| Indian Rebellion of 1857 | |||||||||
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| Part of Indian independence movement | |||||||||
 A 1912 map of the Great Uprising of 1857 showing the centres of rebellion including the principal ones: Meerut, Delhi, Cawnpore (Kanpur), Lucknow, Jhansi, and Gwalior. The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant Meerut ( Hindi: मेरठ Urdu: میرٹھ is a city and a Municipal corporation in Meerut district in the Indian Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population Kanpur ( Hindi: कानपुर Urdu: کان پور spelled as Cawnpore before 1948 is one of the most populous cities in the north India Kanpur ( Hindi: कानपुर Urdu: کان پور spelled as Cawnpore before 1948 is one of the most populous cities in the north India Lucknow is also a mansion in New Hampshire Lucknow ( लखनऊ لکھنؤ Lakhnaū) is the capital city of Uttar Pradesh Jhansi ( Urdu: جھانسی Hindi: झांसी Marathi:झाशी is a city of Uttar Pradesh state of northern India. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Gwalior ( Hindi: ग्वालियर) is a city in Madhya Pradesh in India | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Rebellious East India Company Sepoys,7 Indian princely states, deposed rulers of the independent states of Oudh, Jhansi Some Indian civilians. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or A sepoy (ˈsipɔɪ (from Persian سپاهی Sipâhi meaning "soldier" was a native of India, a soldier allied to a European power usually the For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a For the Oudh tree see Agarwood. Awadh ( Hindi: अवध Urdu: اودھ) also known in various British historical texts as Oudh Jhansi ( Urdu: جھانسی Hindi: झांसी Marathi:झाशी is a city of Uttar Pradesh state of northern India. |  British Army East India Company's Sepoys Native Irregulars and British regulars, British civilian volunteers raised in Bengal presidency20 Princely states aiding the British including the independent states of Nepal, Kashmir as well as smaller states in region | ||||||||
| Commanders | |||||||||
| Bahadur Shah II Nana Sahib Mirza Mughal Bakht Khan Rani Lakshmi Bai Tantya Tope Begum Hazrat Mahal | Commander-in-Chief, India: George Anson (to May 1857) Sir Patrick Grant Sir Colin Campbell from (August 1857) Jang Bahadur[1] | ||||||||
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of sepoys of British East India Company's army on the 10th of May 1857, in the town of Meerut, and soon erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, with the major hostilities confined to the region of present-day Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, northern Madhya Pradesh or Saugor and Nerbudda Territories, Delhi, and Gurgaon. The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or A sepoy (ˈsipɔɪ (from Persian سپاهی Sipâhi meaning "soldier" was a native of India, a soldier allied to a European power usually the For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar, also known as Bahadur Shah or Bahadur Shah II; 24 October 1775 7 November 1862 was the last of the Mughal Nana Sahib (born 1824 born as Dhondu Pant, was an Indian leader during the rebellion of 1857. Mirza Mughal (1817–1857 was the fifth son of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor Bakht Khan Rohilla (1797 - 1859 was nominal commander-in-chief of Indian rebel forces in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British East India Company Lakshmibai The Rani of Jhansi (c 1828 – 17 June 1858) ( Hindi - झाँसी की रानी Marathi Ram Chandra Pandurang Tope (1814 - 1859 also known as Tatya Tope (pronounced Toh-pey was an Indian leader in the Indian Mutiny of 1857. Begum Hazrat Mahal, also known as Begum of Awadh was the wife of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. The British Commander-in-Chief in India (or Commander-in-Chief of India) was the chief military commander for the British administration Field Marshal Sir Patrick Grant, GCB, GCMG (1804 &ndash 11 September 1895) was a senior British Army officer Field Marshal Colin Campbell 1st Baron Clyde, GCB, KSI ( October 20, 1792 &ndash August 14, 1863) was a Jung Bahadur (or Jang Bahadur) GCB, GCSI, ( June 18, 1816, Kathmandu, Nepal - February 25, 1877 A sepoy (ˈsipɔɪ (from Persian سپاهی Sipâhi meaning "soldier" was a native of India, a soldier allied to a European power usually the The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or Meerut ( Hindi: मेरठ Urdu: میرٹھ is a city and a Municipal corporation in Meerut district in the Indian The Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests is a tropical moist broadleaf forest Ecoregion of northern India. The Central India Agency was a political unit of British India, which covered the northern half of present-day Madhya Pradesh state Uttar Pradesh (उत्तर प्रदेश اتر پردیش pronounced, Translation: Northern Province) referred to as '''U Uttarakhand ( Hindi: उत्तराखण्ड or उत्तराखंड Uttar + Akhand i Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP) ( Hindī: मध्य प्रदेश pronounced, Translation: Middle Province) often The Saugor and Nerbudda Territories was a region of British India, located in central part of present-day Madhya Pradesh state in central India Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population Gurgaon (गुड़गांव is the sixth largest City in the Indian state of Haryana. [2] The rebellion posed a considerable threat to Company power in that region,[3] and it was contained only with the fall of Gwalior on 20 June 1858. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Gwalior ( Hindi: ग्वालियर) is a city in Madhya Pradesh in India [2] The rebellion is also known as India's First War of Independence, the Great Rebellion, the Indian Mutiny, the Revolt of 1857, and the Sepoy Mutiny. The First War of Indian Independence is a term sometimes used mainly in India to describe the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which has been described variously as "uprising"
The rebels quickly captured large swaths of the Northwest Provinces and Oudh, including Delhi, where they installed the Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of Hindustan. The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, more commonly the United Provinces, was a Province of British India, which existed from 1902 to 1947 Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar, also known as Bahadur Shah or Bahadur Shah II; 24 October 1775 7 November 1862 was the last of the Mughal Hindustan (हिन्दुस्तान, ہندوستان,) is one of the popular Names of India. The Company response came rapidly as well: by September 1857, with help from fresh British reinforcements, Delhi had been retaken. [2] Nevertheless, it then took the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be completely suppressed in Oudh. The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, more commonly the United Provinces, was a Province of British India, which existed from 1902 to 1947 [2]
Other regions of Company controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, and the Madras Presidency—remained largely calm. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang The Bombay Presidency was a former province of British India. Madras Presidency, also known as Madras Province and known officially as Presidency of Fort St [2] In Punjab, only recently annexed by the East India Company, the Sikh princes backed the Company by providing both soldiers and support. Punjab was a province of British India, it was one of the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to fall under British rule [2] The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, by not joining the rebellion, served, in the Governor-General Lord Canning's words, as "breakwaters in a storm" for the Company. Hyderābād and Berar (హైదరాబాదు حیدر آباد under the Nizams was the largest Princely state in the erstwhile Indian Empire The Kingdom of Mysore/State of Mysore (ಮೈಸೂರು ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ was both a Kingdom (1399-1799 CE and a Princely state (1799-1947 Travancore or Thiruvithaamkoor ( Malayalam: തിരുവിതാങ്കൂര് "Thiru" (respectful prefix which suggests either royal or This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Rājputāna, also called Rājwār was the name of present Rājasthān state the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area before its formation in 1949 CE The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and Charles John Canning 1st Earl Canning KG, GCB, GCSI, PC ( 14 December 1812 &ndash 17 June 1862) known [4]
In some regions, especially in Oudh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence;[5] however, although the rebel leaders, especially the Rani of Jhansi, became folk heroes in the burgeoning nationalist movement in India half a century later,[2] they themselves "generated no coherent ideology or programme on which to build a new order. Lakshmibai The Rani of Jhansi (c 1828 – 17 June 1858) ( Hindi - झाँसी की रानी Marathi The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant "[6] Still, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian history;[7] it led to the dissolution of the East India Company in 1858, and forced the British to reorganize the army, the financial system, and the administration in India. [8] India was thereafter governed directly from London—by the British government India Office and a cabinet level Secretary of State for India—in the new British Raj, a system of governance that lasted until 1947. The India Office was the British government department responsible for the direct administration of India during the British Raj. The office of Secretary of State for India or India Secretary was created in 1858 when Company rule in India ended and India was brought under direct British rule For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British [4]
Contents |
Brief history of East India Company expansion in India
Although the British East India Company had earlier administered the factory areas established for trading purposes, its victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of its rule in India. For usage see British rule in India Company rule in India (sometimes Company Raj, " raj," lit The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or The Battle of Plassey (পলাশীর যুদ্ধ Pôlashir Juddho) was a decisive British East India Company victory over the Nawab of Bengal The victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar (in Bihar), when the defeated Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II, granted control of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the Company. The Battle of Buxar was fought in October 1764 between the forces under the command Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. Shah Alam II (1728&ndash1806 also known as Ali Gauhar was a Mughal emperor of India. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. Orissa (ଓଡ଼ିଶା is a state located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras: the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–1799) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772–1818) gave it the control of most of India south of the Narmada River. The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of wars fought in India over the last three decades of the eighteenth-century between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British The Narmada नर्मदा Gujarati નર્મદા or Nerbudda (Narbada is a river in central India and the fifth largest river in the Indian subcontinent
