Painting of various ethnic groups from the Americas, early 20th century. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America

The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas, their descendants, and many ethnic groups who identify with those peoples. The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets Notions of race based on Human genetic variation have replaced historical approaches such as Craniology with the advent of Human genetics in Human genetic variation is the natural variation in gene frequencies observed between the genomes of individuals or groups of humans The historical definition of race was an immutable and distinct type or Species, sharing distinct racial characteristics such as constitution temperament Race and health research is mostly from the United States. It has found both current and historical racial differences in the frequency treatments and availability of treatments The study of race and intelligence is a controversial field which seeks to determine whether or not human intellectual abilities vary between races The modern controversy Social interpretation of physical variation Incongruities of racial classifications Even as the idea of "race" was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that Anti-miscegenation laws, also known as miscegenation laws, were laws that banned Interracial marriage and sometimes interracial sex between whites and members of other Racialism is an emphasis on race or racial considerations Racialism entails a belief in the existence and significance of racial categories but not necessarily in a Racial profiling is the inclusion of racial or ethnic characteristics in determining whether a person is considered likely to commit a particular type of crime or The United States is a racially diverse country There is an extensive history of race-based Slavery, the abolishment of it and its economic Brazil is a racially diverse and Multiracial country Intermarriage among different Ethnic groups has been part of the country's history Human evolution, or anthropogenesis, is the part of biological Evolution concerning the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct Species Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is This is a list of topics related to Racism: A Affirmative action Afrocentrism Anti-Arabism The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America They are often also referred to as Native Americans, First Nations and by Christopher Columbus' historical mistake Indians, modernly disambiguated as the American Indian race, American Indians, Amerindians, Amerinds or Red Indians. The Native American name controversy is an ongoing dispute over the acceptable ways to refer to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas and to the broad subsets thereof such Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets

According to the still-debated New World migration model, a migration of humans from Eurasia to the Americas took place via Beringia, a land bridge which formerly connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait. There are several popular models of migration to the New World proposed by the anthropological community For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. The Bering land bridge was a Land bridge roughly 1000 miles (1600 km north to south at its greatest extent which joined present-day Alaska and eastern Siberia A land bridge, in Biogeography, is an Isthmus or other land connection between otherwise separate areas which allows Animals and Plants The Bering Strait (Берингов пролив Beringov proliv) is a sea Strait between Cape Dezhnev, Russia, the easternmost point (169°43' The minimum time depth by which this migration had taken place is confirmed at c. 12,000 years ago, with the upper bound (or earliest period) remaining a matter of some unresolved contention. ^[1] These early Paleoamericans soon spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. Paleo-Indians or Paleo-Americans were the ancient peoples of the Americas who were present at the end of the last Ice Age. ^[2] According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living there since their genesis, described by a wide range of traditional creation accounts. Creation mythIn comic book terminology, an origin story is an account or Back-story revealing how a character or team gained their superpowers or the circumstances

Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who thought that he had arrived in the East Indies, while seeking India. Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer The Indies or East Indies (or East India) is a term often used to refer to the islands of SE Asia, especially the Malay Archipelago India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country This has served to imagine a kind of racial or cultural unity for the aboriginal peoples of the Americas. Once created, the unified "Indian" was codified in law, religion, and politics. The unitary idea of "Indians" was not originally shared by indigenous peoples, but many now embrace the identity.

While some indigenous peoples of the Americas were historically hunter-gatherers, many practiced aquaculture and agriculture. A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including Molluscs Crustaceans and aquatic plants Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping, taming, and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. ^[3] Some societies depended heavily on agriculture while others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and massive empires. The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status A chiefdom is a type of complex society of varying degrees of centralization that is led by an individual known as a chief. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that

History

See also: Archaeology of the Americas and Models of migration to the New World

Original peopling of the Americas

See also: Models of migration to the New World, Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas, and Solutrean hypothesis

Language families of North American indigenous peoples

Scholars who follow the Bering Strait theory agree that most indigenous peoples of the Americas descended from people who probably migrated from Siberia across the Bering Strait, anywhere between 9,000 and 50,000 years ago. The archaeology of the Americas is the study of the Archaeology of North America, Central America (or Mesoamerica) South America There are several popular models of migration to the New World proposed by the anthropological community There are several popular models of migration to the New World proposed by the anthropological community Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact describes alleged interactions between the Indigenous peoples of the Americas and peoples of other continents – Africa, Ethnographers commonly classify Indigenous peoples in the United States and Canada into ten geographical regions with shared cultural traits The Solutrean hypothesis proposes that stone tool technology of the Solutrean culture in prehistoric Europe may have later influenced the development of the Clovis Human migration denotes any movement by Humans from one locality to another sometimes over long distances or Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving The Bering Strait (Берингов пролив Beringov proliv) is a sea Strait between Cape Dezhnev, Russia, the easternmost point (169°43' The time frame and exact routes are still matters of debate, and the model faces continuous challenges. A 2006 study (to be published in Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology) reports new DNA-based research that links DNA retrieved from a 10,000-year-old fossilized tooth from an Alaskan island, with specific coastal tribes in Tierra del Fuego, Ecuador, Mexico, and California. Tierra del Fuego ( Spanish for " Land of Fire " in English tiˈɛərə dɛl ˈfweɪgoʊ] Spanish ˈtjerað̞elˈfweɰo is an Archipelago For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. ^[4] Unique DNA markers found in the fossilized tooth were found only in these specific coastal tribes, and were not comparable to markers found in any other indigenous peoples in the Americas. This finding lends substantial credence to a migration theory that at least one set of early peoples moved south along the west coast of the Americas in boats. However, these results may be ambiguous, as there are other issues with DNA research and biological and cultural affiliation as outlined in Peter N. Jones' book Respect for the Ancestors: Cultural Affiliation and Cultural Continuity in the American West.

One result of these waves of migration is that large groups of peoples with similar languages and perhaps physical characteristics as well, moved into various geographic areas of North, and then Central and South America. While these peoples have traditionally remained primarily loyal to their individual tribes, ethnologists have variously sought to group the myriad of tribes into larger entities which reflect common geographic origins, linguistic similarities, and lifestyles. ^[5]

Remnants of a human settlement in Monte Verde, Chile dated to 12,500 years B.P. (another layer at Monteverde has been tentatively dated to 33,000–35,000 years B. Monte Verde is an Archaeological site in south-central Chile, which has been dated to 14500 years before present Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Before Present (BP years are a time scale used in Archaeology, Geology, and other scientific disciplines to specify when events in the past occurred P. ) suggests that southern Chile was settled by peoples who entered the Americas before the peoples associated with the Bering Strait migrations. It is suggested that a coastal route via canoes could have allowed rapid migration into the Americas.

