideast and Muslim world, particularly in its early years, it triggered enormous enthusiasm and redoubled opposition to western intervention and influence. Islamist insurgents rose in Saudi Arabia (the 1979 week-long takeover of the Grand Mosque), Egypt (the 1981 machine-gunning of the Egyptian President Sadat), Syria (the Muslim Brotherhood rebellion in Hama), and Lebanon (the 1983 bombing of the American Embassy and French and American peace-keeping troops). The Grand Mosque Seizure on November 20, 1979, was an armed attack and takeover by armed Islamic fundamentalist Dissidents of the Al-Masjid The Hama massacre ( مجزرة حماة) occurred on February 2, 1982 when the Syrian army bombarded the town of Hama in order The 1983 US Embassy bombing was a suicide bombing against the United States Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon on April 18, 1983 that killed over The Beirut barracks bombing was a major incident on October 23, 1983, during the Lebanese Civil War. ^[192]

Although ultimately these rebellions did not succeed, other activities have had more long term impact. The Ayatollah Khomeini's 1989 fatwa calling for the killing of Salman Rushdie for his allegedly blasphemous book The Satanic Verses, demonstrated that even citizens of a foreign country living in that country were not safe from the long arm of the Islamic revolution. Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie Kt (born 19 June 1947 is an Indian - British novelist and essayist The Satanic Verses controversy refers to the controversy surrounding Salman Rushdie 's novel The Satanic The Islamic revolutionary government itself is credited with financing and helping create such groups as the powerful Hezbollah in Lebanon, the Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq and the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan. Hezbollah (حزب الله, literally " party of God " is a Shi'a Islamic political and Paramilitary organisation The Supreme Islamic Iraqi Council (SIIC ( Arabic: المجلس الأعلى الإسلامي العراقي (previously known as Supreme Council for the Islamic The United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan ( UIF, Jabha-yi Muttahid-i Islami-yi Milli bara-yi Nijat-i Afghanistan) also known as the Northern In Lebanon, Iran's generous financing of Hezbollah helped establish that group as a major political and military power which fought against Israeli occupation and its proxy South Lebanon Army, and expanded Shia Islam's influence. Hezbollah (حزب الله, literally " party of God " is a Shi'a Islamic political and Paramilitary organisation The South Lebanon Army (SLA also "South Lebanese Army" (جيش لبنان الجنوبي transliterated: Jaysh Lubnān al-Janūbi ^[193] Hezbollah's dependence on Iran for military and financial aid is heavily debated, and the Israel-Hezbollah 2006 War provided an eye-opening for the world of Hezbollah weapons said to be Iranian imports. ^[194][195]

The revolution has won praise from some Muslim leaders. Hamas Palestinian Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh:

You are also continuing the same path that was initiated by Imam Khomeini, since you have always supported the Palestinian people, and I hope that we will meet each other at the Al-Aqsa Mosque in the near future. Ismail Haniyeh ( Arabic: إسماعيل هنية sometimes transliterated as Ismail Haniya or Ismail Haniyah) (born January 1963 is a Al-Aqsa Mosque ( Arabic:المسجد الاقصى /æl'mæsdʒɪd æl'ɑqsˁɑ/ {{Audio|ArAqsaMosque ^[196]

Others have been less complementary. Scholars have argued the devastating Iran-Iraq "mortally wounded . . . the ideal of spreading the Islamic revolution,"^[197] or that Iran has lost "its place as a great regional power,"^[198] because the ideology of the revolution prevents Iran from following a "nationalist, pragmatic" foreign policy. Others say the only country outside Iran the revolution has had a "measure of lasting influence" is in Lebanon. ^[199]

Iranians have also complained of the international impact on indivdual citizens. As one complained to an Iranian-American journalist: "What has come of us. Our currency is worthless. Those backward Arabs go to Europe with rials, and we can barely visit Turkey with our worthless tomans!" ^[200]

Energy Crisis

Graph of Top Oil Producing Counties, showing drop in Iran's Production ^[201].