At the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories. Richard Colley Wesley, later Wellesley 1st Marquess Wellesley KG PC ( 20 June 1760 – 26 September 1842) was [9] This was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. A subsidiary alliance is an alliance between a dominant nation and a nation that it dominates The subsidiary alliances created the Princely States (or Native States) of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs, prominent among which were Cochin (1791), Jaipur (1794), Travancore (1795), Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799), Cis-Sutlej Hill States (1815), Central India Agency (1819), Kutch and Gujarat Gaikwad territories (1819), Rajputana (1818), and Bahawalpur (1833). For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a The word Mahārāja (also spelled maharajah) is Sanskrit for "great king" or " High king " (a Karmadharaya from mahānt A Nawab or Nawaab ( Urdu: نواب Hindi: नवाब was originally the Subedar (provincial governor or viceroy of a The Kingdom of Cochin or Kochi (also known as Perumpadappu Swaroopam, Madarajyam, Gosree Rajyam, or Kuru Swaroopam; Geography In 1900 at the times of Jaipur Kingdom region had a total area of 15579 square miles (40349 km² Travancore or Thiruvithaamkoor ( Malayalam: തിരുവിതാങ്കൂര് "Thiru" (respectful prefix which suggests either royal or Hyderābād and Berar (హైదరాబాదు حیدر آباد under the Nizams was the largest Princely state in the erstwhile Indian Empire The Kingdom of Mysore/State of Mysore (ಮೈಸೂರು ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ was both a Kingdom (1399-1799 CE and a Princely state (1799-1947 The Cis-Sutlej states were a group of Sikh states in modern Punjab and Haryana states of northwestern India, lying between the Sutlej River The Central India Agency was a political unit of British India, which covered the northern half of present-day Madhya Pradesh state Rājputāna, also called Rājwār was the name of present Rājasthān state the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area before its formation in 1949 CE Bahawalpur was a Princely state of the Punjab in what is now Pakistan, stretching along the southern bank of the Sutlej and Indus Rivers [9] The annexed regions included the Northwest Provinces (comprising Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur, and the Doab, 1801), Delhi (1803), and Sindh (1843). Rohilkhand ( Hindi: रुहेलखण्ड Urdu: روہیل کھنڈ) is a region of northwestern Uttar Pradesh state of India Gorakhpur ( Hindi: गोरखपुर Urdu: گۋڙکھ پور is a city in the eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh in India, near A Doab ( Persian, Urdu: dō, "two" + āb, "water" or "river" is a term used in India and Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. Punjab, Northwest Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Anglo-Sikh Wars in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the Treaty of Amritsar (1850) to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP ( Urdu: śimāl maġribī sarhadī sūba) is the smallest of the four main provinces of Pakistan. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir The Treaty of Amritsar was signed on March 16, 1846 to settle a dispute over territory in Kashmir after the First Sikh War with the United The Dogras are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group in South Asia. They live predominantly in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir but also in adjoining History of Jammu Many historians and locals believe that Jammu was founded by Raja Jamboolochan in 14th century BC. In 1854 Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later. For the Oudh tree see Agarwood. Awadh ( Hindi: अवध Urdu: اودھ) also known in various British historical texts as Oudh
Causes of the rebellion
The rebellion began with military revolts by sepoys of the Bengal Presidency army; in 1857 the presidency consisted of present-day Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 had diverse political economic military religious and social causes A sepoy (ˈsipɔɪ (from Persian سپاهی Sipâhi meaning "soldier" was a native of India, a soldier allied to a European power usually the The Bengal Presidency originally comprising east and west Bengal was a colonial region of British India, which comprised undivided Bengal which is present day Bangladesh ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. Uttar Pradesh (उत्तर प्रदेश اتر پردیش pronounced, Translation: Northern Province) referred to as '''U However, most rebel soldiers were from the Uttar Pradesh region, and, in particular, from Northwest Provinces (especially, Ganga-Jumna Doab) and Oudh, and many came from landowning families. Uttar Pradesh (उत्तर प्रदेश اتر پردیش pronounced, Translation: Northern Province) referred to as '''U A Doab ( Persian, Urdu: dō, "two" + āb, "water" or "river" is a term used in India and The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, more commonly the United Provinces, was a Province of British India, which existed from 1902 to 1947 Within weeks of the initial mutinies—as the rebel soldiers wrested control of many urban garrisons from the British — the rebellion was joined by various discontented groups in the hinterlands, in both farmed areas and the backwoods. The latter group, forming the civilian rebellion, consisted of feudal nobility, landlords, peasants, rural merchants, and some tribal groups. The sepoys were a combination of Muslim and Hindu soldiers. A sepoy (ˈsipɔɪ (from Persian سپاهی Sipâhi meaning "soldier" was a native of India, a soldier allied to a European power usually the
In 1772, when Warren Hastings was appointed the first Governor-General of the Company’s Indian territories, one of his first undertakings was the rapid expansion of the Company’s army. Warren Hastings ( December 6 1732 - August 22 1818) was the first Governor-General of Bengal, from 1773 to 1785 Since the available soldiers, or Sepoys, from Bengal — many of whom had fought against the Company in the Battle of Plassey — were now suspect in British eyes, Hastings recruited farther west from the high-caste rural Rajputs and Brahmins of Oudh and Bihar, a practice that continued for the next 75 years. A sepoy (ˈsipɔɪ (from Persian سپاهی Sipâhi meaning "soldier" was a native of India, a soldier allied to a European power usually the Rajput constitute one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. For the Oudh tree see Agarwood. Awadh ( Hindi: अवध Urdu: اودھ) also known in various British historical texts as Oudh Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. However, in order to forestall any social friction, the Company also took pains to adapt its military practices to the requirements of their religious rituals. Consequently, these soldiers dined in separate facilities; in addition, overseas service, considered polluting to their caste, was not required of them, and the army soon came to officially recognize Hindu festivals. “This encouragement of high caste ritual status, however, left the government vulnerable to protest, even mutiny, whenever the sepoys detected infringement of their prerogatives. ” (Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 61)
 Charles Canning, the Governor-General of India during the rebellion. Charles John Canning 1st Earl Canning KG, GCB, GCSI, PC ( 14 December 1812 &ndash 17 June 1862) known The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and |  Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the Doctrine of Lapse. James Andrew Broun-Ramsay 1st Marquess of Dalhousie, KT, PC ( April 22 1812 &ndash December 19 1860) was a British The Doctrine of Lapse was an Annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and |  Lakshmibai, The Ranee of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of Lapse. Lakshmibai The Rani of Jhansi (c 1828 – 17 June 1858) ( Hindi - झाँसी की रानी Marathi The Doctrine of Lapse was an Annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and |  Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan founder of the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College, wrote one of the early critiques, The Causes of the Indian Mutiny, in 1859. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Bahadur, GCSI (also Sayyid Ahmad Khan (سید احمد خان بہا در October 17 1817 – March 27 1898 commonly known as Sir Syed was an MAO College (or Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College) was founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, the leader of Muslim |
It has been suggested that after the annexation of Oudh by the East India Company in 1856, many sepoys were disquieted both from losing their perquisites, as landed gentry, in the Oudh courts and from the anticipation of any increased land-revenue payments that the annexation might augur. For the Oudh tree see Agarwood. Awadh ( Hindi: अवध Urdu: اودھ) also known in various British historical texts as Oudh [10] Other have stressed that by 1857, some Indian soldiers, misreading the presence of missionaries as a sign of official intent, were persuaded that the East India Company was masterminding mass conversions of Hindus and Muslims to Christianity. [11] Although earlier in the 1830s, evangelists such as William Carey and William Wilberforce had successfully clamored for the passage of social reform such as the abolition of Sati and allowing the remarriage of Hindu widows, there is little evidence that the sepoy's allegiance was affected by this. William Carey may refer to William Carey (1761&ndash1834 an English Protestant missionary William Carey (c William Wilberforce (24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833 was a British Politician, a Philanthropist [10] However, changes in the terms of their professional service may have created resentment. With East India Company victories in wars or with annexation, as the extent of Company jurisdiction expanded, the soldiers were now not only expected to serve in less familiar regions (such as in Burma in the Anglo-Burmese Wars in 1856), but also make do without the "foreign service," remuneration that had previously been their due. Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. There have been three Burmese Wars or Anglo-Burmese Wars: First Anglo-Burmese War (1823 to 1826 Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852 [12] Another financial grievance stemmed from the general service act, which denied retired Sepoys a pension; whilst this only applied to new recruits it was suspect that it would also apply to those already in service. In addition the Bengal army was paid less than both the Madras and Bombay armies, which compounded the fears over pensions[13].
There were also grievances over the issue of promotions, based on seniority (length of service). This, as well as the increasing number of European officers in the battalions[14], made promotion difficult.
The final spark was provided by the controversy over the new Pattern 1853 Enfield Rifle. The Enfield Pattern 1853 Rifled Musket (also known as the Pattern 1853 Enfield, P53 Enfield, and Enfield Rifled Musket) was a. To load the new rifle, the sepoys had to bite the cartridge open. Refusing to " bite the cartridge " was a turn of phrase used by the British in India of Native Indian soldiers ( Sepoys who had mutinied in 1857. It was believed that the paper cartridges that were standard issue with the rifle were greased with lard (pork fat) which was regarded as unclean by Muslims, or tallow (beef fat), regarded as sacred to Hindus. Paper cartridge refers to one of various types of Small arms Ammunition used before the advent of the metallic cartridge. Lard is pig Fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms Lard was commonly used in many cuisines as a Cooking fat or Shortening Tallow is a rendered form of Beef or Mutton Fat, processed from Suet. [15]. East India Company officers first became aware of the impending trouble over the cartridges in January, when they received reports of an altercation between a high-caste sepoy and a low-caste labourer at Dum Dum. Dumdum ( Bengali দমদম Dômdôm, Hindi दमदम Damdam) is a city and a Municipality in North 24 Parganas district [16] The labourer had taunted the sepoy that by biting the cartridge, he had himself lost caste, although at this time the Dum-Dum arsenal had not actually started to produce the new round, nor had a single practice shot fired. [17] On January 27 Colonel Richard Birch (the Military Secretary) ordered that all cartridges issued from depots were to be free from grease, and that Sepoys could grease them themselves using whatever mixture ‘they may prefer’. Events 98 - Trajan becomes Roman Emperor after the death of Nerva. [18] This however, merely caused many Sepoys to be convinced that the rumours were true and that their fears were justified.