The traditional view of a relatively recent migration has also been challenged by older findings of human remains in South America; some dating to perhaps even 30,000 years old or more. Some recent finds (notably the Luzia Woman in Lagoa Santa, Brazil) are claimed to be morphologically distinct from most Asians and are more similar to Africans, Melanesians and Australian Aborigines. Luzia Woman is the name for the skeletal Remains of a prehistoric woman found in a cave in Brazil, South America. For Lagoa Santa a municipality in Goiás see Lagoa Santa Goiás Lagoa Santa is a municipality and region in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil This is an article about a class of people as identified and defined within Australian law These American Aborigines would have been later displaced or absorbed by the Siberian immigrants. The name American Aborigines has been proposed by some archaeologists and anthropologists for hypothetical peoples who lived in The Americas prior to the arrival of The distinctive Fuegian natives of Tierra del Fuego, the southernmost tip of the American continent, are speculated to be partial remnants of those Aboriginal populations. Fuegians are the indigenous inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, at the southern tip of South America. Tierra del Fuego ( Spanish for " Land of Fire " in English tiˈɛərə dɛl ˈfweɪgoʊ] Spanish ˈtjerað̞elˈfweɰo is an Archipelago These early immigrants would have either crossed the ocean by boat or traveled north along the Asian coast and entered America through the Northwest, well before the Siberian waves. This theory is presently viewed by many scholars as conjecture, as many areas along the proposed routes now lie underwater, making research difficult. Some scholars believe the earliest forensic evidence for early populations appears to more closely resemble Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders, and not those of Northeast Asia. ^[6]

Scholars' estimates of the total population of the Americas before European contact vary enormously, from a low of 10 million to a high of 112 million. ^[7] Some authors see ideological underpinnings in this population debate. An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics For example, Robert Royal writes that "estimates of pre-Columbian population figures have become heavily politicized with scholars who are particularly critical of Europe and/or Western civilization often favoring wildly higher figures. "^[8] Some scholars believe that most of the indigenous population resided in Mesoamerica and South America, with approximately 10 percent residing in North America, prior to European colonization. Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined ^[9]

The Solutrean hypothesis suggests an early European migration into the Americas^{[10][11][12][13]} and that stone tool technology of the Solutrean culture in prehistoric Europe may have later influenced the development of the Clovis tool-making culture in the Americas. The Solutrean hypothesis proposes that stone tool technology of the Solutrean culture in prehistoric Europe may have later influenced the development of the Clovis The European peoples are the various Nations and Ethnic groups of Europe. The Solutrean industry is a relatively advanced flint tool-making style of the Upper Palaeolithic. The Clovis culture (sometimes referred to as the Llano culture) is a Prehistoric Paleoindian culture that first appears in the archaeological Some of its key proponents include Dr. Dennis Stanford of the Smithsonian Institution and Dr. Dennis Stanford is the head of the Archaeology Division and Director of the Paleo-Indian Program at the National Museum of Natural History at the Smithsonian The Smithsonian Institution (smɪθsoʊnɪən is an educational and research institute and associated Museum complex administered and funded by the Government of Bruce Bradley of the University of Exeter. The University of Exeter (usually abbreviated as Exon for post-nominals) is a University in the South West of In this hypothesis, peoples associated with the Solutrean culture migrated from Ice Age Europe to North America, bringing their methods of making stone tools with them and providing the basis for later Clovis technology found throughout North America. An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets The hypothesis rests upon particular similarities in Solutrean and Clovis toolmaking styles, and the fact that no predecessors of Clovis technology have been found in Eastern Asia, Siberia or Beringia, areas from which or through which early Americans are thought to have migrated. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving The Bering land bridge was a Land bridge roughly 1000 miles (1600 km north to south at its greatest extent which joined present-day Alaska and eastern Siberia

American Indian creation legends tell of a variety of originations of their respective peoples. Some were "always there" or were created by gods or animals, some migrated from a specified compass point, and others came from "across the ocean". ^[14]

Vine Deloria, Jr., author and Nakota activist, cites some of the oral histories that claim an in situ origin in his book Red Earth, White Lies, rejecting the Bering Strait land bridge route. Vine Deloria Jr ( March 26, 1933 – November 13, 2005) was an American Indian author theologian historian and activist Sioux (pronounced SUE are a Native American and First Nations people In situ (ɪn siːˈtuː is a Latin phrase meaning in the place. Red Earth White Lies Native Americans and the Myth of Scientific Fact is a book by Native American author Vine Deloria, originally published in 1995 Deloria takes a Young Earth position, arguing that Native Americans actually originated in the Americas. Young Earth creationism (YEC is the religious belief that Heaven, Earth, and Life on Earth were created by a direct act of God dating ^[15]

Recent genetic research

An article in the American Journal of Human Genetics states "Our results strongly support the hypothesis that haplogroup X, together with the other four main mtDNA haplogroups, was part of the gene pool of a single Native American founding population; therefore they do not support models that propose haplogroup-independent migrations, such as the migration from Europe posed by the Solutrean hypothesis. "^[16] The National Geographic Genographic Project identified haplogroup Q-M242 as the YDNA male ancestor of the "Siberian Clan," some of whom remained in Asia, but that today "almost all Native Americans are descendants from this man. The Genographic Project, launched in April 2005, is a five-year genetic anthropology study that aims to map historical human migration patterns by collecting and analyzing In the study of Molecular evolution, a haplogroup, from "ἁπλο-" (Greek haplo-: simple or single + "group" is a group of similar Haplotypes In Human genetics, a Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup is a Haplogroup defined by differences in the non- recombining portions of DNA from the "^[17]

European colonization

Cultural areas of North America at time of European contact.

Further information: European colonization of the Americas, Population history of American indigenous peoples, and Columbian Exchange

The European colonization of the Americas forever changed the lives, bloodlines and cultures of the peoples of the continent. The start of the European colonization of the Americas is typically dated to 1492 although there was at least one earlier colonization effort It is thought that up to 100 million indigenous people may have lived in The Americas when the 1492 voyage of Christopher Columbus began a historical period of large-scale The Columbian Exchange has been one of the most significant events in the history of world Ecology, Agriculture, and Culture. The Population history of American indigenous peoples postulates that disease exposure, displacement, and warfare may have diminished populations. It is thought that up to 100 million indigenous people may have lived in The Americas when the 1492 voyage of Christopher Columbus began a historical period of large-scale An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units ^[18][19] The first indigenous group encountered by Columbus were the 250,000 Tainos of Hispaniola who were the dominant culture in the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. The Taínos were pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles. Hispaniola (from Spanish, La Española) is the second-largest and most populous Island of the Antilles, lying between the islands of In thirty years, about 70% of the Tainos died. ^[20] Enslaved, forced to labour in the mines, mistreated, the Tainos began to adopt suicidal behaviors, with women aborting or killing their newly-born children, men jumping from the cliffs or ingesting manioc, a violent poison ^[20]. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations especially in modern or early modern history in which people are employed against their will A suicide crisis, suicidal crisis, or potential suicide, is a situation in which a person is attempting to kill him or herself or is seriously contemplating The cassava, yuca, manioc, or mandioca ( Manihot esculenta) is a woody Shrub of the Euphorbiaceae (spurge family native They were not immune to European diseases, so outbreaks of measles and smallpox ravaged their population. Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. ^[21]

Reasons for the decline of the Native American populations are variously theorized to be from diseases, conflicts with Europeans, and conflicts among warring tribes. This article is a list of major Epidemics. Worldwide pandemics The following are Epidemics which spread across several continents Endemic warfare is the state of continual low-threshold Warfare in a tribal Warrior society More recently, collective mobilization among the indigenous peoples in the Americas has required the incorporation of closely-knit local communities into a broader national and international framework of political action. In biological terms a community is a group of interacting Organisms sharing an environment.

Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives. A pandemic (from Greek παν pan all + δήμος demos people is an Epidemic of Infectious disease that spreads through A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly ^[22][23] After first contacts with Europeans and Africans, some believe that the death of 90 to 95% of the native population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases. The European peoples are the various Nations and Ethnic groups of Europe. The term African people can refer to people who live in Africa, or people who trace their ancestry to Indigenous inhabitants of Africa. The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans Asians and Africans in the 15th century ^[24] Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Hispaniola (from Spanish, La Española) is the second-largest and most populous Island of the Antilles, lying between the islands of Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. ^[25] Within a few years smallpox killed between 60% and 90% of the Inca population, with other waves of European disease weakening them further. ^[26] Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618—all ravaged the remains of Inca culture. Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria Diphtheria ( Greek διφθερα ( diphthera)—“pair of leather scrolls" is an upper respiratory tract illness characterized by sore Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Smallpox had killed millions of native inhabitants of Mexico. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. ^[27] Unintentionally introduced at Veracruz with the arrival of Panfilo de Narvaez on April 23, 1520, smallpox ravaged Mexico in the 1520s,^[28] killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlán alone, including the emperor, and was credited with the victory of Cortes over the Aztec empire at Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City) in 1521. Pánfilo de Narváez (1470 &ndash 1528 was a Spanish conqueror and soldier in the Americas. Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at There are some towns in Mexico which are spelled "Tenochtitlán" like San Lorenzo Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca ( 1485&ndash December 2, Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political ^[29]

In 1633 in Plymouth, Massachusetts, the Native Americans were struck by the virus. Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population groups of Native Americans. ^[30] It reached Lake Ontario in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679. Lake Ontario is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. The Iroquois Confederacy (also known as the "League of Peace and Power" the "Five Nations" the "Six Nations" or the "People of the Longhouse ^[31][32] During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the West Coast Native Americans. The " West Coast " " Western Seaboard " or " Pacific Seaboard " are terms for the westernmost coastal states of the Western United States ^[33] Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic population depletion among the Plain Indians. The smallpox epidemic that ravaged the people of the Great Plains in 1837 and 1838 was believed to have began in spring of 1837 when a deckhand became ill aboard an American The Plains Indians are the Indigenous peoples who live on the plains and rolling hills of the Great Plains of North America. ^[34][35] By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832). The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The smallpox vaccine was the first successful vaccine ever to be developed ^[36][37]

In Brazil the indigenous population has declined from a pre-Columbian high of an estimated 3 million to some 300,000 in 1997. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld The Indigenous peoples in Brazil ( Portuguese: povos indígenas) comprise a large number of distinct Ethnic groups who inhabited the country prior to ^[38][39]

Later explorations of the Caribbean led to the discovery of the Aruak peoples of the lesser Antilles. The term Arawak (from aru, the Lokono word for Cassava flour was used to designate the Amerindians encountered by the Spanish in The culture was extinct by 1650. Only 500 had survived by the year 1550, though the bloodlines continued through the modern populace. In Amazonia, indigenous societies weathered centuries of colonization^[40]

The Spaniards and other Europeans brought horses to the Americas. The Amazon Rainforest (Brazilian Portuguese: Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia; Spanish: Selva Amazónica or Amazonía The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries The Columbian Exchange has been one of the most significant events in the history of world Ecology, Agriculture, and Culture. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. ^[41] The re-introduction of the horse had a profound impact on Native American culture in the Great Plains of North America and of Patagonia in South America. The Great Plains are the broad expanse of Prairie and Steppe which lie east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada Llao LLaojpg|thumb|250px| Lake Nahuel Huapi, near Bariloche, Argentina This new mode of travel made it possible for some tribes to greatly expand their territories, exchange many goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture game. Game is any Animal hunted for Food or not normally domesticated (such as Venison)

Agriculture

Over the course of thousands of years, a large array of plant species were domesticated, bred and cultivated by the indigenous peoples of the American continent. These species now constitute 50–60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide ^[42]. In certain cases, the indigenous peoples developed entirely new species and strains through artificial selection, as was the case in the domestication and breeding of maize from wild teosinte grasses in the valleys of southern Mexico. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica The teosintes are a group of large grasses of the genus Zea found in Mexico, Guatemala and Nicaragua. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. A great number of these agricultural products still retain native names (Nahuatl and others) in the English and Spanish lexicons. Nahuatl ( is a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan or Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States

Many crops first domesticated by indigenous Americans are now produced and/or used globally. Largest among these is maize or "corn", arguably the most important crop in the world ^[43]. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Other significant crops include cassava, squash (pumpkins, zucchini, marrow, acorn squash, butternut squash, others), the pinto bean, Phaseolus including most common beans, tepary beans and lima beans were also all first domesticated and cultivated by indigenous peoples in the Americas); the tomato, the potatoes, avocados, peanuts, cocoa beans (used to make chocolate), vanilla, strawberries, pineapples, Peppers (species and varieties of Capsicum, including bell peppers, jalapeños, paprika and chili peppers) sunflower seeds, rubber, brazilwood, chicle, some species of cotton, tobacco, coca. The cassava, yuca, manioc, or mandioca ( Manihot esculenta) is a woody Shrub of the Euphorbiaceae (spurge family native Squashes generally refer to four species of the genus Cucurbita native to the Mexico and Central America, also called marrows depending Phaseolus ( Bean, Wild Bean) is a Genus in the Family Fabaceae of about fifty Plant Species, The Tepary bean ( Phaseolus acutifolius, Fabaceae) is native to the southwestern United States and Mexico and has been Phaseolus lunatus is a Legume. It is grown for its seed which is eaten as a vegetable The tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum, syn Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is a herbaceous usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae The avocado ( Persea americana) (from Nahuatl āhuacatl) also known as aguacate ( Spanish) butter pear or The peanut, or Groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea) is a species in the Legume family Fabaceae native to South America, Mexico Cocoa is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of the cacao tree from which Chocolate is made Chocolate ( pronounced or /-ˈələt/ comprises a number of raw and processed foods that are produced from the seed of the tropical Cacao tree Vanilla is a Flavoring derived from Orchids of the genus Vanilla native to Mexico. Garden strawberries are a common variety of strawberry cultivated worldwide Pineapple ( Ananas comosus) is the common name for an edible Tropical Plant and also its Fruit It is native to the southern part of Brazil Capsicum is a Genus of Plants from the nightshade family ( Solanaceae) native to the Americas, where it was cultivated for thousands Capsicum is a Genus of Plants from the nightshade family ( Solanaceae) native to the Americas, where it was cultivated for thousands "Green pepper" redirects here For green peppercorns see Black pepper. The jalapeño ( Nahuatl: xalapeño ( or /ˌhæləˈpeɪnjoʊ/ Castilian, Mexican) is a medium to large size Chili pepper Paprika is a spice made from the grinding of dried sweet red or green Bell peppers ( Capsicum annuum) The chili pepper, chilli pepper, or chili, is the fruit of the plants from the Genus Capsicum, which are members of the nightshade The sunflower ( Helianthus annuus) is an Annual plant in the family Asteraceae and native to the Americas, with a large flowering Brazilwood or Pau-Brasil, sometimes known as Pernambuco ( Caesalpinia echinata Syn Chicle is the Natural gum from Manilkara chicle, which is a tropical evergreen tree native to Central America. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Not to be confused with Cocoa. Coca is a Plant in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to north-western South America

There is evidence that native peoples in the United States area were a few hundred years from domesticating the black bear (presumably for an oxen- or horse-like use)^[44]

Culture

The Cascajal Block. These undeciphered glyphs have been termed "Olmec hieroglyphs". A glyph is an element of writing Two or more glyphs representing the same symbol whether interchangeable or context-dependent are called Allographs the abstract unit they Cascajal Block is a writing tablet-sized Serpentine slab which has been dated to the early first millennium BCE incised with hitherto unknown characters that may represent

Cultural practices in the Americas seem to have been mostly shared within geographical zones where otherwise unrelated peoples might adopt similar technologies and social organizations. An example of such a cultural area could be Mesoamerica, where millennia of coexistence and shared development between the peoples of the region produced a fairly homogeneous culture with complex agricultural and social patterns. Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined Another well-known example could be the North American plains area, where until the 19th century, several different peoples shared traits of nomadic hunter-gatherers primarily based on buffalo hunting. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that Within the Americas, dozens of larger and hundreds of smaller culture areas can be identified.