The revolution shattered the Iranian oil sector and the loss of output led to the 1979 international energy crisis. The 1979 (or second) oil crisis in the United States occurred in the wake of the Iranian Revolution.

Domestic

Internally, some goals of the revolutionary — broadening education and health care for the poor, and particularly governmental promotion of Islam, and the elimination of secularism and American influence in government — have met with unqualified successes; others — such as greater political freedom, governmental honesty and efficiency, economic equality and self-sufficiency, and even popular religious devotion^[202] — have not. The Cultural Revolution (1980-1987 (in Persian انقلاب فرهنگي was a period following the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran where the academia of Iran was Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs The development of the culture of the United States of America — music, cinema, dance, architecture, literature, poetry In American media the term Americanization is used to describe the Censoring and Editing of a foreign TV show or movie that is bought by a U Political freedom is the absence of interference with the sovereignty of an individual by the use of coercion or aggression Political corruption is the use of governmental powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain The terms Governance and good governance are increasingly being used in development literature Economic egalitarianism is a state of economic affairs in which the participants of a society are of equal standing and equal access to all the economic resources in terms of economic power Self-sufficiency refers to the state of not requiring any outside aid support or interaction for survival it is therefore a type of personal or collective autonomy. ^[203] Overall, however, dissatisfaction is widespread.

Human development

One of the highlights of the revolution has been an increase in literacy. Although the Shah's regime had created a popular and successful Literacy Corps and also worked to raise literacy rates,^[204] the Islamic Republic based its educational reforms on Islamic principles. A few months after the victory of the Islamic Revolution, a decree was issued by Ayatollah Khomeini to establish the Literacy Movement Organization (LMO), with the primary objective of providing literacy courses for the illiterate population through a vast mobilization program. ^[205] Designed especially for those who never learned to read and write, the program is credited with much of the country's success in reducing illiteracy from 52. 5 per cent in 1976 to just 24 per cent, at the last count in 2002. ^[206] The movement has established over 2,000 community learning centers across the country, employed some 55,000 instructors, distributed 300 easy-to-read books and manuals, and provided literacy classes to a million people, men as well as women. ^[207][208]

In the field of health, maternal and infant mortality rates have been slashed. ^[209] Population growth was encouraged for the first nine years of the revolution, but in 1988 youth unemployment concerns prompted the government to do "an amazing U-turn" and Iran now has "one of the world's most effective" family planning programs. ^[210] Overall, Iran's Human development Index rating has climbed significantly from 0. 569 in 1980 to 0. 732 in 2002, on par with neighbour Turkey. ^{[211] [212]}

Political freedom

Iran has elected governmental bodies at the national, provincial and local levels for which all males and females from the age of 15 on up may vote. (See Politics and Government of Iran) Although these bodies are subordinate to theocracy — which has veto power over who can run for parliament (or Islamic Consultative Assembly) and whether its bills can become law — they have more power than equivalent organs under the Shah's regime. The politics and government of Iran takes place in the framework of a Republic with an Islamic ideology The Majlis of Iran ( Persian: مجلس شورای اسلامی lit Four of the 290 parliamentary seats are allocated for the minority Christian (3 seats), Jewish (1 seat) and Zoroastrian (1 seat) communities in rough proportion with their population^[213] — giving at least token acknowledgment of individual or minority rights. ^[214] Khomeini met with the Jewish community upon his return from exile in Paris and issued a fatwa decreeing that the Jews were to be protected. |||} Persian Jews or Iranian Jews are Jews historically associated with the Persian Empire or Iran. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city A fatwā (فتوى plural fatāwā فتاوى in the Islamic faith is a religious opinion on Islamic law issued by an Similar edicts also protect Iran's tiny Christian minority. ^[215]