The civilian rebellion was more multifarious in origin. The rebels consisted of three groups: feudal nobility, rural landlords called taluqdars, and the peasants. A taluqdar or talukdar (from Hindi taluk (fr Arabic ta'al-luk) "district" + dor "holding" is a The nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse, which refused to recognise the adopted children of princes as legal heirs, felt that the Company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. The Doctrine of Lapse was an Annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group; the latter, for example, was prepared to accept East India Company supremacy if her adopted son was recognized as the heir. [19] In other areas of central India, such as Indore and Saugar, where such loss of privilege had not occurred, the princes remained loyal to the Company even in areas where the sepoys had rebelled. Indore ( Hindi: इंदौर/इन्दोर, Marathi - इंदूर, the largest city and the commercial capital of the central Indian state of Sagar (Saugar ( Hindi: सागर Urdu: ساگر called the city of lakes is a city in Madhya Pradesh state of central India [20] The second group, the taluqdars had lost half their landed estates to peasant farmers as a result of the land reforms that came in the wake of annexation of Oudh. As the rebellion gained ground, the taluqdars quickly reoccupied the lands they had lost, and paradoxically, in part due to ties of kinship and feudal loyalty, did not experience significant opposition from the peasant farmers, many of whom joined the rebellion to the great dismay of the British. [21] It has also been suggested that heavy land-revenue assessment in some areas by the British resulted in many landowning families either losing their land or going into great debt with money lenders, and providing ultimately a reason to rebel; money lenders, in addition to the East India Company, were particular objects of the rebels' animosity. [22] The civilian rebellion was also highly uneven in its geographic distribution, even in areas of north-central India that were no longer under British control. For example, the relatively prosperous Muzaffarnagar district, a beneficiary of a Company irrigation scheme, and next door to Meerut where the upheaval began, stayed mostly calm throughout. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Muzaffarnagar ( Hindi: मुज़फ़्फ़रनगर Urdu: مظفر نگر Meerut ( Hindi: मेरठ Urdu: میرٹھ is a city and a Municipal corporation in Meerut district in the Indian [23]
The first Indian critique of the rebellion appeared in 1859. In his Urdu book, Asbab-e Baghawat-e Hind (Causes of the Indian Mutiny),[24] Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan asserted
“I believe that there was but one primary cause of the rebellion, the others being merely incidental and arising out of it … [T]he Natives of India, without perhaps a single exception, blame the Government for having deprived them of their position and dignity and for keeping them down … Was not the Government aware that the Natives of the very highest rank trembled before its officers, and were in daily fear of suffering the greatest insults and indignities at their hands?”[25]
Sir Sayyid's critique was later translated into English and stimulated both interest and debate among the British. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Bahadur, GCSI (also Sayyid Ahmad Khan (سید احمد خان بہا در October 17 1817 – March 27 1898 commonly known as Sir Syed was an Some of his points have been echoed by modern historians. “(The rebellion) was the result of two generations of social disruption and official insensitivity . . . ” (Bayly 2000, p. 357). Although at that time some civilian leaders such as Khan Bhadur Khan of Bareilly stressed the threat posed to the populace's religions by the new education programs begun by the British, historical statistics have shown that this was not generally the case. Bareilly ( Hindi: बरेली Urdu: بریلی is a city in Bareilly district in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh For example, in Etawah district, where during the period 1855-57, nearly 200 schools had been opened by the British and tax levied on the population, relative calm prevailed and the schools remained opened during the rebellion. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Etawah is a City on the Yamuna River in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India [26]
Onset of the Rebellion
Several months of increasing tension and inflammatory incidents preceded the actual rebellion. Fires, possibly the result of arson, broke out near Calcutta on 24 January 1857. Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled Click here for Indian Rebellion of 1857 Year 1857 ( MDCCCLVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the On February 26, 1857 the 19th Bengal Native Infantry (BNI) regiment came to know about new cartridges which allegedly had a casing made of cow and pig fat, which had to be bitten off by mouth. Events 747 BC - Epoch (origin of Ptolemy 's Nabonassar Era 364 - Valentinian I is proclaimed Click here for Indian Rebellion of 1857 Year 1857 ( MDCCCLVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the The cow being sacred to Hindus and pig haram to Muslims soldiers refused to use them. Their Colonel confronted them angrily with artillery and cavalry on the parade ground, but then accepted their demand to withdraw the artillery, and cancel the next morning's parade. [27]
Mangal Pandey
On March 29, 1857 at the Barrackpore (now Barrackpur) parade ground, near Calcutta (now Kolkata), 29-year-old Mangal Pandey of the 34th BNI, angered by the recent actions by the East India Company, declared that he would rebel against his commanders. Mangal Pandey (c July 19 1827 &ndash 8 April 1857) (Hindi मंगल पांडे was a Sepoy (soldier in the 34th Regiment Mangal Pandey (c July 19 1827 &ndash 8 April 1857) (Hindi मंगल पांडे was a Sepoy (soldier in the 34th Regiment Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Click here for Indian Rebellion of 1857 Year 1857 ( MDCCCLVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the Barrackpore or Barrackpur (ব্যারাকপুর sub-division under District of North 24 Parganas in the state of West Bengal, is an old Mangal Pandey (c July 19 1827 &ndash 8 April 1857) (Hindi मंगल पांडे was a Sepoy (soldier in the 34th Regiment When his adjutant Lt. Adjutant is a military rank or appointment In some armies it is an officer who assists a more senior officer while in other armies it is a rank which normally corresponds Baugh came out to investigate the unrest, Pande opened fire but hit his horse instead. [28]
General John Hearsey came out to see him on the parade ground, and claimed later that Mangal Pandey was in some kind of "religious frenzy". He ordered a Jemadar Ishwari Prasad to arrest Mangal Pandey, but the Jemadar refused. Jemadar was a rank used in the British Indian Army, where it was the lowest rank for a Viceroy's Commissioned Officer (VCO The whole regiment, with the single exception of a soldier called Shaikh Paltu, drew back from restraining or arresting Mangal Pande. Shaikh Paltu was a soldier ( Sepoy) with the British East India Company, serving in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry in March 1857, as widespread Shaikh Paltu restrained Pande from continuing his attack. [28]
Mangal Pandey after failing to incite his comrades into an open and active rebellion, tried to take his own life by placing his musket to his chest, and pulling the trigger with his toe. He only managed to wound himself, and was court-martialled on April 6. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus He was hanged on April 8. Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian
The Jemadar Ishwari Prasad was sentenced to death and hanged on April 22. Events 1500 - Portuguese Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral becomes the first European to sight Brazil. The regiment was disbanded and stripped of their uniforms because it was felt that they harboured ill-feelings towards their superiors, particularly after this incident. Shaikh Paltu was promoted to the rank of Jemadar in the Bengal Army. Jemadar was a rank used in the British Indian Army, where it was the lowest rank for a Viceroy's Commissioned Officer (VCO
Sepoys in other regiments thought this a very harsh punishment. The show of disgrace while disbanding contributed to the extent of the rebellion in view of some historians, as disgruntled ex-sepoys returned home to Awadh with a desire to inflict revenge, as and when the opportunity arose.
April saw fires at Agra, Allahabad and Ambala. Agra ( pronounced) (आगरा آگرا is a city on the banks of the Yamuna River in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, Allahabad ( Hindi: इलाहाबाद Urdu: الہ آباد Ilāhābād) is a city in the north Indian state of Uttar WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Ambala ( Hindi: अम्बाला Punjabi ਅੰਬਾਲਾ) is a city and a At Ambala in particular, which was a large military cantonment where several units had been collected for their annual musketry practice, it was clear to General Anson, Commander-in-Chief of the Bengal Army, that some sort of riot over the cartridges was imminent. Despite the objections of the Governor-General's staff, he agreed to postpone the musketry practice, and allow the new drill by which the soldiers tore the cartridges with their fingers rather than their teeth. Rather than remain at Ambala to defuse or overawe potential trouble, Anson then proceeded to Simla, the cool "hill station" where many high officials spent the summer. Shimla [ʃɪmla] ( Hindi: शिमला originally called Simla, is a city in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh
Although there was no open revolt at Ambala, there was widespread incendiarism during late April. Barrack buildings (especially those belonging to soldiers who had used the Enfield cartridges) and European officers' bungalows were set on fire. [29]
Meerut and Delhi
At Meerut was another large military cantonment. Meerut ( Hindi: मेरठ Urdu: میرٹھ is a city and a Municipal corporation in Meerut district in the Indian Stationed there were 2,357 Indian sepoys and 2,038 British troops with 12 British-manned guns. Although the state of unrest within the Bengal Army was well known, on April 24, the unsympathetic commanding officer of the 3rd Bengal Light Cavalry ordered 90 of his men to parade and perform firing drills. Events 1479 BC - Thutmose III ascends to the throne of Egypt, although power effectively shifts to Hatshepsut (according to All but five of the men on parade refused to accept their cartridges. On May 9, the remaining 85 men were court martialled, and most were sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment with hard labour. Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of A court-martial (plural courts-martial) is a Military court. These military courts can determine Punishments for members of the Military subject Eleven comparatively young soldiers were given five years' imprisonment. The entire garrison was paraded and watched as the condemned men were stripped of their uniforms and placed in shackles. As they were marched off to jail, the condemned soldiers berated their comrades for failing to support them.