Writing Systems

An independent origin and development of writing is counted among the many achievements and innovations of pre-Columbian American cultures. The region of Mesoamerica produced a number of indigenous writing systems from the 1st millennium BCE onwards. Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined Mesoamerica, like Mesopotamia, China, and Egypt, is one of the few places in the world where writing has developed independently What may be the earliest-known example in the Americas of an extensive text thought to be writing is by the Cascajal Block. Cascajal Block is a writing tablet-sized Serpentine slab which has been dated to the early first millennium BCE incised with hitherto unknown characters that may represent The Olmec hieroglyphs tablet has been indirectly dated from ceramic shards found in the same context to approximately 900 BCE, around the time that Olmec occupation of San Lorenzo began to wane. The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states ^[45]

The Maya writing system (often called hieroglyphs from a superficial resemblance to the Ancient Egyptian writing) was a combination of phonetic symbols and logograms. A writing system is a type of Symbolic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in Language. The Maya script, also known as Maya hieroglyphs, was the writing system of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica, presently Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Phonetics (from the Greek φωνή ( phonê) "sound" or "voice" is the study of the physical sounds of human speech A logogram, or logograph, is a Grapheme which represents a word or a Morpheme (a meaningful unit of language It is most often classified as a logographic or (more properly) a logosyllabic writing system, in which syllabic signs play a significant role. A logogram, or logograph, is a Grapheme which represents a word or a Morpheme (a meaningful unit of language A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate Syllables which make up Words A symbol in a syllabary typically represents an optional It is the only writing system of the Pre-Columbian New World which is known to completely represent the spoken language of its community. In total, the script has more than a thousand different glyphs, although a few are variations of the same sign or meaning, and many appear only rarely or are confined to particular localities. A glyph is an element of writing Two or more glyphs representing the same symbol whether interchangeable or context-dependent are called Allographs the abstract unit they At any one time, no more than around 500 glyphs were in use, some 200 of which (including variations) had a phonetic or syllabic interpretation.

Aztec codices (singular codex) are books written by pre-Columbian and colonial-era Aztecs. Aztec codices (singular Codex) are Books written by Pre-Columbian and colonial-era Aztecs A codex ( Latin for block of wood, Book; plural codices) is a book in the format used for modern books with separate pages normally A Book is a set or collection of written printed illustrated or blank sheets made of Paper, Parchment, or other material usually fastened together The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political These codices provide some of the best primary sources for Aztec culture. The pre-Columbian codices differ from European codices in that they are largely pictorial; they were not meant to symbolize spoken or written narratives. ^[46] The colonial era codices not only contain Aztec pictograms, but also Classical Nahuatl (in the Latin alphabet), Spanish, and occasionally Latin. Aztec or Nahuatl writing is a pictographic Pre-Columbian Writing system used in central Mexico by the Nahua peoples Classical Nahuatl (also known as Aztec, and simply Nahuatl) is a term used to describe the variants of the Nahuatl language that were spoken in the Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.

Music and art

Native American music in North America is almost entirely monophonic, but there are notable exceptions. American Indian music is the Musics that are shared by or that distinguish American Indian Tribes and First Nations. In Music, texture is the overall quality of sound of a piece, most often indicated by the number of voices in the music and by the relationship between Traditional Native American music often includes drumming but little other instrumentation, although flutes are played by individuals. The drum is a member of the percussion group technically classified as a Membranophone. The flute is a Musical instrument of the Woodwind family Unlike other woodwind instruments a flute is a Reedless wind instrument that produces its The tuning of these flutes is not precise and depends on the length of the wood used and the hand span of the intended player, but the finger holes are most often around a whole step apart and, at least in Northern California, a flute was not used if it turned out to have an interval close to a half step.

Music from indigenous peoples of Central Mexico and Central America often was pentatonic. A pentatonic scale is a musical scale with five pitches per Octave in contrast to an heptatonic (seven note scale such as the Major scale Before the arrival of the Spaniards it was inseparable from religious festivities and included a large variety of percussion and wind instruments such as drums, flutes, sea snail shells (used as a kind of trumpet) and "rain" tubes. No remnants of pre-Columbian stringed instruments were found until archaeologists discovered a jar in Guatemala, attributed to the Maya of the Late Classic Era (600–900 AD), which depicts a stringed musical instrument which has since been reproduced. This instrument is astonishing in at least two respects. First, it is the only stringed instrument known in the Americas prior to the introduction of European musical instruments. A string instrument (or stringed instrument) is a Musical instrument that produces Sound by means of Vibrating strings In the Hornbostel-Sachs Second, when played, it produces a sound virtually identical to a jaguar's growl. A sample of this sound is available at the Princeton Art Museum website.

Art of the indigenous peoples of the Americas composes a major category in the world art collection. Contributions include pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry,carvings and hair pipes. Pottery is the Ceramic ware made by potters It also refers to a group of materials that includes Earthenware, Stoneware Painting (pān'tīng in Art, is the practice of applying Color to a Surface (support base such as e Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones This article describes textile weaving For other senses of this word see Weaving (disambiguation. Basket weaving (also basketry, basket making, or basketmaking) is the process of Weaving unspun Vegetable Fibers into

Demography of contemporary populations

The following table provides estimates of the per-country populations of indigenous people, and also those with part-indigenous ancestry, expressed as a percentage of the overall country population of each country that is comprised by indigenous peoples, and of people with partly indigenous descent. The total percentage obtained by adding both of these categories is also given (One should note however that these categories, especially the second one, are inconsistently defined and measured differently from country to country).

