International Phonetic Alphabet
Type	Partially featural alphabet
Spoken languages	Used for phonetic and phonemic transcription of any language
Time period	1888 to the present
Parent systems	Romic alphabet  → Phonotypic alphabet   → International Phonetic Alphabet
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. A featural alphabet is an Alphabet wherein the shapes of the letters are not arbitrary but encode phonological features of the phonemes they represent An alphabet is a standardized set of letters basic written symbols each of which roughly represents a Phoneme, a Spoken language, either Phonetics (from the Greek φωνή ( phonê) "sound" or "voice" is the study of the physical sounds of human speech The phoneME project is Sun Microsystems reference implementation of Java virtual machine and associated libraries of Java ME with source licensed under the GNU The Romic Alphabet, sometimes known as the Romic Reform is a phonetic alphabet proposed by Henry Sweet. In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)^[I] is a system of phonetic notation based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language. The history of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the International Phonetic Association began in the late 19th century with the formation of the The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA possess a variety of obsolete and nonstandard symbols. The Extensions to the IPA are extensions of the International Phonetic Alphabet and were designed for disordered speech. The International Phonetic Alphabet requires specific names for the symbols and diacritics used in the alphabet This concise chart shows the most common applications of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA to represent English language pronunciations Phonetic transcription (or phonetic notation) is the visual system of symbolization of the sounds occurring in spoken human Language. The International Phonetic Association (IPA is an organization that promotes the scientific study of Phonetics and the various practical applications of that science ^[1] The IPA is used by linguists, speech pathologists and therapists, foreign language teachers and students, singers, actors, lexicographers, and translators. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Speech-language pathology is the study of disorders that affect a person's Speech, Language, cognition voice swallowing ( Dysphagia) and the rehabilitative A foreign language is a Language not spoken by the people of a certain place for example English is a foreign language in Japan. An actor, actress, player or thespian (see terminology) is a person who Acts in a Dramatic production and who works The pursuit of lexicography is divided into two related disciplines Practical lexicography is the art or Craft of compiling writing and editing dictionaries Translation is the interpreting of the meaning of a text and the subsequent production of an equivalent text likewise called a " translation ^[2][3]

The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, intonation, and the separation of words and syllables. A spoken language is a human Natural language in which the Words are uttered through the Mouth. The phoneME project is Sun Microsystems reference implementation of Java virtual machine and associated libraries of Java ME with source licensed under the GNU In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words A word is a unit of Language that carries meaning and consists of one or more Morphemes which are linked more or less tightly together and has a Phonetic A syllable ( Greek:) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds ^[1] To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth-gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a cleft palate, an extended set of symbols called the Extensions to the IPA is used. A lisp ( OE wlisp, stammering is a Speech impediment, historically also known as sigmatism. Cleft lip (cheiloschisis and cleft palate (palatoschisis which can also occur together as cleft lip and palate are variations of a type of clefting Congenital The Extensions to the IPA are extensions of the International Phonetic Alphabet and were designed for disordered speech. ^[2]

As of 2007, there are 107 distinct letters and 56 diacritics and suprasegmentals in the IPA proper. A diacritic ( also called a diacritic or diacritical mark, point, or sign, is a small sign added to a letter to alter pronunciation In Linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσωδία) is the Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech Occasionally symbols are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association.

History

Main article: History of the IPA

In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would come to be known (from 1897 onwards) as the International Phonetic Association (in French, l’Association phonétique internationale). The history of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the International Phonetic Association began in the late 19th century with the formation of the This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Paul Édouard Passy (1859-1940 was a French linguist, founder of the International Phonetic Association in 1886 The International Phonetic Association (IPA is an organization that promotes the scientific study of Phonetics and the various practical applications of that science ^[4] The original alphabet was based on a spelling reform for English known as the Romic alphabet, but in order to make it usable for other languages, the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language. Many languages have undergone spelling reform, where a deliberate often officially sanctioned or mandated change to spelling takes place The Romic Alphabet, sometimes known as the Romic Reform is a phonetic alphabet proposed by Henry Sweet. ^[5] For example, the sound /ʃ/ (sh in shoe) was originally represented with the letter <c> in English, but with the letter <x> in French. ^[4] However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions. ^[4][6]

Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After some additions and extensions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989. The history of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the International Phonetic Association began in the late 19th century with the formation of the The history of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the International Phonetic Association began in the late 19th century with the formation of the The IPA Kiel Convention was an event maintained by the International Phonetic Association in 1989 held in Kiel Germany. A minor revision took place in 1993, with the addition of four mid-central vowels^[2] and the removal of symbols for voiceless implosives. The open-mid central unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Implosive consonants are stops (rarely Affricates with a mixed Glottalic ingressive and Pulmonic egressive Airstream mechanism. ^[7] The alphabet was last revised in May 2005, with the addition of a symbol for the labiodental flap. The labiodental flap is a speech sound found primarily in languages of Central Africa, such as Kera and Mangbetu. ^[8] Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories, and modifying typefaces. ^[2]

Extensions of the alphabet are relatively recent; “Extensions to the IPA” was created in 1990 and officially adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994. The Extensions to the IPA are extensions of the International Phonetic Alphabet and were designed for disordered speech. The International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association is an international Scholarly association dedicated to the study of Speech disorders and other ^[9]

Description

A diagram illustrating the International Phonetic Alphabet.

The general principle of the IPA is to provide one symbol for each distinctive sound (or speech segment). In Linguistics (specifically Phonetics and Phonology) the term segment may be defined as "any discrete unit that can be identified either ^[10] This means that it does not use letter combinations to represent single sounds,^[III] or single letters to represent multiple sounds (the way <x> represents [ks] or [gz] in English). There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values (as <c> does in English and other European languages), and finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them (a property known as "selectiveness"^[2]). C is the third letter in the Latin alphabet. Its name in English is spelled cee or occasionally ce (siː ^[IV]

Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 represent consonants and vowels, 31 are diacritics that are used to further specify these sounds, and 19 are used to indicate such qualities as length, tone, stress, and intonation. In Articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a Speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper Vocal tract, the upper vocal In Phonetics, a vowel is a Sound in spoken Language, such as English ah! or oh!, pronounced with an open Vocal tract A diacritic ( also called a diacritic or diacritical mark, point, or sign, is a small sign added to a letter to alter pronunciation In Phonetics, length or quantity is a feature of sounds that are distinctively longer than other sounds Tone is the use of pitch in Language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is to distinguish or inflect words In Linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain Syllables in a word In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words ^[II]