The next day was Sunday, the Christian day of rest and worship. Some Indian soldiers warned off-duty junior European officers that plans were afoot to release the imprisoned soldiers by force, but the senior officers to whom this was reported took no action. There was also unrest in the city of Meerut itself, with angry protests in the bazaar and some buildings being set on fire. In the evening, most European officers were preparing to attend Church, while many of the European soldiers were off duty and had gone into canteens or into the bazaar in Meerut. The Indian troops, led by the 3rd Cavalry, broke into revolt. British junior officers who attempted to quell the first outbreaks were killed by their own men. European officers' and civilians' quarters were attacked, and four civilian men, eight women and eight children died. Crowds in the bazaar attacked the off-duty soldiers there. The sepoys freed their 85 imprisoned comrades from the jail, along with 800 other prisoners (debtors and criminals). [30]
Some sepoys (especially from the 11th Bengal Native Infantry) escorted trusted British officers and women and children to safety before joining the revolt. [31] Some officers and their families escaped to Rampur, where they found refuge with the Nawab. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Rampur ( Hindi: रामपुर Pashto / Urdu: رام پور) is a city About 50 Indian civilians (some of whom were officers' servants who tried to defend or conceal their employers) were also killed by the sepoys. [32]. Exaggerated tales of the number and manner of death of British who died during the uprising at Meerut were later to provide a pretext for British forces to commit extremely violent reprisals against innocent Indian civilians and rebellious sepoys alike during the later suppression of the Revolt.
The senior British officers, in particular Major General Hewitt, the commander of the division (who was nearly 70 years old and in poor health), were slow to react. The British troops (mainly the 1st Battalion of the 60th Rifles and two European-manned batteries of the Bengal Artillery) rallied, but received no orders to engage the rebellious sepoys and could only guard their own headquarters and armouries. The King's Royal Rifle Corps was a British Army formation originally raised in colonial America as the Royal Americans, and recruited from American colonists When, on the morning of May 11 they prepared to attack, they found Meerut was quiet and the rebels had marched off to Delhi. Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople
That same morning, the first parties of the 3rd Cavalry reached Delhi. From beneath the windows of the King's apartments in the palace, they called on him to acknowledge and lead them. Bahadur Shah did nothing at this point (apparently treating the sepoys as ordinary petitioners), but others in the palace were quick to join the revolt. During the day, the revolt spread. European officials and dependents, Indian christians and shop keepers within the city were attacked, some by sepoys and others by crowds of rioters. Up to 50 were said to have been killed by some of the King's servants under a peepul tree in a courtyard outside the palace. [33].
There were three battalions of Bengal Native Infantry stationed in or near the city. Some detachments quickly joined the rebellion, while others held back but also refused to obey orders to take action against the rebels. In the afternoon, a violent explosion in the city was heard for several miles. Fearing that the arsenal, which contained large stocks of arms and ammunition, would fall intact into rebel hands, the nine British Ordnance officers there had opened fire on the sepoys, including the men of their own guard. When resistance appeared hopeless, they blew up the arsenal. Although six of the nine officers survived, the blast killed many in the streets and nearby houses and other buildings. [34] The news of these events finally tipped the sepoys stationed around Delhi into open rebellion. The sepoys were later able to salvage at least some arms from the arsenal, and a magazine two miles (3 km) outside Delhi, containing up to 3,000 barrels of gunpowder, was captured without resistance.
Many fugitive European officers and civilians had congregated at the Flagstaff Tower on the ridge north of Delhi, where telegraph operators were sending news of the events to other British stations. When it became clear that no help could arrive, they made their way in carriages to Karnal. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Karnal ( Hindi: करनाल is an important city and the headquarters of Karnal District Those who became separated from the main body or who could not reach the Flagstaff Tower also set out for Karnal on foot. Some were helped by villagers on the way, others were robbed or murdered.
The next day, Bahadur Shah held his first formal court for many years. It was attended by many excited or unruly sepoys. The King was alarmed by the turn events had taken, but eventually accepted the sepoys' allegiance and agreed to give his countenance to the rebellion.
Support and opposition
The news of the events at Delhi spread rapidly, provoking uprisings among sepoys and disturbances in many districts. In many cases, it was the behaviour of British military and civilian authorities themselves which precipitated disorder. Learning of the fall of Delhi by telegraph, many Company administrators hastened to remove themselves, their families and servants to places of safety. At Agra, 160 miles (260 km) from Delhi, no less than 6,000 assorted non-combatants converged on the Fort. Agra ( pronounced) (आगरा آگرا is a city on the banks of the Yamuna River in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, Agra Fort is a UNESCO World Heritage site located in Agra, India. [35] The haste with which many civilians left their posts encouraged rebellions in the areas they left, although others remained at their posts until it was clearly impossible to maintain any sort of order. Several were murdered by rebels or lawless gangs.
The military authorities also reacted in disjointed manner. Some officers trusted their sepoys, but others tried to disarm them to forestall potential uprisings. At Benares and Allahabad, the disarmings were bungled, also leading to local revolts. Varanasi ( Sanskrit: वाराणसी Vārāṇasī, pronunciation) also commonly known as Benares ( or Banaras (बनारस Allahabad ( Hindi: इलाहाबाद Urdu: الہ آباد Ilāhābād) is a city in the north Indian state of Uttar [36]
Although rebellion became widespread, there was little unity among the rebels. While Bahadur Shah Zafar was restored to the imperial throne there was a faction that wanted the Maratha rulers to be enthroned also, and the Awadhis wanted to retain the powers that their Nawab used to have. Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar, also known as Bahadur Shah or Bahadur Shah II; 24 October 1775 7 November 1862 was the last of the Mughal The Maratha Empire ( Marathi: मराठा साम्राज्य Marāṭhā Sāmrājya; also transliterated Mahratta For the Oudh tree see Agarwood. Awadh ( Hindi: अवध Urdu: اودھ) also known in various British historical texts as Oudh
There were calls for jihad[37] by Muslim leaders like Maulana Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi including the millenarian Ahmedullah Shah, taken up by the Muslims, particularly Muslim artisans, which caused the British to think that the Muslims were the main force behind this event. Jihad (جهاد ʤɪhæːd an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. Maulana Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi (1797-1861 was one of the main figures of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Millenarianism (sometimes spelled millenarism or millennarism) is the belief by a religious social or political group or movement in a coming major transformation In Awadh, Sunni Muslims did not want to see a return to Shiite rule, so they often refused to join what they perceived to be a Shia rebellion. For the Oudh tree see Agarwood. Awadh ( Hindi: अवध Urdu: اودھ) also known in various British historical texts as Oudh Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic However, some Muslims like the Aga Khan supported the British. Aga Khan ( آقا خان) is the Hereditary title of the Imam of the Nizārī Muslims the largest branch of the Ismā'īlī The British rewarded him by formally recognizing his title. The Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, resisted these calls because, it has been suggested, he feared outbreaks of communal violence.
In Thana Bhawan, the Sunnis declared Haji Imdadullah their Ameer. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Thana Bhawan is a small town in Muzaffarnagar District in the Indian state of Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Hadrat Haji Imdadullah Muhaajir Makki ( 1814 - 1899) Birth Haji Imdadullah Muhaajir Makki was a personality thought highly of by both Emir ( Arabic: ar أمير;, female أميرة; emira;) ( Farsi and Urdu: امیر) In May 1857 the Battle of Shamli took place between the forces of Haji Imdadullah and the British.
The Sikhs and Pathans of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province supported the British and helped in the recapture of Delhi. Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP ( Urdu: śimāl maġribī sarhadī sūba) is the smallest of the four main provinces of Pakistan. [38][39] Some historians have suggested that the Sikhs wanted to avenge the annexation of Punjab eight years earlier by the Company with the help of Purbias (Bengalis and Marathis - Easterner) who helped the British. Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. It has also been suggested that the Sikhs felt insulted by the attitude of Sepoys that (in their view) had only beaten the Khalsa with British help, they resented and despised them far more than the British [40]. For the village in Azerbaijan see Xəlsə. Khalsa ( Punjabi: pa ਖਾਲਸਾ literally "Pure" refers to the collective
In 1857, the Bengal Army had 86,000 men of which 12,000 were European, 16,000 Punjabi and 1,500 Gurkha soldiers, out of a total of (for the three Indian armies) 311,000 native troops,, and 40,160 European troops as well as 5,362 officers. [41]. Fifty-four of the Bengal Army's 75 regular Native Infantry Regiments rebelled, although some were immediately destroyed or broke up with their sepoys drifting away to their homes. Almost all the remainder were disarmed or disbanded to prevent or forestall rebellions. All ten of the Bengal Light Cavalry regiments rebelled.
The Bengal Army also included 29 Irregular Cavalry and 42 Irregular Infantry regiments. These included a substantial contingent from the recently annexed state of Awadh, which rebelled en masse. Another large contingent from Gwalior also rebelled, even though that state's ruler remained allied to the British. The remainder of the Irregular units were raised from a wide variety of sources and were less affected by the concerns of mainstream Indian society. Three bodies in particular actively supported the Comapny; three Gurkha and five of six Sikh infantry units, and the six infantry and six cavalry units of the recently-raised Punjab Irregular Force. [42][43]
On April 1, 1858, the number of Indian soldiers in the Bengal army loyal to the Company was 80,053. Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne Year 1858 ( MDCCCLVIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common [44][45] This total included a large number of soldiers hastily raised in the Punjab and North-West Frontier after the outbreak of the Rebellion.