History and status by country

Argentina

See also: Demographics of Argentina

See also: List of indigenous languages in Argentina

Argentina's indigenous population is about 403. This article is about the Demographics features of the Population of Argentina, including distribution ethnicity, economic status and other This is a list of Indigenous languages that are or were spoken in the present territory of Argentina. 000 (0. 9 percent of total population). ^[49] Indigenous nations include the Toba, Wichí, Mocoví, Pilagá, Chulupí, Diaguita-Calchaquí, Kolla, Guaraní (Tupí Guaraní and Avá Guaraní in the provinces of Jujuy and Salta, and Mbyá Guaraní in the province of Misiones), Chorote (Iyo'wujwa Chorote and Iyojwa'ja Chorote), Chané, Tapieté, Mapuche (probably the largest indigenous nation in Argentina) and Tehuelche. The Toba are an ethnic group in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay. The Wichí are an indigenous people of South America. They are a large group of tribes ranging about the headwaters of the Bermejo River and the Pilcomayo River The Mocoví language is a Guaicuruan language of Argentina spoken by about 4500 people mostly in Santa Fé province Pilagá is a language spoken by 2000 people in the Bermejo and Pilcomayo River valleys western Formosa Province, in addition to Chaco Nivaclé is a Mataco language spoken in Paraguay by 18000 and Argentina by 200 The Diaguita, also called Diaguita-Calchaquí, are a group of South American indigenous peoples. The Calchaquí were a tribe of South American Indians of the Diaguita group now extinct who formerly occupied northern Argentina. South Bolivian Quechua, also known as Central Bolivian Quechua, is a variety of Southern Quechua, spoken mainly in Bolivia and belonging to Qusqu-Qullaw Guaraní are a group of culturally related indigenous peoples of South America, distinguished from the related Tupi by their use of the Guaraní language Manhui (Iyo'wujwa Chorote is a Mataco language spoken by about 2000 people mostly in Argentina where it is spoken by about 1500 people 50% of whom are monolingual Eklenhui (Iyojwa'ja Chorote is a language spoken in northeast Salta province in Argentina by 800 Chané was a Dialect of the Terena language (aka Tereno an Extinct language of Argentina and Bolivia. Tapieté is a Tupi-Guaraní language spoken by 33 Paraguayans (Out of an ethnic group numbering 513 to 1519 100 Argentines and 70 Bolivians The Mapuche are the indigenous inhabitants of Central and Southern Chile and Southern Argentina. Tehuelches is the collective name of the native tribes of Patagonia. The Selknam (Ona) people is now virtually extinct in its pure form. The Selk'nam, also known as the Ona, lived in the Patagonian region of in southern Chile and Argentina including the Tierra del Fuego The languages of the Diaguita, Tehuelche, and Selknam nations are now extinct or virtually extinct: the Cacán language (spoken by Diaguitas) in the 18th century, the Selknam language in the 20th century; whereas one Tehuelche language (Southern Tehuelche) is still spoken by a small handful of elderly people.

Belize

Mestizos (European with indigenous peoples) number about 45 percent of the population; unmixed Maya make up another 6. The Maya peoples constitute a diverse range of the Native American peoples of southern Mexico and northern Central America. 5 percent. The Garifuna, who came to Belize in the 1800s, originating from St. Vincent and the Grenadines, with a mixed African, Carib, and Arawak ancestry make up another 5% of the population. The Garinagu (singular Garifuna) are an ethnic group of mixed ancestry who live primarily in Central America. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is an island nation in the Lesser Antilles chain of the Caribbean Sea. Cariban languages Carib, Island Carib or Kalinago people after whom the Caribbean Sea was named live in the Lesser Antilles islands The term Arawak (from aru, the Lokono word for Cassava flour was used to designate the Amerindians encountered by the Spanish in

Bolivia

In Bolivia about 2. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. 5 million people speak Quechua, 2. Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. 1 million speak Aymara, while Guaraní is only spoken by a few hundred thousand people. The Aymara are a native Ethnic group in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America; about 1 Guaraní are a group of culturally related indigenous peoples of South America, distinguished from the related Tupi by their use of the Guaraní language The languages are recognized; nevertheless, there are no official documents written in those languages. However, the constitutional reform in 1997 for the first time recognized Bolivia as a multilingual, pluri-ethnic society and introduced education reform. In 2005, for the first time in the country's history, an indigenous Aymara, Evo Morales, was elected as president. Juan Evo Morales Ayma (born October 26 1959 in Orinoca, Oruro) popularly known as Evo (ˈeβo is the President of Bolivia since

Brazil

Brazilian Indigenous chiefs of the Kayapo tribe: Raony, Kaye, Kadjor, Panara. The Kayapo people are the Gê -speaking native peoples of the plain lands of the Mato Grosso and Para in Brazil, south of the Amazon Basin

Korubo man from the Brazilian Amazon. The Korubu is the name given to a tribe of Indigenous people living in the Javari Valley, in the Western Amazon Basin. The Amazon Rainforest (Brazilian Portuguese: Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia; Spanish: Selva Amazónica or Amazonía

See also: Indigenous peoples in Brazil

See also: List of Indigenous peoples in Brazil

The Amerindians make up 0. The Indigenous peoples in Brazil ( Portuguese: povos indígenas) comprise a large number of distinct Ethnic groups who inhabited the country prior to See also Indigenous peoples in Brazil Uncontacted peoples in Brazil Links Enciclopédia dos Povos 4% of Brazil's population, or about 700,000 people. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld ^[50] Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the majority of them live in Indian reservations in the North and Centre-Western part of the country. On 18 January 2007, FUNAI reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. Uncontacted peoples are peoples who either by choice or chance live or have lived without significant contact with the 'modern' civilizations of the world With this addition Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes. New Guinea, located just north of Australia, is the world's second largest island, having become separated from the Australian mainland when the area now known ^[51]

Canada

Bill Reid's sculpture The Raven and The First Men, showing part of a Haida creation myth. A creation myth is a supernatural mytho-[[religion religious]] story or explanation that describes the beginnings of humanity, Earth, life, and The Raven represents the Trickster figure common to many mythologies. In Mythology, and in the study of Folklore and Religion, a trickster is a God, Goddess, spirit, man woman or anthropomorphic The work is in the University of British Columbia Museum of Anthropology, Vancouver. The University of British Columbia ( UBC) is a Canadian public research University with campuses near Vancouver and in Kelowna

Main article: Aboriginal peoples in Canada

The most commonly preferred term for the indigenous peoples of what is now Canada is Aboriginal peoples. Aboriginal people in Canada, also known as Canadian aboriginal citizens, are people who belong to recognized indigenous groups in the Canadian Constitution Act Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Aboriginal people in Canada, also known as Canadian aboriginal citizens, are people who belong to recognized indigenous groups in the Canadian Constitution Act Of these Aboriginal peoples who are not Inuit or Métis, "First Nations" is the most commonly preferred term of self-identification. Inuit (plural the singular Inuk, means "man" or "person" is a general term for a group of culturally similar Indigenous peoples inhabiting The Métis are descendants of marriages of Cree, Ojibway Algonquin, Saulteaux, and Menominee aboriginals to Europeans, First Nations is a term of Ethnicity that refers to the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis people Aboriginal peoples make up approximately 3. 8 percent of the Canadian population. [2]

Chile

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Chile

Less than 5 percent of Chileans belong to indigenous peoples, such as the Mapuche in the country's central valley and lake district, and the Mapuche successfully fought off defeat in the first 300–350 years of Spanish rule during the War of Arauco. Indigenous peoples in Chile form about 5% of the total population (692000 self-identified persons of indigenous origins were registered in 2002. This is a list of Chileans who are famous or notable Economists/ Entrepreneurs Eduardo Aninat - finance minister during The Mapuche are the indigenous inhabitants of Central and Southern Chile and Southern Argentina. The Arauco War was a long conflict between colonial Spaniards and the Mapuche people of the region of Araucanía, of modern Chile. Relation with the new Chilean Republic were good until the Chilean state decided to occupy their lands. During the Occupation of Araucanía the Mapuche surrendered to the country's army in the 1880s. The Occupation of the Araucania (1861–1883 was a series of Military campaigns agreements and penetrations by the Chilean army and Settlers The former land was opened to settlement for mestizo and white Chileans. Conflict over Mapuche land rights continued until present days.