Letterforms

The symbols chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet. ^[V] For this reason, most symbols are either Latin or Greek letters, or modifications thereof. The Greek alphabet (Ελληνικό αλφάβητο is a set of twenty-four letters that has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early However, there are symbols that are neither: for example, the symbol denoting the glottal stop, <ʔ>, has the form of a "gelded" question mark, and was originally an apostrophe. This article is about the sound in spoken language For the letter see Glottal stop (letter. The question mark (? also known as an interrogation point, question point, query, or eroteme, is a punctuation mark that replaces ^[VI] In fact, there are a few symbols, such as that of the voiced pharyngeal fricative, <ʕ>, which, though modified to blend with the Latin alphabet, were inspired by glyphs in other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic letter <ﻉ>‎, `ain). A pharyngeal consonant is a type of Consonant which is articulated with the root of the Tongue against the Pharynx. A glyph is an element of writing Two or more glyphs representing the same symbol whether interchangeable or context-dependent are called Allographs the abstract unit they The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa such as Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. For the village in Azerbaijan see Əyin. or is the sixteenth letter in many Semitic abjads, including Phoenician ^[7]

Despite its preference for letters that harmonize with the Latin alphabet, the International Phonetic Association has occasionally admitted symbols that do not have this property. For example, before 1989, the IPA symbols for click consonants were <​ʘ>, <​ʇ>, <​ʗ>, and <​ʖ>, all of which were derived either from existing symbols, or from Latin and Greek letters. Clicks are speech sounds such as English tsk! tsk! used to express disapproval or the tchick! used to spur on a horse However, except for <ʘ>, none of these symbols was widely used among Khoisanists or Bantuists, and as a result, they were replaced by the less Latin-like but more widespread symbols <ʘ​>, <ǀ>, <ǃ>, <ǂ>, and <​ǁ> at the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989. The Khoisan languages (also Khoesaan languages) are the indigenous languages of southern and eastern Africa; in southern Africa their speakers are the Khoi The Bantu languages (technically Narrow Bantu languages) constitute a grouping belonging to the Niger-Congo family ^[11]

Although the IPA diacritics are fully featural, there is little systemicity in the letter forms. A featural alphabet is an Alphabet wherein the shapes of the letters are not arbitrary but encode phonological features of the phonemes they represent A retroflex articulation is consistently indicated with a right-swinging tail, as in <ɖ ʂ ɳ>, and implosion by a top hook, <ɓ ɗ ɠ>, but other pseudo-featural elements are due to haphazard derivation and coincidence. In Phonetics, retroflex consonants are Consonant sounds used in some Languages (They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants In human speech ingressive sounds are those in which the airstream is inward through the mouth or nose For example, all nasal consonants but uvular <ɴ> are based on the form <n>: <m ɱ n ɲ ɳ ŋ>. However, the similarity between <m> and <n> is a historical accident, <ɲ> and <ŋ> are derived from ligatures of gn and ng, and <ɱ> is an ad hoc imitation of <ŋ>. In none of these is the form consistent with other letters that share these places of articulation.

Symbols and sounds

The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, using as few non-Latin forms as possible. ^[4] The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most consonants taken from the Latin alphabet would correspond to “international usage”. In Articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a Speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper Vocal tract, the upper vocal ^[4] Hence, the letters <b>, <d>, <f>, (hard) <ɡ>, (hard) <h>, (unaspirated) <k>, <l>, <m>, <n>, (unaspirated) <p>, (voiceless) <s>, (unaspirated) <t>, <v>, <w>, and <z> have the values used in English; and the vowels from the Latin alphabet (<a>, <e>, <i>, <o>, <u>) correspond to the sound values of Latin: [i] is like the vowel in machine, [u] is as in rule, etc. In Phonetics, a vowel is a Sound in spoken Language, such as English ah! or oh!, pronounced with an open Vocal tract Other letters may differ from English, but are used with these values in other European languages, such as <j>, <r>, and <y>.

This inventory was extended by using capital or cursive forms, diacritics, and rotation. There are also several derived from the Greek alphabet (<β>, <ɣ>, <ɛ>, <θ>, <ɸ>, <χ>, and <ʋ>), though the sound values may differ. For example, <ʋ> is a vowel in Greek, but an only indirectly related consonant in the IPA.

The sound values of modified Latin letters can often be derived from those of the original letters. ^[12] For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex consonants; and small capital letters usually represent uvular consonants. In Phonetics, retroflex consonants are Consonant sounds used in some Languages (They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants Uvulars are Consonants articulated with the back of the Tongue against or near the uvula, that is further back in the mouth than Velar consonants Apart from the fact that certain kinds of modification to the shape of a letter generally correspond to certain kinds of modification to the sound represented, there is no way to deduce the sound represented by a symbol from the shape of the symbol (unlike, for example, in Visible Speech). Visible speech is the name of the Writing system used by Alexander Melville Bell, who was known internationally as a teacher of speech and proper elocution and

Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetic values or secondary articulations. A diacritic ( also called a diacritic or diacritical mark, point, or sign, is a small sign added to a letter to alter pronunciation Phonetics (from the Greek φωνή ( phonê) "sound" or "voice" is the study of the physical sounds of human speech Secondary articulation refers to Co-articulated consonants where the two articulations are not of the same manner. There are also special symbols for suprasegmental features such as stress and tone that are often employed. In Linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσωδία) is the Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech In Linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain Syllables in a word Tone is the use of pitch in Language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is to distinguish or inflect words

Usage

Further information: Phonetic transcription

Ebauche is a French term meaning "outline" or "blank"

. Phonetic transcription (or phonetic notation) is the visual system of symbolization of the sounds occurring in spoken human Language. Ébauche is a French term meaning "outline" or "blank" also referred to in English as movement-blank referring to the basic parts of a watch movement.

Although the IPA offers over a hundred symbols for transcribing speech, it is not necessary to use all relevant symbols at the same time; it is possible to transcribe speech with various levels of precision. The most precise kind of phonetic transcription, in which sounds are described in as much detail as the system allows, without any regard for the linguistic significance of the distinctions thus made, is known as narrow transcription. Anything else is termed broad transcription, though "broad" is obviously a relative term. Both kinds of transcriptions are generally enclosed in brackets,^[1] but broad transcriptions are sometimes enclosed in slashes instead of brackets. Brackets are Punctuation marks used in pairs to set apart or interject text within other text

Two phonetic transcriptions of the word "international," demonstrating two distinctly different pronunciations.