The Bombay army had three mutinies in its 29 regiments whilst the Madras army had no mutinies, though elements of one of its 52 regiments refused to volunteer for service in Bengal. [46]
Most of southern India remained passive with only sporadic and haphazard outbreaks of violence. Most of the states did not take part in the war as many parts of the region were ruled by the Nizams or the Mysore royalty and were thus not directly under British rule. Nizam ( Urdu: نظام) a shortened version of Nizam-ul-Mulk ( Urdu: نظامالملک) meaning Administrator of the Realm, was
The Revolt
Initial stages
Bahadur Shah Zafar proclaimed himself the Emperor of the whole of India. Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar, also known as Bahadur Shah or Bahadur Shah II; 24 October 1775 7 November 1862 was the last of the Mughal Most contemporary and modern accounts suggest that he was coerced by the sepoys and his courtiers to sign the proclamation against his will. The civilians, nobility and other dignitaries took the oath of allegiance to the Emperor. The Emperor issued coins in his name, one of the oldest ways of asserting Imperial status, and his name was added to the acceptance by Muslims that he is their King. This proclamation, however, turned the Sikhs of Punjab away from the rebellion, as they did not want to return to Islamic rule, having fought many wars against the Mughal rulers. Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c
The province of Bengal was largly quiet throughout the entire period. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang Initially, the Indian soldiers were able to significantly push back Company forces, and captured several important towns in Haryana, Bihar, Central Provinces and the United Provinces. Haryana (हरियाणा Punjabi: ਹਰਿਆਣਾ hərɪjaːɳaː is a state in northern India. Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. The Central Provinces and Berar was a province of British India. The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, more commonly the United Provinces, was a Province of British India, which existed from 1902 to 1947 When the European troops were reinforced and began to counterattack, the sepoys who mutinied were especially handicapped by their lack of a centralised command and control system. Although they produced some natural leaders such as Bakht Khan (whom the Emperor later nominated as commander-in-chief after his son Mirza Mughal proved ineffectual), for the most part they were forced to look for leadership to rajahs and princes. Bakht Khan Rohilla (1797 - 1859 was nominal commander-in-chief of Indian rebel forces in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British East India Company Mirza Mughal (1817–1857 was the fifth son of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor Some of these were to prove dedicated leaders, but others were self-interested or inept.
Rao Tularam of Haryana and Pran Sukh Yadav fought with the British Army at Nasibpur and then went to collect arms from Russia which had just been in a war with the British in the Crimea, but he died on the way. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым When a tribal leader from Peshawar sent a letter offering help, the king replied that he should not come to Delhi because the treasury was empty and the army had become uncontrollable. [47]
Delhi
The British were slow to strike back at first. The Siege of Delhi was one of the decisive conflicts of the Indian rebellion of 1857, or First War of Indian Independence as it has since been termed in Indian It took time for troops stationed in Britain to make their way to India by sea, although some regiments moved overland through Persia from the Crimean War, and some regiments already en route for China were diverted to India. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought
It took time to organize the European troops already in India into field forces, but eventually two columns left Meerut and Simla. Meerut ( Hindi: मेरठ Urdu: میرٹھ is a city and a Municipal corporation in Meerut district in the Indian Shimla [ʃɪmla] ( Hindi: शिमला originally called Simla, is a city in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh They proceeded slowly towards Delhi and fought, killed, and hanged numerous Indians along the way. Two months after the first outbreak of rebellion at Meerut, the two forces met near Karnal. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Karnal ( Hindi: करनाल is an important city and the headquarters of Karnal District The combined force (which included two Gurkha units serving in the Bengal Army under contract from the Kingdom of Nepal), fought the main army of the rebels at Badli-ke-Serai and drove them back to Delhi. Prithvi Naraya Shahdev and Sri Teen Maharaja Jung Bahadur The Way of Sacrifice The Rajputs Pages 28-30 Graduate Thesis South Asian Studies Department Dr Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. The Battle of Badli-ki-Serai was fought early in the Indian rebellion of 1857, or First War of Indian Independence as it has since been termed in Indian histories
The Company established a base on the Delhi ridge to the north of the city and the Siege of Delhi began. The Siege of Delhi was one of the decisive conflicts of the Indian rebellion of 1857, or First War of Indian Independence as it has since been termed in Indian The siege lasted roughly from July 1 to September 21. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Events 1217 - The Estonian tribal leader Lembitu of Lehola was killed in a battle against Teutonic Knights. However, the encirclement was hardly complete, and for much of the siege the Company forces were outnumbered and it often seemed that it was the Company forces and not Delhi that was under siege, and the rebels could easily receive resources and reinforcements. For several weeks, it seemed that disease, exhaustion and continuous sorties by rebels from Delhi would force the Company forces to withdraw, but the outbreaks of rebellion in the Punjab were forestalled or suppressed, allowing the Punjab Movable Column of British, Sikh and Pakhtun soldiers under John Nicholson to reinforce the besiegers on the Ridge on August 14. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c John Nicholson ( December 11, 1822 – September 23, 1857) was a Victorian era military officer known for his role in the British Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures [48][49] On 30th of august the rebels offered terms, which were refused. [50].
 The Jantar Mantar observatory in Delhi in 1858, damaged in the fighting. |  Mortar damage to Kashmiri Gate, Delhi, 1858 |  Hindu Rao's house in Delhi, now a hospital, was extensively damaged in the fighting. |  Bank of Delhi was attacked by mortar and gunfire. |
An eagerly-awaited heavy siege train joined the besieging force, and from September 7, the siege guns battered breaches in the walls and silenced the rebels' artillery. Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. An attempt to storm the city through the breaches and the Kashmiri gate was launched on September 14. The Kashmiri Gate is a gate located in Delhi. Built by Military Engineer Robert Smith in 1835, the gate is so named because it used to start a road that Events 81 - Domitian becomes Emperor of the Roman Empire upon the death of his brother Titus. The attackers gained a foothold within the city but suffered heavy casualties, including John Nicholson. The British commander wished to withdraw, but was persuaded to hold on by his junior officers. After a week of street fighting, the British reached the Red Fort. Bahadur Shah had already fled to Humayun's tomb. Background Babur's decision to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India but it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of The British had retaken the city.
The troops of the besieging force proceeded to loot and pillage the city. A large number of the citizens were killed in retaliation for the Europeans and Indian civilians that had been killed by the rebel sepoys. During the street fighting, artillery had been set up in the main mosque in the city and the neighbourhoods within range were bombarded. These included the homes of the Muslim nobility from all over India, and contained innumerable cultural, artistic, literary and monetary riches.
The British soon arrested Bahadur Shah, and the next day British officer William Hodson shot his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Khizr Sultan, and grandson Mirza Abu Bakr under his own authority at the Khooni Darwaza (the bloody gate) near Delhi Gate. Brevet Major William Stephen Raikes Hodson ( March 10, 1821 - March 11, 1858) was the British leader of irregular light cavalry during Khooni Darwaza ( Hindi:खूनी दरवाज़ा Urdu خونی دروازہliterally The Gate of Blood) also referred to as Lal Darwaza On hearing the news Zafar reacted with shocked silence while his wife Zinat Mahal was happy as she believed her son was now Zafar's heir. [51].
Shortly after the fall of Delhi, the victorious attackers organised a column which relieved another besieged Company force in Agra, and then pressed on to Cawnpore, which had also recently been recaptured. Agra ( pronounced) (आगरा آگرا is a city on the banks of the Yamuna River in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, This gave the Company forces a continuous, although still tenuous, line of communication from the east to west of India.
Cawnpore (Kanpur)
In June, sepoys under General Wheeler in Cawnpore (now known as Kanpur) rebelled and besieged the European entrenchment. Kanpur ( Hindi: कानपुर Urdu: کان پور spelled as Cawnpore before 1948 is one of the most populous cities in the north India Wheeler was not only a veteran and respected soldier, but also married to a high-caste Indian lady. He had relied on his own prestige, and his cordial relations with the Nana Sahib to thwart rebellion, and took comparatively few measures to prepare fortifications and lay in supplies and ammunition.
The besieged endured three weeks of the Siege of Cawnpore with little water or food, suffering continuous casualties to men, women and children. The Siege of Cawnpore was a key episode in the Indian rebellion of 1857. On June 25 Nana Sahib made an offer of safe passage to Allahabad. Events 524 - Battle of Vézeronce, the Franks defeat the Burgundians With barely three days' food rations remaining, the British agreed provided they could keep their small arms and that the evacuation should take place in daylight on the morning of the 27th (the Nana Sahib wanted the evacuation to take place on the night of the 26th). Early in the morning of June 27, the European party left their entrenchment and made their way to the river where boats provided by the Nana Sahib were waiting to take them to Allahabad. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Allahabad ( Hindi: इलाहाबाद Urdu: الہ آباد Ilāhābād) is a city in the north Indian state of Uttar [52]Several sepoys who had stayed loyal to the Company were removed by the mutineers and killed, either because of their loyalty or because 'they had become Christian'. A few injured British officers trailing the column were also apparently hacked to death by angry sepoys. After the European party had largely arrived at the dock, which was surrounded by sepoys positioned , on both banks of the Ganges[53], with clear lines of fire, firing broke out and the boats were abandoned by their crew, and caught or were set[54] on fire using peices of red hot charcoal. [55] The British party tried to push the boats off but all except three remained stuck. One boat with over a dozen wounded men initially escaped, but later grounded, was caught by mutineers and pushed back down the river towards the carnage at Cawnpore. Towards the end rebel cavalry rode into the water to finish off any survivors. [55] After the firing ceased the survivors were rounded up and the men shot. [55] By the time the massacre was over, all the male members of the party were dead while the women and children were removed and held hostage (and later killed in the Bibi-ghar massacre). [56] Only four men eventually escaped alive from Cawnpore on one of the boats: two private soldiers (both of whom died later during the Rebellion), a lieutenant, and Captain Mowbray Thomson, who wrote a first-hand account of his experiences entitled The Story of Cawnpore (London, 1859).