Sculpture of a Chibchan-Sutagao Native American standing at the entrance of Fusagasugá, Colombia

Colombia

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Colombia

A small minority today within Colombia's overwhelmingly Mestizo and Afro-Colombian population, Colombia's indigenous peoples nonetheless encompass at least 85 distinct cultures and more than 1,378,884 people^[52]. Fusagasugá (or Fusa) is a town and municipality in the department of Cundinamarca, in central Colombia. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. The Indigenous peoples in Colombia ( pueblos indígenas in Spanish) comprise a large number of distinct Ethnic Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. Mestizo is a Spanish term that was coined during the Spanish Empire to refer to people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry in Latin Afro Colombians refers to Colombians of Black African ancestry and the great impact they have had on Colombian culture A variety of collective rights for indigenous peoples are recognized in the 1991 Constitution.

One of these is the Muisca culture, a subset of the larger Chibcha ethnic group, famous for their use of gold, which led to the legend of El Dorado. Muisca refers to a nation of the Chibchan Culture that formed the Muisca Confederation encountered by the Spanish at the time of the conquest of what is now part Chibcha, also known as Muisca or Mosca, is "officially" an extinct Chibchan language of Colombia, formerly spoken by Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 El Dorado ( Spanish for "the golden one") is a Legend that began with the story of a South American tribal chief who covered himself At the time of the Spanish conquest, the Chibchas were the largest native civilization between the Incas and the Aztecs. The Spanish colonization of the Americas was Spain 's conquest settlement and rule over much of the Western hemisphere. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political

Costa Rica

Costa Rica was the site of many indigenous cultures, but only eight remain today: Bribri, Brunka, Cabecar, Chorotega, Guaymi, Huetar, Maleku and Terraba, also called Teribe or Naso. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in The Bribri are a small indigenous tribe around 10000 members living in the Talamanca canton inside of the Limón Province in Costa Rica The Boruca (also known as the Brunca or the Brunka) are an indigenous people living in Costa Rica. Chorotega is the name of an indigenous people of Honduras, Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The Guaymí or Ngäbe are an indigenous group living mainly within the Ngöbe-Buglé comarca (or reserve in the Western Panamanian provinces of Veraguas The Maleku are an indigenous Tribe in Costa Rica located in the Guaruso Indigenous Reserve near the town of Guatuso ( San

Ecuador

Ecuador was the site of many indigenous cultures, and civilizations of different proportions. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. An early sedentary culture, known as the Valdivia culture, developed in the coastal region, while the Caras and the Quitus unified to form an elaborate civilization that ended at the birth of the Capital Quito. The Valdivia culture is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas The Quitus were the aboriginal occupants of the now capital of Ecuador, Quito. The Cañaris near Cuenca were the most advanced, and most feared by the Inca, due to their fierce resistance to the Incan expansion. Their architecture remains were later destroyed by Spaniards and the Incas. Many Amerindian natives still exist today living in isolation with little contact to the outerworld. Most natives remained unmixed in the fusion that occurred after colonization because they inhabited such remote areas like the jungle, and the Andes. Many of the Cañaris, and other natives still occupy their ancestors' original locations.

Guatemala

Many of the indigenous peoples of Guatemala are of Maya heritage. Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest The Maya peoples constitute a diverse range of the Native American peoples of southern Mexico and northern Central America. Other groups are Xinca people and Garífuna. The Xinca are a non-Mayan indigenous people of Mesoamerica, with communities in the southern portion of Guatemala, near its border with El Salvador The Garinagu (singular Garifuna) are an ethnic group of mixed ancestry who live primarily in Central America.

Pure Maya account for some 40 percent of the population; although around 40 percent of the population speaks an indigenous language, those tongues (of which there are more than 20) enjoy no official status.

El Salvador

Much of El Salvador was home to the Pipil, Lenca, and a number of Maya. The Pipil are an indigenous people who live in western El Salvador. The Pipil lived in western El Salvador and spoke Nahuatl like their Aztec and Maya counterparts, and had many settlements there. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. Nahuatl ( is a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan or Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas The Pipil had no treasure but held land that had rich and fertile soil, good for farming, this both disappointed and brought attention to the Spaniards who were shocked not to find gold or jewels in El Salvador like they did in other lands like Guatemala or Mexico, but later learned of the fertile land El Salvador had to offer and attempted to conquer it. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. At first the Pipil had repelled Spanish Attacks but after many other attacks they had stopped fighting and many were sadly used for labor by Spaniards. Today many Pipil and Indigenous populations live in small towns of El Salvador like Izalco and Nahuizalco. Izalco is a Municipality in the Sonsonate department of El Salvador. Nahuizalco is a Municipality in the Sonsonate department of El Salvador.

Mexico

Main article: Indigenous peoples of Mexico

Benito Juárez, an indigenous Zapotec and President of Mexico from 1858 to 1872. Mexico, in the second article of its Constitution, is defined as a "pluricultural" nation in recognition of the diverse ethnic groups that constitute it Benito Pablo Juárez García (benit̪o paβ̞lo xwaɾes gaɾsia ( March 21, 1806 – July 18, 1872) was a Zapotec Amerindian He was the first Mexican president with indigenous roots.

The territory of modern-day Mexico was home to numerous indigenous civilizations prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores: The Olmecs, who flourished from between 1200 BCE to about 400 BCE in the coastal regions of the Gulf of Mexico; the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, who held sway in the mountains of Oaxaca and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; the Maya in the Yucatán (and into neighbouring areas of contemporary Central America); the Purepecha or Tarascan in present day Michoacán and surrounding areas, and the Aztecs, who, from their central capital at Tenochtitlan, dominated much of the centre and south of the country (and the non-Aztec inhabitants of those areas) when Hernán Cortés first landed at Veracruz. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. This article is about the Spanish explorer soldiers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuriesfor other uses see Conquistador (disambiguation A Conquistador The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states The Gulf of Mexico ( Spanish: Golfo de México) is the ninth largest Body of water in the world The Mixtec (or Mixteca) are an indigenous Mesoamerican people inhabiting the Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and Puebla The Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca ( Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), in Spanish phonemically /oa'xaka/ named for its largest city, is one of the The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is an Isthmus in Mexico. It represents the shortest distance between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, and The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas Yucatán is one of the 31 states of Mexico, located on the north of the Yucatán Peninsula. Michoacán formally Michoacán de Ocampo (from Nahuatl Michhuacān "place of the fishermen" is one of the 31 constituent states Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political There are some towns in Mexico which are spelled "Tenochtitlán" like San Lorenzo Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca ( 1485&ndash December 2, The city of Veracruz is a major port city and municipality on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz.

In contrast to what was the general rule in the rest of North America, the history of the colony of New Spain was one of racial intermingling (mestizaje). The Viceroyalty of New Spain (Virreinato de Nueva España was a name given to the Viceroy -ruled territories of the Spanish Empire in North America, Mestizo is a Spanish term that was coined during the Spanish Empire to refer to people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry in Latin Mestizos quickly came to account for a majority of the colony's population; however, significant pockets of pure-blood indígenas (as the native peoples are now known) have survived to the present day. Mestizo is a Spanish term that was coined during the Spanish Empire to refer to people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry in Latin

With mestizos numbering some 60 percent of the modern population, estimates for the numbers of unmixed indigenous peoples vary from 13% percent (pure Amerindian, as reported by the National Commission for the Development of the Indigenous Peoples)^[53] to 30 percent (predominantly Ameridian)^[54] of the population. The National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples ( Spanish: Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, CDI is a decentralized

In the states of Chiapas and Oaxaca and in the interior of the Yucatán peninsula the majority of the population is indigenous. Chiapas is the southernmost state of Mexico, located towards the southeast of the country The Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca ( Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), in Spanish phonemically /oa'xaka/ named for its largest city, is one of the Yucatán is one of the 31 states of Mexico, located on the north of the Yucatán Peninsula. Large indigenous minorities, including Nahuas, Purépechas, and Mixtecs are also present in the central regions of Mexico. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political The Mixtec (or Mixteca) are an indigenous Mesoamerican people inhabiting the Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and Puebla In Northern Mexico indigenous people are a small minority.