Broad transcription only distinguishes sounds which are considered different by speakers of a language. Sounds that may be pronounced differently between styles and dialects or depending on neighbouring sounds can be considered the "same" sound in the sense that they are allophones of the same phoneme. In Phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar speech sounds ( Phones that belong to the same Phoneme. The phoneME project is Sun Microsystems reference implementation of Java virtual machine and associated libraries of Java ME with source licensed under the GNU When a word is written as phonemes, it is usually enclosed in slashes. The slash ( /) is a punctuation mark It is also called a virgule, diagonal, stroke, forward slash, oblique dash, For example, the pronunciation of the English word "little" may be transcribed broadly using the IPA as /lɪtl/, and this broad (imprecise) transcription is a correct (accurate) description of many, if not all, pronunciations. This broad transcription merely identifies the separate phonetically relevant components of the word, and it does not indicate the variety of corresponding sounds. On the other hand, the narrow transcription (placed between square brackets) specifies the way each sound is pronounced. A more narrow transcription of "little" would be different depending on the way it is said: [lɪɾɫ] (General American), [lɪʔɫ] (Cockney), or [lɪːɫ] are just a few possibilities. General American is an accent of American English within American English General American and accents approximating it are contrasted with Southern American The term Cockney has both geographical and linguistic associations

Neither broad nor narrow transcription using the IPA provides an absolute description; rather, they provide relative descriptions of phonetic sounds. This is especially true with respect to the IPA vowels: there exists no hard and fast mapping between IPA symbols and formant frequency ranges, and in fact one set of formant frequencies may correspond to two different IPA symbols, depending on the phonology of the language in question. A formant is a peak in the Frequency spectrum of a sound caused by acoustic Resonance.

Use by linguists

Although IPA is popular for transcription by linguists, it is also common to use Americanist phonetic notation or IPA together with some nonstandard symbols, for reasons including reducing the error rate on reading handwritten transcriptions or (arguable) awkwardness of IPA in some situations. Americanist phonetic notation (variously called American Phonetic Alphabet or APA is a system of phonetic notation originally developed by European and Euro-American The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA possess a variety of obsolete and nonstandard symbols. The exact practice may vary somewhat between languages and even individual researchers, so authors should include a chart or other explanation of their choices. ^[13]

Use in dictionaries

Many British English dictionaries, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words. An advanced learner's dictionary is a Monolingual learner's dictionary, that is a Dictionary written for Non-native speakers. An advanced learner's dictionary is a Monolingual learner's dictionary, that is a Dictionary written for Non-native speakers. Pronunciation respelling is a type of notation system used to convey Pronunciation of words in a language which doesn't have a Phonemic orthography ^[14] However, most American (and some British) volumes use their own conventions supposed to be more intuitive for readers unfamiliar with the IPA. Pronunciation respelling is a type of notation system used to convey Pronunciation of words in a language which doesn't have a Phonemic orthography For example, the pronunciation-representation systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster) use "y" for IPA [j] and "sh" for IPA [ʃ], reflecting common representations of those sounds in written English. Merriam-Webster, which was originally the G & C Merriam Company of Springfield Massachusetts, is an American company that publishes reference books ^[15] (In IPA, [y] represents the sound of the French u (as in tu), and [sh] represents the pair of sounds in grass hut. )

One of the benefits of using an alternative to the IPA is the ability to use a single symbol for a sound pronounced differently in different dialects. For example, the American Heritage Dictionary uses ŏ for the vowel in cot (kŏt) but ô for the one in caught (kôt). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language ( AHD) is an American Dictionary of the English language published by ^[16] Some American speakers pronounce the vowels ŏ and ô the same way (for example, like IPA [ɒ] in the Boston dialect); for those speakers who maintain the distinction, depending on the accent, the vowel in cot may vary from [ɑ] to [a], while the vowel in caught may vary from [ɔ] to [ɑ], or may even be a diphthong. Father-bother merger The father-bother merger is a merger of the Early Modern English vowels /ɑː/ and /ɒ/ that occurs in almost all varieties of North American English The Boston accent is found not only in the city of Boston Massachusetts itself but also much of eastern Massachusetts Using one symbol for the vowel in cot (instead of having different symbols for different pronunciations of the o) enables the dictionary to provide meaningful pronunciations for speakers of most dialects of English.

The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in other countries and languages. Mass-market Czech multilingual dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the Czech language. Czech (ˈʧɛk čeština ˈʧɛʃcɪna in Czech is a West Slavic language with about 12 million native speakers it is the majority language in the ^[17]

Educational initiative

There is some interest in using native speakers to produce sound and video files of sufficient breadth to completely demonstrate all the speech sounds covered by the IPA. Such a project would encompass a large subset of the world's languages. This would aid linguistic and anthropologic research, as well as help teach language learning. Specifically, the development of a reference standard using the IPA (mirroring the idea of the Rosetta Stone) could be used in order to preserve intact examples of the sounds of human language. The Rosetta Stone is an Ancient Egyptian artifact (حجر رشيد in Arabic which was instrumental in advancing modern understanding of hieroglyphic writing For education, the IPA can help standardize resources which prepare students and very young children (ages 6-36 months) for universal language acquisition through familiarization and subsequent imitation of the breadth of human speech sounds. ^[18] Research by Flege, Mackay and Piske (2002) and Sebastián-Gallés, Echeverría and Bosch (2005) have shown that early exposure to extra phonetic sounds and uses improves later comprehension and pronunciation (accent).

Use in orthographies and capital variants

See also: Latin characters in Unicode

IPA symbols have been incorporated into the standard orthographies of various languages, notably in Subsaharan Africa but in other regions as well. Unicode as of version 51 defines the following ranges for encoding the Latin alphabet and derived characters See also Mapping of Unicode characters Sub-Saharan Africa is a geographical term used to describe the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara, or those African countries These include for example: Hausa; Fula; Akan; Gbe languages; and Manding languages. Hausa is the Chadic language with the largest number of speakers spoken as a first Language by about 24 million people and as a second language by about 15 The Fula language is a language of West Africa, spoken by the Ful{{IPA|ɓ}}e (Fula or Fulani people from Senegambia and Guinea to See also Akan languages Akan is a language group spoken by related peoples in mainly Ghana and eastern Côte d'Ivoire. The Gbe languages (ɡ͡bè form a cluster of about twenty related Languages stretching across the area between eastern Ghana and western Nigeria. The Manding languages are a fairly mutually intelligible group of dialects or languages in West Africa, belonging to the Mande languages.

An example of capital letter forms for IPA symbols is Kabiyé of northern Togo, which has Ɔ Ɛ Ŋ Ɣ Ʃ (capital ɔ ɛ ŋ ɣ ʃ). Kabiyé (also Kabiye, Kabyé, Kabye) is a Grusi language spoken primarily in northern Togo, and also by smaller numbers of people TOGO was a Japanese roller coaster design company famous for inventing the Stand-up roller coaster. Other IPA-paired capitals include Ɓ/Ƃ Ƈ Ɗ/Ƌ Ə/Ǝ Ɠ Ħ Ɯ Ɲ Ɵ Ʈ Ʊ Ʋ Ʒ.