Religious minorities

On the other hand, religious minorities in Iran complain of discrimination, particularly the members of the Bahá'í Faith, which has been declared heretical. The Bahá'í Faith is a Religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in nineteenth-century Persia, emphasizing the spiritual unity of all humankind More than 200 Bahá'ís have been executed or killed, hundreds more have been imprisoned, and tens of thousands have been deprived of jobs, pensions, businesses, and educational opportunities. All national Bahá'í administrative structures have been banned by the government, and holy places, shrines and cemeteries have been confiscated, vandalized, or destroyed. In March 2006, a United Nations report informed the world that Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamene’i has instructed a number of government agencies, including the revolutionary guard and the police force, to 'collect any and all information about members of the Bahá'í Faith'. ^[216]

Political repression

Political repression has been a major complaint against the Islamic Republic. Grumbling once done about the tyranny and corruption of the Shah and his court is now directed against "the Mullahs. "^[217] Fear of SAVAK has been replaced by fear of Revolutionary Guards, and other religious revolutionary enforcers. ^[218] Violations of human rights by the theocratic regime is said by some to be worse than during the monarchy,^[219] and in any case extremely grave. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled ^[187] Torture, the imprisoning of dissidents, and the murder of prominent critics is commonplace. Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally Censorship is handled by the Ministry of Islamic Culture and Guidance, without whose official permission, "no books or magazines are published, no audiotapes are distributed, no movies are shown and no cultural organization is established. "^[220]

Women

The impact on women of the revolution has been particularly mixed. One of the striking features of the revolution was the large scale participation of women — from traditional backgrounds — in demonstrations. ^[221] Some of this liberating effect has continued. Female university enrollment has risen steadily, reaching 66% in 2003. ^[222] There are large numbers of women in the civil service and higher education, one example being the 14 women who were elected to the Islamic Consultative Assembly in 1996. The Majlis of Iran ( Persian: مجلس شورای اسلامی lit On the other hand, the Islamic revolution is ideologically committed to inequality for women in inheritance and other areas of the the civil code; and especially committed to segregation of the sexes. Iran is home to the earliest known charter of Human rights — the Achaemenid dynasty established unprecedented principles of human rights in the 6th century Many places, from "schoolrooms to ski slopes to public buses", are strictly segregated. Females caught by revolutionary officials in a mixed-sex situation can be subject to virginity tests. ^[223] "Bad hijab" ― exposure of any part of the body other than hands and face — is subject to punishment of up to 70 lashes or 60 days imprisonment. ^[224][225]

Economy

Iran's economy has not prospered. Dependence on petroleum exports is still strong. ^[226] Per capita income, which fluctuates with the price of oil, has fallen by one estimate to as low as 1/4 of what it was during the Shah's era ^[227][228] and is still less than it was before the revolution. Unemployment among Iran's population of young has steadily risen as job creation has failed to keep up,^[229] a high level of corruption being blamed in part. ^[230][229]

Gharbzadegi ("westoxification") or western cultural influence stubbornly remains, brought by music recordings, videos, and satellite dishes. Gharbzadegi () is a pejorative Persian term often translated as "West-struck-ness" or Occidentosis ^[231] One post-revolutionary opinion poll found 61% of students in Tehran chose "Western artists" as their role models with only 17% choosing "Iran's officials. "^[232]

See also

• 1979 energy crisis
• Guerrilla groups of Iran
• History of Iran
• History of political Islam in Iran
• History of the Islamic Republic of Iran
• Hokumat-e Islami : Velayat-e faqih (book by Khomeini)
• Human rights in Islamic Republic of Iran
• Iran hostage crisis
• People's Mujahedin of Iran
• Persecution of Bahá'ís
• Persian Constitutional Revolution
• Ruhollah Khomeini
• Timeline of Iranian revolution
• White Revolution
• Wilayat al-Faqih
• Organizations of the Iranian Revolution