The General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples grants all indigenous languages spoken in Mexico, regardless of the number of speakers, the same validity as Spanish in all territories in which they are spoken, and indigenous peoples are entitled to request some public services and documents in their native languages. ^[55] Along with Spanish, the law has granted them –more than 60 languages– the status of "national languages". The law includes all Amerindian languages regardless of origin; that is, it includes the Amerindian languages of ethnic groups non-native to the territory. As such the National Commission for the Development of the Indigenous Peoples recognizes the language of the Kickapoo, who immigrated from the United States,^[56] and recognizes the languages of the Guatemalan Amerindian refugees. The National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples ( Spanish: Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, CDI is a decentralized The Kickapoos ( Kickapoo: Kiikaapoa or Kiikaapoi) are one of the Algonquian speaking Native American Tribes The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest ^[57] The Mexican government has promoted and established bilingual primary and secondary education in some indigenous rural communities. Nonetheless, of the 13% of pure indigenous peoples in Mexico, only about 67% of them (or 7. 1% of the country's population) speak an Amerindian language and about a tenth (1. 2% of the country's population) do not speak Spanish. ^[58]

The indigenous peoples in Mexico have the right of free determination under the second article of the constitution. According to this article the indigenous peoples are granted:^[59]

• the right to decide the internal forms of social, economic, political and cultural organization;

the right to apply their own normative systems of regulation as long as human rights and gender equality are respected;

• the right to preserve and enrich their languages and cultures;
• the right to elect representatives before the municipal council in which their territories are located;

amongst other rights.

Nicaragua

Main article: Miskito

The Miskito are Native American people in Central America. The Miskitos are a group of Native Americans in Central America. Their territory expands from Cape Cameron, Honduras, to Rio Grande, Nicaragua along the Miskito Coast. Honduras in Spanish, República de Honduras) is a democratic republic in Central America. Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America The Caribbean Mosquito Coast (or Miskito Coast) historically consisted of an area along the Atlantic coast of present-day Nicaragua, named after its native There is a native Miskito language, but large groups speak Miskito creole English, Spanish, Rama and others. Miskito is a Misumalpan language spoken by the Miskito people in northeastern Nicaragua, especially in the North Atlantic Autonomous Region Mískito Coast Creole or Nicaragua Creole English is a language spoken in Nicaragua based on English. The creole English came about through frequent contact with the British. Many are Christians.

Over the centuries the Miskito have intermarried with escaped slaves who have sought refuge in Miskito communities. Maroons redirects here and may refer to Queensland state rugby league team. Traditional Miskito society was highly structured, with a defined political structure. A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions There was a king but he did not have total power. Instead, the power was split between him, a governor, a general, and by the 1750s, an admiral. A governor is a governing official usually the executive (at least nominally to different degrees also politically and administratively of a non-sovereign level of government Admiral is the rank, or part of the name of the ranks of the highest Naval officers Historical information on kings is often obscured by the fact that many of the kings were semi-mythical. The word mythology (from the Greek grc μυθολογία mythología, meaning "a story-telling a legendary lore"

Peruvian indigenous people, learning to read.

Peru

Main article: Indigenous Peoples in Peru

Most Peruvians are either indigenous or mestizos (of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry). The Indigenous peoples in Peru ( pueblos indígenas in Spanish) comprise a large number of distinct Ethnic groups who Peru is a multiethnic country It has a population of Amerindians 45% Mestizos 37% Whites 15% Asian Peruvians and Afro-Peruvians 3% Mestizo is a Spanish term that was coined during the Spanish Empire to refer to people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry in Latin Peru has the largest indigenous population of South America, and its traditions and customs have shaped the way Peruvians live and see themselves today. Cultural citizenship—or what Renato Rosaldo has called, "the right to be different and to belong, in a democratic, participatory sense" (1996:243)—is not yet very well developed in Peru. This is perhaps no more apparent than in the country's Amazonian regions where indigenous societies continue to struggle against state-sponsored economic abuses, cultural discrimination, and pervasive violence.

Throughout the Peruvian Amazon, indigenous peoples have long faced centuries of missionization, unregulated streams of colonists, land-grabbing, decades of formal schooling in an alien tongue, pressures to conform to a foreign national culture, and more recently, explosive expressions of violent social conflict fueled by a booming underground coca economy. The disruptions accompanying the establishment of extractive economies, coupled with the Peruvian state-sanctioned civilizing project, have led to a devastating impoverishment of Amazonia's richly variegated social and ecological communities. ^[60]

The most visited tourist destinations of Peru were built by indigenous peoples (the Quechua, Aymara, Moche, etc. The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. The Aymara are a native Ethnic group in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America; about 1 The Moche civilization (alternately the Mochica culture Early Chimu Pre-Chimu Proto-Chimu etc ), while Amazonian peoples, such as the Urarina, Bora, Matsés, Ticuna, Yagua, Shipibo and the Aguaruna, developed elaborate shamanic systems of belief prior to the European Conquest of the New World. The Urarina are an Indigenous people of the Peruvian Amazon Basin ( Loreto) who inhabit the Chambira, Urituyacu and Corrientes Rivers The Bora, are an indigenous Tribe of the Peruvian Colombian and Brazilian Amazon The Matsés or Mayoruna are an indigenous Tribe of the Peruvian and Brazilian Amazon. Tïcuna is a language spoken by approximately 40000 people in Brazil, Peru, and Colombia. The Yagua are a people in northeastern Peru numbering approximately 3000 to 4000 Shipibo (also Shipibo-Conibo, Shipibo-Konibo) is a Panoan language spoken in Peru and Brazil by approximately 26000 speakers For the Aguaruna people's language see Aguaruna language. The Aguaruna (or Awajún, the name they prefer are an indigenous The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. Macchu Picchu is considered one of the marvels of humanity, and it was constructed by the Inca civilization. Machu Picchu (Machu Pikchu "Old Peak" 'mɑtʃu 'piktʃu is a Pre-Columbian Inca site located 2400 meters (7875 ft above sea level Even though Peru officially declares its multi-ethnic character and recognizes at least six–dozen languages—including Quechua, Aymara and hegemonic Spanish—discrimination and language endangerment continue to challenge the indigenous peoples in Peru. Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. The Aymara are a native Ethnic group in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America; about 1 Hegemony (hɨˈdʒɛməni (Amer /hɨˈɡɛməni/ (Brit (ἡγεμονία hēgemonía) is a concept that has been used to describe and explain the dominance of one social Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is An endangered language is a Language that it is at risk of falling out of use generally because it has few surviving speakers ^[61]

United States

A Choctaw Belle, Painted by P. The Choctaw are a Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States ( Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana) Romer

Main article: Native Americans in the United States

Indigenous peoples in what is now the contiguous United States are commonly called "American Indians", or just "Indians" domestically, but are also often referred to as "Native Americans". Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States In Alaska, indigenous peoples, which include Native Americans, Yupik and Inupiat Eskimos, and Aleuts, are referred to collectively as Alaska Natives. The Yupik or in the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, Yup'ik, are a group of indigenous or aboriginal peoples of western southwestern and southcentral The Inupiat or Iñupiaq (from inuit- people - and piaq/t real i Eskimos or Esquimaux are Indigenous peoples who have traditionally inhabited the circumpolar region from eastern Siberia ( Russia) across The Aleuts ( self-denomination from Aleut language allíthuh 'community' older or regional self-denomination Unangax̂, Unangan or Alaska Natives are Indigenous peoples of the Americas native to the state of Alaska within the United States. Native Americans and Alaska Natives make up 2 percent of the population, with more than 6 million people identifying themselves as such, although only 1. 8 million are registered tribal members. A minority of U. S. Native Americans live in zones called Indian reservations. An Indian reservation is an area of land managed by a Native American Tribe under the United States Department of the Interior's Bureau There are also many Southwestern U. S. tribes, such as the Yaqui and Apache, that have registered tribal communities in Northern Mexico and several bands of Blackfoot reside in southern Alberta. There is further Native American ancestry by various extraction existing across all social races that is mostly unaccounted for.