The abovementioned and other capital forms are supported by Unicode, but appear in Latin ranges other than the IPA extensions. In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's

Letters

The International Phonetic Alphabet divides its letter symbols into three categories: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels. In human speech egressive sounds are those in which the air stream is created by pushing air out through the mouth or nose ^[19][20] Each character is assigned a number, to prevent confusion between similar letters (such as ɵ and θ), for example in printing manuscripts. Different categories of sounds are assigned different ranges of numbers.

Pulmonic consonants

Main article: Consonant

A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. In Articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a Speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper Vocal tract, the upper vocal In human speech egressive sounds are those in which the air stream is created by pushing air out through the mouth or nose The glottis is defined as the combination of the Vocal folds and the space in between the folds (the Rima glottidis) The mouth, buccal cavity, or oral cavity is the first portion of the Alimentary canal that receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in the English language fall into this category. ^[21]

The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. In Linguistics ( Articulatory phonetics) manner of articulation describes how the tongue lips and other speech organs are involved in making a sound make In Articulatory phonetics, the place of articulation (also point of articulation) of a Consonant is the point of contact where an Obstruction The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation.

Notes

• Asterisks (*) next to symbols mark reported sounds that do not (yet) have official IPA symbols. In Articulatory phonetics, the place of articulation (also point of articulation) of a Consonant is the point of contact where an Obstruction Labials are consonants articulated either with both lips ( bilabial articulation or with the lower lip and the upper teeth ( labiodental articulation Coronal consonants are articulated with the flexible front part of the Tongue. Dorsal consonants are articulated with the mid body of the Tongue (the dorsum Radical consonants are those consonants articulated with the root (base of the Tongue in the Throat. Glottal consonants are Consonants articulated with the Glottis. In Phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a Consonant articulated with both Lips The bilabial consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet In Phonetics, labiodentals are Consonants articulated with the lower Lip and the upper Teeth. In Linguistics, a dental consonant or dental is a Consonant that is articulated with the tongue against the upper teeth such as /t/ /d/ /n/ and Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior Alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli (the sockets Postalveolar consonants are Consonants articulated with the tongue near or touching the back of the Alveolar ridge, placing them a bit further back in the In Phonetics, retroflex consonants are Consonant sounds used in some Languages (They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants Palatal consonants are Consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the Hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth Uvulars are Consonants articulated with the back of the Tongue against or near the uvula, that is further back in the mouth than Velar consonants A pharyngeal consonant is a type of Consonant which is articulated with the root of the Tongue against the Pharynx. An epiglottal consonant is a Consonant that is articulated with the Aryepiglottic folds (see Larynx) against the Epiglottis. In Linguistics ( Articulatory phonetics) manner of articulation describes how the tongue lips and other speech organs are involved in making a sound make A nasal consonant (also called nasal stop or nasal continuant) is produced with a lowered velum in the mouth allowing air to escape freely through the The bilabial nasal is a type of Consonantal sound used in almost all spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this The labiodental nasal is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The alveolar nasal is a type of Consonantal sound used in numerous spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The retroflex nasal is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The palatal nasal is a type of Consonant, used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this The velar nasal is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The uvular nasal is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. The voiceless bilabial plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in many spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced bilabial plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The voiceless labiodental plosive is a consonant sound produced like a, but with the lower lip contacting the upper teeth as in. The voiced labiodental plosive is a Consonant sound produced like a, but with the lower lip contacting the upper teeth as in. The voiceless alveolar plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in many spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced alveolar plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The voiceless retroflex plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced retroflex plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The voiceless palatal plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The voiced palatal plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The voiceless velar plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in many spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced velar plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The voiceless uvular plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages It is pronounced like, except that the tongue makes contact not The voiced uvular plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The epiglottal plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that This article is about the sound in spoken language For the letter see Glottal stop (letter. Fricatives are Consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together The voiceless bilabial fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced bilabial fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless labiodental fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced labiodental fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic The voiced dental non-sibilant fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless alveolar fricatives are Consonantal sounds The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents these sounds depends on whether a The voiced alveolar fricatives are Consonantal sounds The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents these sounds depends on whether a Sibilant The voiceless palato-alveolar fricative or domed postalveolar fricative ( IPA) is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The voiced palato-alveolar fricative or domed postalveolar fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol The voiceless retroflex fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced retroflex fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless palatal fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced palatal fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless velar fricative, informally known as the hard ch, is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the The voiced velar fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in various spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless uvular fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced uvular fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The voiceless pharyngeal fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced pharyngeal approximant/fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless epiglottal fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced epiglottal approximant/fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless glottal transition, commonly called a " fricative " is a type of sound used in some spoken Languages which often behaves like a The breathy-voiced glottal transition, commonly called a voiced glottal fricative, is a type of sound used in some spoken Languages which often behaves like Approximants are speech sounds ( Phonemes) that could be regarded as intermediate between Vowels and typical Consonants In the articulation of approximants The voiced bilabial fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The labiodental approximant is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The alveolar approximant is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The retroflex approximant is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The palatal approximant is a type of Consonantal sound used in many spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The velar approximant is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents In Phonetics, a trill is a Consonantal sound produced by vibrations between the articulator and the Place of articulation. The bilabial trill is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this The alveolar trill is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental The retroflex trill has been reported from the Dravidian language Toda, and confirmed with laboratory measurements The uvular trill is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents Epiglottal consonants are often allophonically trilled and in some languages the trill is the primary realization of the consonant In Phonetics, a flap or tap is a type of Consonantal sound which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator (such as the The bilabial flap is an uncommon non- rhotic flap It is usually and perhaps always an Allophone of the Labiodental flap, though it is the preferred allophone The labiodental flap is a speech sound found primarily in languages of Central Africa, such as Kera and Mangbetu. The alveolar tap or flap is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The retroflex flap is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents A uvular flap is not known to exist as a phoneme in any language An epiglottal flap is not known to exist as a phoneme in any language Laterals are "L"-like Consonants pronounced with an occlusion made somewhere along the axis of the tongue while air from the lungs escapes at one side or both The voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced alveolar lateral fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless retroflex lateral fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The IPA has no officially recognized symbol for this The voiceless palatal lateral fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The IPA has no dedicated symbol for this sound The Archi language of the Dagestani family has a voiceless velar lateral fricative that is clearly a fricative although further forward than velars in many languages Laterals are "L"-like Consonants pronounced with an occlusion made somewhere along the axis of the tongue while air from the lungs escapes at one side or both The alveolar lateral approximant is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The retroflex lateral approximant is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The palatal lateral approximant is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The velar lateral approximant is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet Laterals are "L"-like Consonants pronounced with an occlusion made somewhere along the axis of the tongue while air from the lungs escapes at one side or both The alveolar lateral flap is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The retroflex lateral flap is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages It has no symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The palatal lateral flap is a rare type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages There is no symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The velar lateral flap is an allophone of the Velar lateral approximant in some languages of New Guinea, such as Kanite and Melpa. See the respective articles for ad hoc symbols found in the literature.
• Daggers (†) mark IPA symbols that have recently been added to Unicode. In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's As of Unicode 5. 1. 0, this is the case of the labiodental flap, symbolized by a right-hook v: . The labiodental flap is a speech sound found primarily in languages of Central Africa, such as Kera and Mangbetu. In the meantime, these will display properly if you have the Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, or DejaVu Sans fonts installed. Charis SIL is a glyphic serif Typeface developed by SIL International. Doulos SIL is a serif Typeface developed by SIL International, very similar to Times or Times New Roman.
• In rows where some symbols appear in pairs (the obstruents), the symbol to the right represents a voiced consonant (except breathy-voiced [ɦ]). In Phonetics, articulation may be divided into two large classes obstruents and Sonorants An obstruent is a Consonant sound formed by Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Breathy voice (also called murmured voice, soughing, or susurration) is a Phonation in which the Vocal cords vibrate as they do in However, [ʔ] cannot be voiced, and the voicing of [ʡ] is ambiguous. ^[22] In the other rows (the sonorants), the single symbol represents a voiced consonant. In Phonetics and Phonology, a sonorant is a Speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the Vocal tract.
• Although there is a single symbol for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives, when dealing with a particular language, the symbols may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics.
• Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
• The symbols [ʁ, ʕ, ʢ] represent either voiced fricatives or approximants.
• In many languages, such as English, [h] and [ɦ] are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare phonation. Phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of Phonetics. ^[23]
• It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives [ʃ ʒ], [ɕ ʑ], and [ʂ ʐ].