Whether the firing was planned or accidental remains unresolved. Most early histories assume it was planned either by the Nana Sahib (Kaye and Malleson) or that Tantia Tope and Brigadier Jwala Pershad planned it without the Nana Sahib's knowledge (G W Forrest). The stated reasons for the planned nature are: the speed with which the Nana Sahib agreed to the British conditions (Mowbray Thomson); and the firepower arranged around the ghat which was far in excess of what was necessary to guard the European troops (most histories agree on this). During his trial, Tatya Tope denied the existence of any such plan and described the incident in the following terms: the Europeans had already boarded the boats and he (Tatya Tope) raised his right hand to signal their departure. Ram Chandra Pandurang Tope (1814 - 1859 also known as Tatya Tope (pronounced Toh-pey was an Indian leader in the Indian Mutiny of 1857. That very moment someone from the crowd blew a loud bugle which created disorder and in the ongoing bewilderment, the boatmen jumped off the boats. The rebels started shooting indiscriminately. Nana Sahib, who was staying in Savada Kothi (Bungalow) nearby, was informed about what was happening and immediately came to stop it. A bungalow (બંગલો baṅglo, बंगला baṅglā) is a type of single-storey House that originated in India. [57] Some British histories allow that it was probably the result of accident or error; someone accidentally or maliciously fired a shot, the panic-stricken British opened fire, and it became impossible to stop the massacre. [58]
The surviving women and children were taken to the Nana Sahib and then confined first to the Savada Kothi and then to the home of Sir George Parker (the Bibigarh) where they were joined by refugees from Fatehgarh. (Overall five men and two hundred and six women and children were confined in the Bibigarh for about two weeks. ) In one week 25 were brought out dead, due to dysentry and cholera [59]. Meanwhile a Company relief force that had advanced from Allahabad defeated the Indians and by July 15th it was clear that the Nana Sahib would not be able to hold Cawnpore and a decision was made by the Nana Sahib and other leading rebels that the hostages must be killed. After the sepoys refused to carry out this order, two Muslim butchers, two Hindu peasants and one of Nana's bodyguards went into the Bibi-Ghar. Armed with knives and hatchets they hacked all the women and children to pieces. [60]. The dead and the dying were thrown down a nearby well, when the well was full, the 50 foot deep well was filled with remains to within 6 feet of the top[61], the remainder were thrown into the Ganges[62].
Historians have given many reasons for this act of cruelty. With Company forces approaching Cawnpore and some believing that they would not advance if there were no hostages to save, their murders were ordered. Or perhaps it was to ensure that no information was leaked after the fall of Cawnpore. Other historians have suggested that the killings were an attempt to undermine Nana Sahib's relationship with the British [63];. Perhaps it was due to fear, the fear of being recognized by some of the prisoners for having taken part in the earlier firings. [64]
 Photograph entitled, "The Hospital in General Wheeler's entrenchment, Cawnpore. " (1858) The hospital was the site of the first major loss of European lives in Cawnpore (Kanpur) |  1858 picture of Sati Chaura Ghat on the banks of the Ganges River, where on 27 June 1857 many British men lost their lives and the surviving women and children were taken prisoner by the rebels. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Click here for Indian Rebellion of 1857 Year 1857 ( MDCCCLVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the |  Bibigurh house where European women and children were killed and the well where their bodies were found, 1858. |  The Bibigurh Well site where a memorial had been built. Samuel Bourne, 1860. Samuel Bourne (1834&ndash 24 April 1912) was a British Photographer known for his work in India. |
The killing of the women and children proved to be a mistake. The British public was aghast and the pro-Indian proponents lost all their support. Cawnpore became a war cry for the British and their allies for the rest of the conflict. The Nana Sahib disappeared near the end of the Rebellion and it is not known what happened to him.
Other British accounts [65][66][67] state that indiscriminate punitive measures were taken in early June, two weeks before the murders at the Bibi-Ghar (but after those at both Meerut and Delhi), specifically by Lieutenant Colonel James George Smith Neill of the Madras Fusiliers (a European unit), commanding at Allahabad while moving towards Cawnpore. Brigadier-General James George Smith Neill ( 26 May 1810 – 25 September 1857) was a British Soldier. Allahabad ( Hindi: इलाहाबाद Urdu: الہ آباد Ilāhābād) is a city in the north Indian state of Uttar At the nearby town of Fatehpur, a mob had attacked and murdered the local European population. Fatehpur may refer to;Towns in India Uttar Pradesh Fatehpur Fatehpur, in Fatehpur district Fatehpur Barabanki On this pretext, Neill ordered all villages beside the Grand Trunk Road to be burned and their inhabitants to be hanged. Neill's methods were "ruthless and horrible" [68] and far from intimidating the population, may well have induced previously undecided sepoys and communities to revolt.
Neill was killed in action at Lucknow on September 26 and was never called to account for his punitive measures, though contemporary British sources lionised him and his "gallant blue caps". Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar dedicates a [69] By contrast with the actions of soldiers under Neill, the behaviour of most rebel soldiers was creditable. "Our creed does not permit us to kill a bound prisoner", one of the matchlockmen explained, "though we can slay our enemy in battle. " [66]
When the British retook Cawnpore, the soldiers took their sepoy prisoners to the Bibi-Ghar and forced them to lick the bloodstains from the walls and floor. [70] They then hanged or "blew from the cannon" (the traditional Mughal punishment for mutiny) the majority of the sepoy prisoners. Although some claimed the sepoys took no actual part in the killings themselves, they did not act to stop it and this was acknowledged by Captain Thompson after the British departed Cawnpore for a second time.
Lucknow
Very soon after the events in Meerut, rebellion erupted in the state of Awadh (also known as Oudh, in modern-day Uttar Pradesh), which had been annexed barely a year before. Meerut ( Hindi: मेरठ Urdu: میرٹھ is a city and a Municipal corporation in Meerut district in the Indian For the Oudh tree see Agarwood. Awadh ( Hindi: अवध Urdu: اودھ) also known in various British historical texts as Oudh Uttar Pradesh (उत्तर प्रदेश اتر پردیش pronounced, Translation: Northern Province) referred to as '''U The British Commissioner resident at Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence, had enough time to fortify his position inside the Residency compound. Lucknow is also a mansion in New Hampshire Lucknow ( लखनऊ لکھنؤ Lakhnaū) is the capital city of Uttar Pradesh Sir Henry Montgomery Lawrence ( June 28, 1806 - July 4, 1857) was a British soldier and statesman in India, who died defending The Company forces numbered some 1700 men, including loyal sepoys. The rebels' initial assaults were unsuccessful, and so they began a barrage of artillery and musket fire into the compound. Lawrence was one of the first casualties. The rebels tried to breach the walls with explosives and bypass them via underground tunnels that led to underground close combat. After 90 days of siege, numbers of Company forces were reduced to 300 loyal sepoys, 350 British soldiers and 550 non-combatants.
On September 25 a relief column under the command of Sir Henry Havelock and accompanied by Sir James Outram (who in theory was his superior) fought its way from Cawnpore to Lucknow in a brief campaign in which the numerically small column defeated rebel forces in a series of increasingly large battles. Events 303 - On a voyage preaching the Gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens, France Major-General Sir Henry Havelock, KCB ( April 5 1795 – November 29, 1857) was a British general who is particularly This became known as 'The First Relief of Lucknow', as this force was not strong enough to break the siege or extricate themselves, and so was forced to join the garrison. In October another, larger, army under the new Commander-in-Chief, Sir Colin Campbell, was finally able to relieve the garrison and on the November 18, they evacuated the defended enclave within the city, the women and children leaving first. Field Marshal Colin Campbell 1st Baron Clyde, GCB, KSI ( October 20, 1792 &ndash August 14, 1863) was a Events 326 - The old St Peter's Basilica is consecrated 1302 - Pope Boniface VIII issues the Papal bull They then conducted an orderly withdrawal to Cawnpore, where they defeated an attempt by Tatya Tope to recapture the city in the Second Battle of Cawnpore. The Second Battle of Cawnpore was a battle of Indian rebellion of 1857.
Early in 1858, Campbell once again advanced on Lucknow with a large army, this time seeking to suppress the rebellion in Awadh. He was aided by a large Nepalese contingent advancing from the north under Jang Bahadur[71], who decided to side with the Company in December 1857. Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. Jung Bahadur (or Jang Bahadur) GCB, GCSI, ( June 18, 1816, Kathmandu, Nepal - February 25, 1877 Campbell's advance was slow and methodical, and drove the large but disorganised rebel army from Lucknow with few casualties to his own troops. This nevertheless allowed large numbers of the rebels to disperse into Awadh, and Campbell was forced to spend the summer and autumn dealing with scattered pockets of resistance while losing men to heat, disease and guerilla actions.
Jhansi
Jhansi was a Maratha-ruled princely state in Bundelkhand. The Central India Campaign was one of the last series of actions in the Indian rebellion of 1857, (also known as the First Indian War of Independence or Indian Jhansi ( Urdu: جھانسی Hindi: झांसी Marathi:झाशी is a city of Uttar Pradesh state of northern India. The Marāthās ( Marathi: mr मराठा also Mahrattas) form an Indo Aryan group of Hindu Warriors hailing mostly from the present-day For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a Geography Bundelkhand lies between the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the north and the Vindhya Range to the south When the Raja of Jhansi died without a male heir in 1853, it was annexed to the British Raj by the Governor-General of India under the Doctrine of lapse. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and The Doctrine of Lapse was an Annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and His widow, Rani Lakshmi Bai, protested that she had not been allowed to adopt a successor, as per Indian custom. Lakshmibai The Rani of Jhansi (c 1828 – 17 June 1858) ( Hindi - झाँसी की रानी Marathi
When war broke out, Jhansi quickly became a centre of the rebellion. A small group of Company officials and their families took refuge in Jhansi's fort, and the Rani negotiated their evacuation. Jhansi ( Urdu: جھانسی Hindi: झांसी Marathi:झाशी is a city of Uttar Pradesh state of northern India. However, when they left the fort, they were massacred by the rebels. Although the treachery might have occurred without the Rani's consent, the Europeans suspected her of complicity, despite her protestations of innocence.