An Inuit woman

Native cultures in Hawaii still thrive following annexation to the US. Inuit (plural the singular Inuk, means "man" or "person" is a general term for a group of culturally similar Indigenous peoples inhabiting The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the

Other parts of the Americas

Indigenous peoples make up the majority of the population in Bolivia and Peru, and are a significant element in most other former Spanish colonies. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Exceptions to this include Costa Rica, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Argentina, Dominican Republic, Chile, and Uruguay. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la Puerto Rico (ˌpwertoˈriko officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ("Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" {{lang-en|"Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"}} For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. The Dominican Republic ( Spanish: República Dominicana;) is a nation located in the Caribbean region and shares the island of Hispaniola with Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Uruguay.(official full name in República Oriental del Uruguay;, Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country located in the southeastern part of South America At least three of the native American languages (Quechua in Peru and Bolivia, Aymara also in Bolivia, and Guarani in Paraguay) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages. Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. Aymara ( Aymar aru) is an Aymaran language spoken by the Aymara people of the Andes. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. Guaraní are a group of culturally related indigenous peoples of South America, distinguished from the related Tupi by their use of the Guaraní language Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only

Native American name controversy

Main article: Native American name controversy

The Native American name controversy is an ongoing dispute over the acceptable ways to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas and to broad subsets thereof, such as those living in a specific country or sharing certain cultural attributes. The Native American name controversy is an ongoing dispute over the acceptable ways to refer to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas and to the broad subsets thereof such Once-common terms like "Indian" remain in use, despite the introduction of terms such as "Native American" and "Amerindian" during the latter half of the 20th century.

Rise of Indigenous Movements

In recent years, there has been a rise of indigenous movements in the Americas. These are rights-driven groups that organize themselves in order to achieve self-determination and the preservation of culture for their peoples. Organizations like the Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin and the Indian Council of South America are examples of movements that are breaking the barrier of borders in order to obtain rights for Amazonian indigenous populations everywhere. Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin (COICA was founded in 1984 in Lima Peru. Similar movements for indigenous rights can also be seen in Canada and the United States with movements like the International Indian Treaty Council. There has even been a recognition of indigenous movements on an international scale with the United Nations adopting the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly during its 62nd session at UN Headquarters

See also

Native American Warrior in Brazil, depicted by Jean-Baptiste Debret in the early 19th century

• History of the west coast of North America
• Indigenous languages of the Americas
• Population history of American indigenous peoples
• Uncontacted peoples
• Alaska Natives
• Native Hawaiians
• Pacific Islander
• Indigenous Movements in the Americas

Notes

References

• Cappel, Constance, "The Smallpox Genocide of the Odawa Tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: The History of a Native American People," Edwin Mellen Press, 2007, ISBN-10:0-7734-5220-6
• Churchill, Ward (1997). Ward LeRoy Churchill (born October 2 1947 is an American writer and political activist. A Little Matter of Genocide. City Lights Books. ISBN 0-872-86323-9.  
• Dean, Bartholomew (2003). "State Power and Indigenous Peoples in Peruvian Amazonia: A Lost Decade, 1990–2000", in David Maybury-Lewis (Ed. David Henry Peter Maybury-Lewis ( May 5 1929 &ndash December 2 2007) was an Anthropologist, Ethnologist of lowland ): The Politics of Ethnicity Indigenous Peoples in Latin American States, David Rockefeller Center Series on Latin American Studies. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, pp. Harvard University Press ( HUP) is a Publishing house, a division of Harvard University, that is highly respected in Academic publishing. 199–238. ISBN 0-674-00964-9.  
• Dean, Bartholomew (January 2006). "Salt of the Mountain: Campa Asháninka History and Resistance in the Peruvian Jungle (review)". The Americas 62 (3): pp. 464–466. doi:10.1353/tam.2006.0013. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0003-1615. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  
• Dean, Bartholomew; and Jerome M. Levi, (Eds. ) (2003). At the Risk of Being Heard; Identity, Indigenous Rights, and Postcolonial States. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. The University of Michigan Press is a University press that is part of the University of Michigan. ISBN 0-472-09736-9.  
• Jacobs, James Q. (2001). The Paleoamericans: Issues and Evidence Relating to the Peopling of the New World. Anthropology and Archaeology Pages. jqjacobs. net. Retrieved on 2007-06-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun.
• Jacobs, James Q. (2002). Paleoamerican Origins: A Review of Hypotheses and Evidence Relating to the Origins of the First Americans. Anthropology and Archaeology Pages. jqjacobs. net. Retrieved on 2007-06-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun.
• Jones, Peter N. (2005). Respect for the Ancestors: American Indian Cultural Affiliation in the American West. Boulder CO: Bauu Press. ISBN 0-972-13492-1.  
• Kane, Katie (1999). "Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination". Cultural Critique 42: pp. 81–103. doi:10.2307/1354592. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0882-4371. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  
• Krech, Shepard III (1999). The Ecological Indian: Myth and History. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-04755-5.  
• Mann, Charles C. (2005). Charles C Mann (fl 2000s is an American journalist and author specializing in scientific topics 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. 1491 New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus is a 2005 non-fiction book by American author Charles C New York: Knopf Publishing Group. ISBN 1-400-04006-X.  
• Skidmore, Joel (2006). The Cascajal Block: The Earliest Precolumbian Writing (PDF). Mesoweb Reports & News. Mesoweb. Retrieved on 2007-06-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun.
• Taylor, Alan (2001). American colonies. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-87282-2.  
• Thornton, Bruce S. (July 2006). New World, Old Myths: A review of Charles C. Mann's 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Claremont Review of Books. Retrieved on 2006-09-14. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 81 - Domitian becomes Emperor of the Roman Empire upon the death of his brother Titus.
• Varese, Stefano (2004). Salt of the Mountain: Campa Asháninka History and Resistance in the Peruvian Jungle, Susan Giersbach Rascón (trans. ), Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. The University of Oklahoma Press is the publishing arm of the University of Oklahoma. ISBN 0-806-13512-3.  

External links

• http://www.garviespointmuseum.com/indian-archaeology-long-island.php Native American Archaeology of Long Island, NY
• The Canadian Museum of Civilization - History of Native People of Canada
• Indigenous Women of the Americas
• Uncontacted Indian tribe found in Brazil's Amazon
• The Peopling of the American Continents
• Pre-European Exploration, Prehistory through 1540
• America's Stone Age Explorers
• A History of Aboriginal Treaties and Relations in Canada