References and notes

Bibliography

• Amuzgar, Jahangir (1991). The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution: The Pahlavis' Triumph and Tragedy: 31. . SUNY Press.  
• Arjomand, Said Amir (1988). Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran. Oxford University Press.  
• Abrahamian, Ervand (1982). Iran between two revolutions. Princeton University Press.  
• Benard, Cheryl and Khalilzad, Zalmay (1984). "The Government of God" — Iran's Islamic Republic. Columbia University Press.  
• Graham, Robert (1980). Iran, the Illusion of Power. St. Martin's Press.  
• Harney, Desmond (1998). The priest and the king: an eyewitness account of the Iranian revolution. I. B. Tauris.  
• Harris, David (2004). The Crisis: the President, the Prophet, and the Shah — 1979 and the Coming of Militant Islam. Little, Brown.  
• Hoveyda, Fereydoun (2003). The Shah and the Ayatollah: Iranian mythology and Islamic revolution. Praeger.  
• Kapuscinski, Ryszard (1985). Shah of Shahs. Harcourt Brace, Jovanovich.  
• Keddie, Nikki (2003). Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution. Yale University Press.  
• Kepel, Gilles (2002). The Trail of Political Islam. Harvard University Press.  
• Mackey, Sandra (1996). The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation. Dutton.  
• Miller, Judith (1996). God Has Ninety Nine Names. Simon & Schuster.  
• Moin, Baqer (2000). Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah. Thomas Dunne Books.  
• Roy, Olivier (1994). The Failure of Political Islam. Harvard University Press.  
• Ruthven, Malise (2000). Islam in the World. Oxford University Press.  
• Schirazi, Asghar (1997). The Constitution of Iran. Tauris.  
• Shirley, Edward (1997). Know Thine Enemy. Farra.  
• Taheri, Amir (1985). The Spirit of Allah. Adler & Adler.  
• Wright, Robin (2000). The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil And Transformation In Iran. Alfred A. Knopf: Distributed by Random House.  
• Zabih, Sepehr (1982). Iran Since the Revolution. Johns Hopkins Press.  
• Zanganeh, Lila Azam (editor) (2006). My Sister, Guard Your Veil, My Brother, Guard Your Eyes : Uncensored Iranian Voices. Beacon Press.  

Further reading

• Afshar, Haleh, ed. (1985). Iran: A Revolution in Turmoil. Albany: SUNY Press. ISBN 0-333-36947-5.  
• Barthel, Günter, ed. (1983). Iran: From Monarchy to Republic. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. <!— ISBN ?? —>.  
• Daniel, Elton L. (2000). The History of Iran. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-30731-8.  
• Esposito, John L. , ed. (1990). The Iranian Revolution: Its Global Impact. Miami: Florida International University Press. ISBN 0-8130-0998-7.  
• Harris, David (2004). The Crisis: The President, the Prophet, and the Shah — 1979 and the Coming of Militant Islam. New York & Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 0-316-32394-2.  
• Hiro, Dilip (1989). Holy Wars: The Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-90208-8.   (Chapter 6: Iran: Revolutionary Fundamentalism in Power. )
• Kapuściński, Ryszard. Ryszard Kapuściński ( IPA: kapuɕ'ʨiɲski; March 4 1932 - January 23, 2007) was a popular Polish Journalist Shah of Shahs. Shah of Shahs, published in 1982, is Polish Journalist Ryszard Kapuściński 's analysis of the decline and fall of Mohammad Translated from Polish by William R. Brand and Katarzyna Mroczkowska-Brand. New York: Vintage International, 1992.
• Kurzman, Charles. Charles Kurzman is a Professor of Sociology at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The Unthinkable Revolution. Cambridge, MA & London: Harvard University Press, 2004.
• Ladjevardi, Habib (editor), Memoirs of Shapour Bakhtiar, Harvard University Press, 1996.
• Legum, Colin, et al. , eds. Middle East Contemporary Survey: Volume III, 1978–79. New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1980. + *Legum, Colin, et al. , eds. Middle East Conte
• Milani, Abbas, The Persian Sphinx: Amir Abbas Hoveyda and the Riddle of the Iranian Revolution, Mage Publishers, 2000, ISBN 0-934211-61-2. Abbas Milani (born 1949 ( is an Iranian-American Historian, Iranologist, and Author.
• Munson, Henry, Jr. Islam and Revolution in the Middle East. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
• Nafisi, Azar. "Reading Lolita in Tehran. " New York: Random House, 2003.
• Nobari, Ali Reza, ed. Ali Reza Nobari (born October 25, 1947, Tehran, Iran) is the former Governor of the Central bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran Iran Erupts: Independence: News and Analysis of the Iranian National Movement. Stanford: Iran-America Documentation Group, 1978.
• Nomani, Farhad & Sohrab Behdad, Class and Labor in Iran; Did the Revolution Matter? Syracuse University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-8156-3094-8
• Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza, Response to History, Stein & Day Pub, 1980, ISBN 0-8128-2755-4.
• Rahnema, Saeed & Sohrab Behdad, eds. Iran After the Revolution: Crisis of an Islamic State. London: I.B. Tauris, 1995. I B Tauris (usually typeset as IBTauris) is the name of an independent publishing house with offices in London and New York.
• Sick, Gary. All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran. New York: Penguin Books, 1986.
• Shawcross, William, The Shah's last ride: The death of an ally, Touchstone, 1989, ISBN 0-671-68745-X. William Shawcross (born 28 May, 1946, Sussex) is a British writer broadcaster and commentator
• Smith, Frank E. The Iranian Revolution. 1998.
• Society for Iranian Studies, Iranian Revolution in Perspective. Special volume of Iranian Studies, 1980. Volume 13, nos. 1–4.
• Time magazine, January 7, 1980. Time (trademarked in capitals as TIME) is a weekly American Newsmagazine, similar to Newsweek and Events 1325 - Alfonso IV becomes King of Portugal. 1558 - France takes Calais, the last continental Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) Man of the Year (Ayatollah Khomeini).
• U. S. Department of State, American Foreign Policy Basic Documents, 1977–1980. Washington, DC: GPO, 1983. JX 1417 A56 1977–80 REF - 67 pages on Iran.