By the end of June 1857, the Company had lost control of much of Bundelkhand and eastern Rajasthan. Geography Bundelkhand lies between the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the north and the Vindhya Range to the south Rājasthān ( Devanāgarī: राजस्थान raːdʒəst̪ʰaːn is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area The Bengal Army units in the area, having rebelled, marched to take part in the battles for Delhi and Cawnpore. The many princely states which made up this area began warring amongst themselves. In September and October 1857, the Rani led the successful defence of Jhansi against the invading armies of the neighbouring rajas of Datia and Orchha. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Datia is a city and a Municipality in Datia district in the state of Madhya Pradesh WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Orchha (or Urchha is a town in Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh state India
On 3 February Rose broke the 3-month siege of Saugor. Thousands of local villagers welcomed him as a liberator, freeing them from rebel occupation[72]
In March 1858, the Central India Field Force, led by Sir Hugh Rose, advanced on and laid siege to Jhansi. Field Marshal Hugh Henry Rose 1st Baron Strathnairn, GCB. GCSI, ( April 6, 1801 &ndash October 16, 1885) was The Company forces captured the city, but the Rani fled in disguise.
After being driven from Jhansi and Kalpi, on June 1, 1858 Rani Lakshmi Bai and a group of Maratha rebels captured the fortress city of Gwalior from the Scindia rulers, who were British allies. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Kalpi is a city and a Municipal board in Jalaun district in the Indian state Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected Year 1858 ( MDCCCLVIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Gwalior ( Hindi: ग्वालियर) is a city in Madhya Pradesh in India For the School in Gwalior India see Scindia School. For the Italian city see Sindia Italy. This might have reinvigorated the rebellion but the Central India Field Force very quickly advanced against the city. The Rani died on June 17, the second day of the Battle of Gwalior probably killed by a carbine shot from the 8th Hussars, according to the account of three independent Indian representatives. Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat The 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars was a cavalry regiment in the British Army, first raised in 1693 The Company forces recaptured Gwalior within the next three days. In descriptions of the scene of her last battle, she was compared to Joan Of Arc by some commentators. Joan of Arc (c 1412 Joan asserted that she had visions from God that told her to recover her homeland from English domination late in the Hundred Years' [73]
- Indore
Colonel Henry Durand, the then Company resident at Indore had brushed away any possibility of uprising in Indore. Henry Durand (1961-1929 is credited having songwritten Bright College Years, the Yale University Alma mater with Carl Wilhelm Indore ( Hindi: इंदौर/इन्दोर, Marathi - इंदूर, the largest city and the commercial capital of the central Indian state of [74] However, on July 1st, sepoys in Holkar's army revolted and opened fire on the pickets of Bhopal Cavalry. When Colonel Travers rode forward to charge, Bhopal Cavalry refused to follow. The Bhopal Infantry also refused orders and instead leveled their guns at European sergeants and officers. Since all possibility of mounting an effective deterrent was lost, Durand decided to gather up all the European residents and escape, although 39 European residents of Indore were killed. [75]
Other regions
- Punjab
What was then referred to by the British as the Punjab was a very large administrative division, centred on Lahore. ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. It included not only the present-day Indian and Pakistani Punjabi regions but also the North West Frontier districts bordering Afghanistan.
Much of the region had been the Sikh kingdom, ruled by Ranjit Singh until his death in 1839. Maharaja Ranjit Singh (ਮਹਾਰਾਜਾ ਰਣਜੀਤ ਸਿੰਘ also called "Sher-e-Punjab" ("The Lion of the Punjab" (1780-1839 was a The kingdom had then fallen into disorder, with court factions and the Khalsa (the Sikh army) contending for power at the Lahore Durbar (court). For the village in Azerbaijan see Xəlsə. Khalsa ( Punjabi: pa ਖਾਲਸਾ literally "Pure" refers to the collective After two Anglo-Sikh Wars, the entire region was annexed by the East India Company in 1849. In 1857, the region still contained the highest numbers of both European and Indian troops.
The inhabitants of the Punjab were not as sympathetic to the sepoys as they were the areas from which many of them were raised, which limited many of the outbreaks to disjointed uprisings by regiments of sepoys isolated from each other. In some garrisons, notably Ferozepore, indecision on the part of the senior European officers allowed the sepoys to rebel, but the sepoys then left the area, mostly heading for Delhi. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Firozpur (or Ferozepur, Ferozepore, फिरोज़पुर) is a city in Firozpur [76] At the most important garrison, that of Peshawar close to the Afghan frontier, many comparatively junior officers ignored their nominal commander (the elderly General Reed) and took decisive action. ( پښور; Urdu: پشاور) is the capital of the North-West Frontier Province and the administrative centre for the Federally Administered They intercepted the sepoys' mail, thus preventing their coordinating an uprising, and formed a force known as the "Punjab Movable Column" to move rapidly to suppress any revolts as they occurred. When it became clear from the intercepted correspondence that some of the sepoys at Peshawar were on the point of open revolt, the four most disaffected Bengal Native regiments were disarmed by the two British infantry regiments in the cantonment, backed by artillery, on May 22. Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus. This decisive act induced many local chieftains to side with the British. [77]
Some regiments in frontier garrisons subsequently rebelled, but became isolated among hostile Pakhtun villages and tribes. A lectern (from the Latin lectus, past participle of legere, "to read" is a reading desk with a slanted top usually placed on a stand or affixed to There were several mass executions, amounting to several hundred, of sepoys from units which rebelled or who deserted in the Punjab and North West Frontier provinces during June and July. The British had been recruiting irregular units from Sikh and Pakhtun communities even before the first unrest among the Bengal units, and the numbers of these were greatly increased during the Rebellion. Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism.
At one stage, faced with the need to send troops to reinforce the besiegers of Delhi, the Commissioner of the Punjab suggested handing the coveted prize of Peshawar to Dost Mohammed Khan of Afghanistan in return for a pledge of friendship. Dost Mohammad Khan ( Pashto / Persian: دوست محمد خان) ( December 23, 1793 - June 9, 1863) son of Sardār The British Agents in Peshawar and the adjacent districts were horrified. Referring to the massacre of a retreating British army in 1840, Herbert Edwardes wrote, "Dost Mahomed would not be a mortal Afghan . Sir Herbert Benjamin Edwardes DCL KCSI KCB ( November 12, 1819 &ndash December 23, 1868) English soldier-statesman . . if he did not assume our day to be gone in India and follow after us as an enemy. Europeans cannot retreat - Kabul would come again. " [78] In the event Lord Canning insisted on Peshawar being held, and Dost Mohammed, whose relations with Britain had been equivocal for over 20 years, remained neutral.
The final large-scale military uprising in the Punjab took place on July 9, when most of a brigade of sepoys at Sialkot rebelled and began to move to Delhi. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Sialkot ( Urdu / Punjabi:) the capital of Sialkot District, is a city situated in the north-east of the Punjab province in They were intercepted by John Nicholson with an equal British force as they tried to cross the Ravi River. John Nicholson ( December 11, 1822 – September 23, 1857) was a Victorian era military officer known for his role in the British The Ravi River (रवि ਰਾਵੀ راوی is a River in Pakistan and India. After fighting steadily but unsuccessfully for several hours, the sepoys tried to fall back across the river but became trapped on an island. Three days later, Nicholson annihilated the 1100 trapped sepoys in the Battle of Trimmu Ghat. [79]
Jhelum in Punjab was also a centre of resistance against the British. Jhelum or Jehlum ( Urdu: جہلم) is a city in northern Punjab Province Jhelum District, Pakistan. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c Here 35 British soldiers of HM XXIV regiment (South Wales Borderers) , died on 7 July 1857. The South Wales Borderers was an Infantry Regiment of the British Army. Events 1456 - A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death Click here for Indian Rebellion of 1857 Year 1857 ( MDCCCLVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the To commemorate this victory St. John's Church Jhelum was built and the names of those 35 British soldiers are carved on a marble lectern present in that church. St John's Church Jhelum is located in Jhelum cantonment Pakistan beside the River Jhelum. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located A lectern (from the Latin lectus, past participle of legere, "to read" is a reading desk with a slanted top usually placed on a stand or affixed to
- Arrah
Kunwar Singh, the 75 year old Rajput Raja of Jagdishpur, whose estate was in the process of being sequestrated by the Revenue Board, instigated and assumed the leadership of revolt in Bihar. Babu Veer Kunwar Singh (1777 – 1858 belonged to a Rajput royal house of Jagdhishpur currently a part of Bhojpur district, Bihar state, WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Jagdishpur (Industrial is a city and a Municipality in Sultanpur district in the Indian Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. [80]
On 25th of July, rebellion erupted in the garrisons of Dinapur. Danapur, sometimes known as Dinapur, located on on the right bank of the Ganges, is a satellite town of Patna in Bihar state of India The rebels quickly moved towards the cities of Arrah and were joined by Kunwar Singh and his men. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Arrah is a city and a Municipal corporation in Bhojpur district in the state of Bihar Mr. Boyle, a British engineer in Arrah, had already prepared his house for defense against such attacks. As the rebels approached Arrah, all European residents took refuge at Mr. Boyle's house. A siege soon ensued and 50 loyal sepoys defended the house against artillery and musketry fire from the rebels.