Coarticulation

Coarticulated consonants are sounds that involve two simultaneous places of articulation (are pronounced using two parts of the vocal tract). Co-articulated consonants or complex consonants are consonants produced with two simultaneous places of articulation. In Articulatory phonetics, the place of articulation (also point of articulation) of a Consonant is the point of contact where an Obstruction The vocal tract is that cavity in animals and humans where sound that is produced at the sound source ( Larynx in mammals syrinx in birds is filtered In English, the [w] in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, because it is pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Other languages, such as French and Swedish, have different coarticulated consonants. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the

Note

• [ɧ] is described as a "simultaneous [ʃ] and [x]". The voiceless labiovelar approximant (traditionally called a voiceless labiovelar fricative) is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The voiced labiovelar (actually labialized velar) approximant is a type of Consonantal sound used in certain spoken Languages including The labial-palatal approximant is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced alveolo-palatal fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The so-called voiceless palatal-velar fricative (also called a voiceless dorso-palatal velar fricative, voiceless postalveolar and velar fricative, or voiceless ^[24] However, this analysis is disputed. (See voiceless palatal-velar fricative for discussion. The so-called voiceless palatal-velar fricative (also called a voiceless dorso-palatal velar fricative, voiceless postalveolar and velar fricative, or voiceless )

Affricates and double articulation

Affricates and doubly articulated stops are represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar, either above or below the symbols. Affricate Consonants begin as stops (most often an alveolar, such as or) but release as a fricative (such as or or occasionally into Doubly articulated consonants are consonants with two simultaneous primary places of articulation of the same manner (both plosive or both nasal etc The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage,^[1] because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example tˢ for t͡s, paralleling kˣ ~ k͡x. The symbols for the palatal plosives, <c ɟ>, are often used as a convenience for [t͡ʃ d͡ʒ] or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.

Note

• If your browser uses Arial Unicode MS to display IPA characters (or indeed any of the Microsoft-supplied IPA-capable fonts up through Windows Vista), the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font: ts͡, tʃ͡, tɕ͡, dz͡, dʒ͡, dʑ͡, tɬ͡, kp͡, ɡb͡, ŋm͡. The voiceless alveolar affricate is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced alveolar affricate is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless palato-alveolar affricate or domed postalveolar affricate is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages It is The voiced palato-alveolar affricate, also described as voiced domed postalveolar affricate, is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced alveolo-palatal affricate is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless alveolar lateral affricate is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiceless labial-velar plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced labial-velar plosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The labial-velar nasal stop is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents In digital Typography, the TrueType font Arial Unicode MS is an extended version of the font Arial. Microsoft Corporation is an American multinational Computer technology Corporation, which rose to dominate the Home computer Windows Vista (ˈvɪstə is a line of Operating systems developed by Microsoft for use on Personal computers including home and business desktops

Non-pulmonic consonants

Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include clicks (found in the Khoisan languages of Africa) and implosives (found in languages such as Swahili). The Khoisan languages (also Khoesaan languages) are the indigenous languages of southern and eastern Africa; in southern Africa their speakers are the Khoi Implosive consonants are stops (rarely Affricates with a mixed Glottalic ingressive and Pulmonic egressive Airstream mechanism. Swahili (called Kiswahili in the language itself is the First language of the Swahili people (Waswahili who inhabit several large stretches

Notes

• Clicks are double articulated and have traditionally been described as having a forward 'release' and a rear 'accompaniment', with the click letters representing the release. Clicks are speech sounds such as English tsk! tsk! used to express disapproval or the tchick! used to spur on a horse Implosive consonants are stops (rarely Affricates with a mixed Glottalic ingressive and Pulmonic egressive Airstream mechanism. In Phonetics, ejective consonants are Voiceless Consonants that are pronounced with simultaneous closure of the Glottis. A voiced bilabial implosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced alveolar implosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The bilabial ejective is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The voiced palatal implosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The alveolar ejective is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The voiced velar implosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The velar ejective is a type of Consonantal Sound, used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The voiced uvular implosive is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The alveolar ejective fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that Therefore all clicks would require two letters for proper notation: [k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ] etc. , or [ǂ͡k, ǂ͡ɡ, ǂ͡ŋ, ǂ͡q, ǂ͡ɢ, ǂ͡ɴ]. When the dorsal articulation is omitted, a [k] may usually be assumed. However, recent research disputes the concept of 'accompaniment'. ^[25] In such approaches, the click letter represents both articulations, there is no velar-uvular distinction, and the accompanying letter represents the manner of the click: [ǂ, ^ɡǂ, ^ŋǂ] etc.
• Symbols for the voiceless implosives [ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ] are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Instead, the IPA uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: [ɓ̥, ʛ̥], etc.
• Although not confirmed from any language, and therefore not explicitly recognized by the IPA, a retroflex implosive, [ᶑ], is supported in the Unicode Phonetic Extensions Supplement, added in version 4. Retroflex implosives have not been confirmed to exist in any language though one has been claimed for Ngad'a, an Austronesian language spoken 1 of the Unicode Standard, or can be created as a composite [ɗ̡].
• The ejective symbol often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in glottalized but pulmonic sonorants, such as [mˀ], [lˀ], [wˀ], [aˀ]. A glottalic consonant is a Consonant produced with some important contribution (a movement a closure of the Glottis (the opening that leads from the nose and mouth In Phonetics and Phonology, a sonorant is a Speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the Vocal tract. These may also be transcribed as creaky [m̰], [l̰], [w̰], [a̰].