• Yapp, M. E. The Near East Since the First World War: A History to 1995. London: Longman, 1996. Chapter 13: Iran, 1960–1989.

External links

• Islamic Revolution of Iran, Encarta
• The Iranian revolution, Britannica
• The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution: The Pahlavis' Triumph and Tragedy

Historical articles

• The Story of the Revolution — a detailed web resource from the BBC World Service Persian Branch, devoted to the Iranian Revolution (audio recordings in Persian, transcripts in English).
• The Reunion — The Shah of Iran's Court — BBC Radio 4 presents an audio program featuring reminiscences of the Iranian Revolution by key members of the pre-Revolutionary elite.
• Brzezinski's role in the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Payvand News, March 10, 2006. Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
• The Iranian Revolution.
• The Iranian revolution, Cyber Essays.
• The Islamic revolution, Internews.

Analytical articles

• The Last Great Revolution Turmoil and Transformation in Iran by Robin Wright.
• Islamic Revolution by Bernard Lewis
• Islamic Revolution: An Exchange by Abbas Milani, Tomis Kapitan, Reply by Bernard Lewis
• What Are the Iranians Dreaming About? by Michel Foucault
• The Seductions of Islamism, Revisiting Foucault and the Iranian Revolution by Janet Afary and Kevin B. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American Abbas Milani (born 1949 ( is an Iranian-American Historian, Iranologist, and Author. Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. Anderson
• The Religious Background of the 1979 Revolution in Iran
• What Happens When Islamists Take Power? The Case of Iran
• Power? The Case of Iran The, Iranian Revolution by Ted Grant
• Class Analysis of the Iranian Revolution of 1979 by Satya J. Gabriel
• The Cause of The Iranian Revolution by Jon Curme
• History of Undefeated, A few words in commemoration of the 1979 Revolution By Mansoor Hekmat, Communist Thinker and Revolutionary

Revolution in pictures

• iranrevolution.com by Akbar Nazemi
• Iranian Revolution, Photos by Kaveh Golestan
• Photos from Kave Kazemi
• The Iranian Revolution in Pictures
• Iranian revolution in pictures, BBC World

Revolution in Videos

• Video Archive of Iranian Revolution