Vowels

Main article: Vowel

An X-Ray shows the sounds [i, u, a, ɑ]

Tongue positions of cardinal front vowels with highest point indicated. In Phonetics, a vowel is a Sound in spoken Language, such as English ah! or oh!, pronounced with an open Vocal tract Cardinal vowels are a set of reference vowels used by phoneticians in describing the sounds of languages The position of the highest point is used to determine vowel height and backness

The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center. ^[26] Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue.

The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by vowel height. In Phonetics, a vowel is a Sound in spoken Language, such as English ah! or oh!, pronounced with an open Vocal tract Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, [ɑ] (said as the "a" in "palm") is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. However, [i] (said as the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth.

In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by vowel backness. In Phonetics, a vowel is a Sound in spoken Language, such as English ah! or oh!, pronounced with an open Vocal tract Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as [ɛ], the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as [ʌ], the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart.

In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a rounded vowel (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart. In Phonetics, vowel roundedness refers to the amount of rounding in the Lips during the articulation of a Vowel.

• View the vowel chart as an image

Edit - 2×	Front	Near-front	Central	Near-back	Back
Close	i • y ɨ • ʉ ɯ • u ɪ • ʏ • ʊ e • ø ɘ • ɵ ɤ • o ə ɛ • œ ɜ • ɞ ʌ • ɔ æ ɐ a • ɶ ɑ • ɒ
Near‑close
Close‑mid
Mid
Open‑mid
Near‑open
Open

Notes

• [a] officially represents a front vowel, but there is little distinction between front and central open vowels, and [a] is frequently used for an open central vowel. This is a version of the IPA Vowel chart designed for browsers currently set to display large text sizes A front vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far forward A near-front vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a near-front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as A central vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a central vowel is that the tongue is positioned halfway between A near-back vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a near-back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as A back vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as A close vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in many spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a close vowel is that the tongue is positioned as close as The close front unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in many spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The close front rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The close central unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents } The close central rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The close back unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The close back rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents Near-close near-front unrounded vowel The near-close near-front unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The The near-close near-front rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The near-close near-back vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet for Close-mid front unrounded vowel The close-mid front unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the The close-mid front rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The close-mid central unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The close-mid central rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The close-mid back unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages Its symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet is ɤ The close-mid back rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents The mid central vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound The open-mid front unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The open-mid front rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The open-mid central unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The open-mid central rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The open-mid back unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The open-mid back rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The near-open central vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The open front unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The open front rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that The open back unrounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet The open back rounded vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that A near-close vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a near-close vowel is that the tongue is positioned similarly A close-mid vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a close-mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned two-thirds A mid vowel is a Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned mid-way between an The open-mid vowels make a class of Vowel sounds used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of an open-mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned A near-open vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a near-open vowel is that the tongue is positioned similarly An open vowel is a Vowel sound of a type used in most spoken Languages The defining characteristic of an open vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far as ^[13]
• [ʊ] and [ɪ] were written as <ɷ> and <ɩ> respectively in older versions of the IPA.

Diacritics

Diacritics are small markings which are placed around the IPA letter in order to show a certain alteration or more specific description in the letter's pronunciation. ^[27] Sub-diacritics (markings normally placed below a letter or symbol) may be placed above a symbol having a descender (informally called a tail), e. g. ŋ̊. ^[27]

The dotless i, <ı>, is used when the dot would interfere with the diacritic. Other IPA symbols may appear as diacritics to represent phonetic detail: tˢ (fricative release), bʱ (breathy voice), ˀa (glottal onset), ᵊ (epenthetic schwa), o^ʊ (diphthongization). More advanced diacritics were developed in Extensions to the IPA for more specific pronunciation encoding. The Extensions to the IPA are extensions of the International Phonetic Alphabet and were designed for disordered speech.

Notes

a^ With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is also voiced. A syllabic consonant is a Consonant which either forms a Syllable of its own or is the nucleus of a syllable Semivowels — also known as glides or non-syllabic vowels —are Vowels that form Diphthongs with full syllabic vowels Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the Vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed An unreleased stop or unreleased plosive is a Plosive consonant without an audible release burst In Phonetics, a nasal release is the release of a Plosive consonant into a nasal stop. In Phonetics, a lateral release is the release of a Plosive consonant into a Lateral consonant. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Breathy voice (also called murmured voice, soughing, or susurration) is a Phonation in which the Vocal cords vibrate as they do in Vocal fry registerIn Linguistics, creaky voice (sometimes called laryngealisation, pulse phonation or vocal fry or glottal fry) In Linguistics, a dental consonant or dental is a Consonant that is articulated with the tongue against the upper teeth such as /t/ /d/ /n/ and Linguolabials or apicolabials are Consonants articulated by placing the tongue tip or blade against the upper lip which is drawn downward to meet the tongue A laminal consonant is a Phone produced by obstructing the air passage with the blade of the tongue which is the flat top front surface just behind the tip of the In descriptions of Phonetics and Phonology, the manner and place of articulation of a speech sound may be specified relative to some point of In descriptions of Phonetics and Phonology, the manner and place of articulation of a speech sound may be specified relative to some point of In descriptions of Phonetics and Phonology, the manner and place of articulation of a speech sound may be specified relative to some point of In descriptions of Phonetics and Phonology, the manner and place of articulation of a speech sound may be specified relative to some point of The voiced alveolar fricatives are Consonantal sounds The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents these sounds depends on whether a Sibilant In descriptions of Phonetics and Phonology, the manner and place of articulation of a speech sound may be specified relative to some point of The voiced bilabial fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet In Phonetics, vowel roundedness refers to the amount of rounding in the Lips during the articulation of a Vowel. In Phonetics, vowel roundedness refers to the amount of rounding in the Lips during the articulation of a Vowel. "Lip rounding" redirects here See Roundedness for the lip rounding of vowels Palatalization or palatalisation (ˌpælətəlɨˈzeɪʃən generally refers to two phenomena As a process or the result of a process Velarization is a Secondary articulation of Consonants by which the back of the Tongue is raised toward the velum during the articulation of the Pharyngealization is a Secondary articulation of Consonants or Vowels by which the Pharynx or Epiglottis is constricted during the articulation The Velarized Alveolar lateral approximant, which may actually be Pharyngealized, also known as dark l is a type of Consonantal sound In Phonetics, advanced tongue root and retracted tongue root, abbreviated ±ATR are contrasting states of the root of the Tongue during the pronunciation In Phonetics, advanced tongue root and retracted tongue root, abbreviated ±ATR are contrasting states of the root of the Tongue during the pronunciation In Phonetics, nasalization is the production of a sound while the velum is lowered so that some air escapes through the nose during the production of the sound by In Phonetics, vocalic r refers to the phenomenon of a Rhotic segment such as or occurring as the Syllable nucleus. Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice.

b^ Some linguists restrict this breathy-voice diacritic to sonorants, and transcribe obstruents as bʱ. In Phonetics and Phonology, a sonorant is a Speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the Vocal tract.

The state of the glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics. The glottis is defined as the combination of the Vocal folds and the space in between the folds (the Rima glottidis) A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis phonation are:

Suprasegmentals

These symbols describe the features of a language above the level of individual consonants and vowels, such as prosody, tone, length, and stress, which often operate on syllables, words, or phrases: that is, elements such as the intensity, pitch, and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the rhythm and intonation of speech. Phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of Phonetics. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Breathy voice (also called murmured voice, soughing, or susurration) is a Phonation in which the Vocal cords vibrate as they do in The term slack voice (or lax voice) describes the pronunciation of consonants with a glottal opening slightly wider than that occurring in Modal voice. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless The term stiff voice describes the pronunciation of consonants with a glottal opening narrower and the vocal cords stiffer than what occurs in Modal voice. Vocal fry registerIn Linguistics, creaky voice (sometimes called laryngealisation, pulse phonation or vocal fry or glottal fry) In Linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσωδία) is the Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech Tone is the use of pitch in Language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is to distinguish or inflect words In Phonetics, length or quantity is a feature of sounds that are distinctively longer than other sounds In Linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain Syllables in a word In Grammar, a phrase is a group of Words that functions as a single unit in the Syntax of a sentence. Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement symmetry" is the variation of the length and accentuation of In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words ^[28] Although most of these symbols indicate distinctions that are phonemic at the word level, symbols also exist for intonation on a level greater than that of the word. Phonological hierarchy describes a series of increasingly smaller regions of a phonological utterance ^[28]

Finer distinctions of tone may be indicated by combining the tone diacritics and letters shown here, though not many fonts support this. A syllable ( Greek:) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds In French, most written word-final Consonants are silent in most contexts In Linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσωδία) is the Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech In Linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσωδία) is the Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words Tone letters are Written characters that represent the tones of a language especially Contour tones that were invented by Yuen Ren Chao and adopted In Phonetics, downstep is a phonemic or Phonetic downward shift of tone between the syllables or words of a tonal language In Phonetics, upstep is a phonemic or Phonetic upward shift of tone between the syllables or words of a tonal language Examples can be seen on the PDF version of the IPA chart at the beginning of this article. A work-around sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author does not wish to completely abandon the IPA, is to restrict generic rising ɔ̌ and falling ɔ̂ for the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, ɔ˥˧ and ɔ˧˥, and to use the non-standard subscript diacritics ɔ̗ and ɔ̖ for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, ɔ˩˧ and ɔ˧˩.

Obsolete symbols and nonstandard symbols

Main article: Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet

The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA possess a variety of obsolete and nonstandard symbols. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is ɷ which has been standardised to ʊ. Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: ƍ for zʷ is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ has been dropped; they are now written ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥ respectively.

There are also unsupported or ad hoc symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. Ad hoc is a Latin phrase which means "for this [ Purpose ]" This is especially common with affricates such as ƛ for t͡ɬ (the "tl" in "Nahuatl"). Nahuatl ( is a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan or Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family

IPA extensions

Main article: Extensions to the IPA

Extensions to the IPA, also often abbreviated as extIPA, is a group of symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe disordered speech. The Extensions to the IPA are extensions of the International Phonetic Alphabet and were designed for disordered speech. Speech disorders or speech impediments, as they are also called are a type of Communication disorders where 'normal' speech is disrupted At the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial set of symbols for the Extended IPA. The IPA Kiel Convention was an event maintained by the International Phonetic Association in 1989 held in Kiel Germany. ^[29] Extensions to the IPA were first published in 1990, and modified over the next few years before its official publication in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association in 1994 allowed it to be officially adopted by the ICPLA. The International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association is an international Scholarly association dedicated to the study of Speech disorders and other ^[30] While its original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used it to designate a number of unique sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips. The Extensions to the IPA have also been used to record certain peculiarities in an individual's voice, such as nasalized voicing. ^[2]

Aside from the extIPA, another set of symbols is used for voice quality (VoQS), such as whispering.

Segments that have no symbols in the IPA

The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ad hoc symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the retroflex lateral flap and the voiceless lateral fricative series, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. Ad hoc is a Latin phrase which means "for this [ Purpose ]" (See the grey symbols in the PDF chart. ) Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones. ^[31]

Consonants without letters

Consonant sounds are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial approximant is commonly written as a lowered fricative, [β̞]. Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, [ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]. A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. Banda is a group of languages spoken by the Banda in Central Africa. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap symbol and the advanced diacritic, [ѵ̟]. ^[32]

Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written [ʙ̪] (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and labiodental stops [p̪ b̪] rather than with the ad hoc symbols sometimes found in the literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e. g. [ɟ̆ ɢ̆ ʟ̆], though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted [r̠], just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals (ʟ̠ etc. ) and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.

Vowels without letters

The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering. ^[33] For example, the unrounded equivalent of [ʊ] can be transcribed as mid-centered [ɯ̽], and the rounded equivalent of [æ] as raised [ɶ̝]. True mid vowels are lowered [e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞], while centered [ɪ̈ ʊ̈] and [ä] are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are the compressed vowels, which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as [ʏ̫]. In Phonetics, vowel roundedness refers to the amount of rounding in the Lips during the articulation of a Vowel.

Symbol names

Main article: Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet

An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent since there is not a one-to-one correspondence between symbol and sound in broad transcription. The International Phonetic Alphabet requires specific names for the symbols and diacritics used in the alphabet While the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association states that no official names exist for symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each character that are commonly used. ^[34] The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard. In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls ɛ "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E".

The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified symbols. ^[VII] Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as [ʕ], may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol, and sometimes based on the sound that it represents. The voiced pharyngeal approximant/fricative is a type of Consonantal sound used in some spoken Languages The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet In Unicode, some of the symbols of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the symbols from the Greek section.

For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA uses the name of the symbol from a certain language, for example, é is acute, based on the name of the symbol in English and French. History An early precursor of the acute accent was the apex, used in Latin inscriptions to mark long vowels. In non-traditional diacritics, the IPA often names a symbol according to an object it resembles, as d̪ is called bridge.

ASCII transliterations, IPA influence on other phonetic alphabets

See also: Unicode and HTML

Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the ASCII character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Web pages authored using hypertext markup language ( HTML) may contain multilingual text represented with the Unicode universal character set. American Standard Code for Information Interchange ( ASCII) Notable systems include Kirshenbaum, SAMPA, and X-SAMPA. The Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet (SAMPA is a computer-readable phonetic script using 7-bit printable ASCII characters based on the International Phonetic The Extended Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet (X-SAMPA is a variant of SAMPA developed in 1995 by John C The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts.

See also

• Phonetic transcription
• Articulatory phonetics
• List of phonetics topics
• TIPA provides IPA support for LaTeX. Phonetic transcription (or phonetic notation) is the visual system of symbolization of the sounds occurring in spoken human Language. The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of Phonetics. A Acoustic phonetics Active articulator Affricate Airstream mechanism TIPA is a Free software package providing IPA and other phonetic character capabilities for TeX and LaTeX. LaTeX (ˈleɪtɛ
• SAMPA, X-SAMPA and Kirshenbaum are other methods of mapping IPA designations into ASCII. The Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet (SAMPA is a computer-readable phonetic script using 7-bit printable ASCII characters based on the International Phonetic The Extended Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet (X-SAMPA is a variant of SAMPA developed in 1995 by John C American Standard Code for Information Interchange ( ASCII)
• Unicode Phonetic Symbols
• Semyon Novgorodov - the inventor of IPA-based Yakut alphabet. Unicode supports several phonetic alphabets and notations through the existing writing systems and the addition of several phonetic extension blocks Semyon Andreyevich Novgorodov ( February 13 1892 – 28 February 1924) was a Yakut Politician and linguist, have been three major Sakha writing systems used since the early 20th century
• IAST
• IPA chart for English
• Ebauche

Notes

Citations

References

External links

General

• A little encyclopedia of phonetics, Peter Roach, Professor of Phonetics, University of Reading, UK. (pdf)
• The International Phonetic Association web site
• The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 2005) Symbols for all languages are shown on this one-page chart.
• IPA copy & paste charts, keyboards, etc by IPA.Webstuff.org
• Learning the IPA for English, (Standard American English)
• Information on IPA by Omniglot
• IPA Chart in Unicode and XHTML/CSS
• Using IPA fonts with Mac OS X: The Comprehensive Guide, an article explaining how to install and use freeware fonts and keyboard layouts to type in the International Phonetic Alphabet on OS X.

Free IPA font downloads

• Gentium, a professionally designed international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman and italic typefaces that includes the IPA, but not yet tone letters or the new labiodental flap. In Typography, "roman" type has two principal meanings both stemming from the stylistic origin of text typefaces from inscriptional capitals used in In Typography, italic type /ɪˈtælɪk/ or /aɪˈtælɪk/ refers to cursive Typefaces based on a stylized form of calligraphic Handwriting. For bold typefaces but only the most basic IPA letters, Gentium Basic may be used.
• Charis SIL, a very complete international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman, italic, and bold typefaces that includes tone letters and pre-composed tone diacritics on IPA vowels, the new labiodental flap, and many non-standard phonetic symbols. In Typography, emphasis is the exaggeration of words in a text with a font in a different style from the rest of the text&mdashto emphasise them Based on Bitstream Charter, this font suffers from extremely bad hinting when rendered by Freetype on Linux. FreeType is a software library written in C that implements a Font rasterization engine
• Doulos SIL, a Times/Times New Roman style font. It contains the same characters as Charis SIL, but only in a single face, roman.
• TIPA, a font and system for entering IPA phonetic transcriptions in LaTeX documents. LaTeX (ˈleɪtɛ

Keyboard input

• Complete Guide: Beginners’ guide to using IPA on Windows, Mac OS and Linux, covering many office applications and browsers
• Online keyboard
• IPA Character Picker Web-based input method
• Online keyboard with MP3 sound files for IPA symbols
• Downloadable IPA-SIL keyboard layout for Mac OS X for Unicode IPA input
• Downloadable IPA keyboard layout for Microsoft Windows for Unicode IPA input
• IPACharMap is an on-screen keyboard for point and click character entry, which can then be copied and pasted into a unicode-aware word processor. MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3, more commonly referred to as MP3, is a Digital audio encoding format using a form of Lossy data compression In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's Based on IPA Palette.
• IPA Palette is the Mac OS X version of IPACharMap.
• Microsoft Template - Creates a Toolbar for Microsoft Word. (Please be aware this uses Macros)

Sound files

• Paul Meier Dialect Services — IPA Charts, including English diphthongs
• Peter Ladefoged's Course in Phonetics (with sound files)
• IPA chart with AIFF sound files for IPA symbols
• An introduction to the sounds of languages
• IPA chart with MP3 sound files for all IPA symbols on the chart (limited version is available to anyone)
• Flash version of IPA charts, with sound samples
• Another set of IPA sound samples
• Complete IPA chart with sound samples, including English diphthongs

Unicode charts

• Unicode chart for main IPA lettersPDF (127 KB)
• Unicode chart for IPA modifier lettersPDF (97. MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3, more commonly referred to as MP3, is a Digital audio encoding format using a form of Lossy data compression 9 KB)
• Unicode chart including IPA diacriticsPDF (112 KB)
• International Phonetic Alphabet in Unicode
• Unicode-HTML codes for IPA symbols: Tables of symbol names, character entity references and/or numeric character references at PennState. In the Markup languages SGML, HTML, XHTML and XML, a character entity reference is a reference to a particular kind of named A numeric character reference (NCR is a common markup construct used in SGML and other SGML-based markup languages such as HTML and XML. The Pennsylvania State University (commonly known as Penn State) is a state-related, land-grant, space grant public research University
• MySQL Unicode collation chart for IPA and other phonetic blocks