On 29th of July, 400 men were sent out from Dinapore to relieve Arrah, but this force was ambushed by the rebels around a mile away from the siege house, severely defeated, and driven back. On 30th of June, Major Vincent Eyre who was going up the river with his troops and guns reached Buxar and heard about the siege. He immediately disembarked his guns and troops (the 5th Fusilliers) and started marching towards Arrah. On August 2nd, Some 16 miles (26 km) short of Arrah, the Major was ambushed by the rebels. After an intense fight, the 5th Fusilliers charged and stormed the rebel positions successfully. On 3rd of August, major Eyre and his men reached the siege house and successfully ended the siege. [81]
Aftermath
Retaliation — "The Devil's Wind"
From the end of 1857, the British had begun to gain ground again. Lucknow was retaken in March 1858. On 8 July 1858, a peace treaty was signed and the war ended. Events 939 - The Major Occultation or Ghaybat el-Kubra of Muhammad al-Mahdi 1099 - First Crusade: 15000 Year 1858 ( MDCCCLVIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common The last rebels were defeated in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Gwalior ( Hindi: ग्वालियर) is a city in Madhya Pradesh in India Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun. Year 1858 ( MDCCCLVIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common By 1859, rebel leaders Bakht Khan and Nana Sahib had either been slain or had fled. Bakht Khan Rohilla (1797 - 1859 was nominal commander-in-chief of Indian rebel forces in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British East India Company Nana Sahib (born 1824 born as Dhondu Pant, was an Indian leader during the rebellion of 1857. As well as hanging mutineers, the British had some "blown from cannon"-- an old Mughal punishment adopted many years before in India. A method of execution midway between firing squad and hanging but more demonstrative, sentenced rebels were set before the mouth of cannons and blown to pieces. [82] In terms of sheer numbers, the casualties were significantly higher on the Indian side. A letter published after the fall of Delhi in the "Bombay Telegraph" and reproduced in the British press testified to the scale and nature of the retaliation:
. . . . All the city people found within the walls (of the city of Delhi) when our troops entered were bayoneted on the spot, and the number was considerable, as you may suppose, when I tell you that in some houses forty and fifty people were hiding. These were not mutineers but residents of the city, who trusted to our well-known mild rule for pardon. I am glad to say they were disappointed.
Another brief letter from General Montgomery to Captain Hodson, the conqueror of Delhi exposes how the British military high command approved of the cold blooded massacre of Delhites: "All honour to you for catching the king and slaying his sons. General Montgomery may refer to either of the following Bernard Montgomery, a British General and later Field marshal, during World Brevet Major William Stephen Raikes Hodson ( March 10, 1821 - March 11, 1858) was the British leader of irregular light cavalry during I hope you will bag many more!"
Another comment on the conduct of the British soldiers after the fall of Delhi is of Captain Hodson himself in his book, Twelve years in India: "With all my love for the army, I must confess, the conduct of professed Christians, on this occasion, was one of the most humiliating facts connected with the siege. Brevet Major William Stephen Raikes Hodson ( March 10, 1821 - March 11, 1858) was the British leader of irregular light cavalry during " (Hodson was killed during the recapture of Lucknow in early 1858).
Edward Vibart, a 19-year-old officer, also recorded his experience:
It was literally murder. . . I have seen many bloody and awful sights lately but such a one as I witnessed yesterday I pray I never see again. The women were all spared but their screams on seeing their husbands and sons butchered, were most painful. . . Heaven knows I feel no pity, but when some old grey bearded man is brought and shot before your very eyes, hard must be that man's heart I think who can look on with indifference. . .
The British adopted a policy of "no prisoners", enforced by massacre and mass executions. One officer, Thomas Lowe, remembered how on one occasion his unit had taken 76 prisoners - they were just too tired to carry on killing and needed a rest, he recalled. Later, after a quick trial, the prisoners were lined up with a British soldier standing a couple of yards in front of them. On the order "fire", they were all simultaneously shot, "swept. . . from their earthly existence". This was not the only mass execution Lowe participated in: on another occasion his unit took 149 prisoners, and they were lined up and simultaneously shot.
As a result, the end of the war was followed by the execution of a vast majority of combatants from the Indian side as well as large numbers of civilians perceived to be sympathetic to the rebel cause. The British press and government did not advocate clemency of any kind, though Governor General Canning tried to be sympathetic to native sensibilities, earning the scornful sobriquet "Clemency Canning". Charles John Canning 1st Earl Canning KG, GCB, GCSI, PC ( 14 December 1812 &ndash 17 June 1862) known Soldiers took very few prisoners and often executed them later. Whole villages were wiped out for apparent pro-rebel sympathies. The Indians called this retaliation "the Devil's Wind. "
To the steady beat of drums, the captured rebels were first stripped of their uniforms and then tied to cannons, their bellies pushed hard against the gaping mouths of the big guns. | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural The order to fire was given. With an enormous roar, all the cannons burst into life at once, generating a cloud of black smoke that snaked into the summer sky. When the smoke cleared, there was nothing left of the rebels' bodies except their arms, still tied to the cannons, and their blackened heads, which landed with a soft thud on the baking parade ground. It was a terrible way to die and a terrible sight to witness. [83]
Saul David estimates the death toll ran into the hundreds of thousands. Saul David (born 1966 Monmouth, Wales) is a military historian, Broadcaster and Academic.
Reaction in Britain
The scale and savagery of the punishments handed out by the British "Army of Retribution" were considered largely appropriate and justified in a Britain shocked by the barrage of press reports about atrocities carried out on Europeans and Christians[84]. Accounts of the time frequently reach the "hyperbolic register", according to Chris Herbert, especially in the often-repeated claim that the "Red Year" of 1857 marked "a terrible break" in British experience[85]. Such was the atmosphere - a national "mood of retribution and despair" that led to "almost universal approval" of the measures taken to pacify the revolt[86].
The popular poet Martin Tupper - "in a ferment of indignation" - played a major part in shaping the public's response. Martin Farquhar Tupper ( July 17, 1810 in London - November 1889 in Albury, Surrey) was an English writer and poet and His poems, filled with calls for the razing of Delhi and the erection of "groves of gibbets" are telling:
"And England, now avenge their wrongs by vengeance deep and dire,/ Cut out their canker with the sword, and burn it out with fire;/ Destroy those traitor regions, hang every pariah hound,/ And hunt them down to death, in all hills and cities ‘round. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled "[87]
Punch, normally cynical and dispassionate where other periodicals were jingoistic, in August published a two-page cartoon depicting the British Lion attacking a Bengal Tiger that had attacked an English woman and child; the cartoon received considerable attention at the time, with the New York Times writing a piece about it in September as emblematic of a near-universal British desire for revenge. Punch was a British weekly Magazine of Humour and Satire published from 1841 to 1992 and from 1996 to 2002 It was re-issued as a print, and made the career of John Tenniel, later famous as the illustrator of Alice. Sir John Tenniel (28 February 1820 &ndash 25 February 1914 was an English Illustrator. Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865 is a novel written by English author Charles Lutwidge Dodgson better known under the Pseudonym Lewis
The December 1857 issue of Charles Dickens' Household Words contained an essay by Dickens and Wilkie Collins in which Dickens says, in words that are representative of that otherwise progressive novelist's "reversal" of views when it came to Imperial affairs, and are considered by some scholars to be emblematic of the middle Victorian literary encounter with imperialism:
"I wish I were a commander in chief in India. Household Words was an English weekly Magazine edited by Charles Dickens which took its name from the line from Shakespeare "Familiar in William Wilkie Collins ( 8 January 1824 &ndash 23 September 1889) was an English Novelist, Playwright, and The first thing I would do to strike that Oriental Race with amazement. . . . should be to proclaim to them that my holding that appointment by the leave of God, to mean that I should do my utmost to exterminate the race upon whom the stain of the late cruelties rested; and that I was there for that purpose and no other, . . . now proceeding, with all convenient dispatch and merciful swiftness of execution, to blot it out of mankind and raze it off the face of the Earth. "[88]
According to distinguished Victorianist Peter Brantlinger, no event raised national hysteria in Britain to a higher pitch, and no event in the 19th century took a greater hold on the British imagination, so much so that "Victorian writing about the Mutiny expresses in concentrated form the racist ideology that Edward Said calls Orientalism". [88]
Reorganisation
Bahadur Shah was tried for treason by a military commission assembled at Delhi, and exiled to Rangoon where he died in 1862, bringing the Mughal dynasty to an end. Yangon (also known as Rangoon) is the largest city and a former capital of Burma. In 1877 Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India on the advice of Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli. Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 was from 20 June 1837 the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Emperor/Empress of India ( Badishah -e-Hind in Hindustani) was used as a Title by the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Benjamin Disraeli 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS (born Benjamin D'Israeli; 21 December 1804 &ndash 19 April 1881 was
The rebellion saw the end of the British East India Company's rule in India. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or In August, by the Government of India Act 1858, the company was formally dissolved and its ruling powers over India were transferred to the British Crown. The Government of India Act 1858, actually entitled An Act for the Better Government of India, is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (21 & A new British government department, the India Office, was created to handle the governance of India, and its head, the Secretary of State for India, was entrusted with formulating Indian policy. The India Office was the British government department responsible for the direct administration of India during the British Raj. The office of Secretary of State for India or India Secretary was created in 1858 when Company rule in India ended and India was brought under direct British rule The Governor-General of India gained a new title (Viceroy of India), and implemented the policies devised by the India Office. The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and The British colonial administration embarked on a program of reform, trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into the government and abolishing attempts at Westernization. Westernization or occidentalization (from occident, see wiktionary) is a process whereby societies come under or adopt the Western The Viceroy stopped land grabs, decreed religious tolerance and admitted Indians into civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates.
Essentially the old East India Company bureaucracy remained, though there was a major shift in attitudes. In looking for the causes of the Mutiny the authorities alighted on two things: religion and the economy. On religion it was felt that there had been too much interference with indigenous traditions, both Hindu and Muslim. On the economy it was now believed that the previous attempts by the Company to introduce free market competition had undermined traditional power structures and bonds of loyalty, placing the peasantry at the mercy of merchants and money-lenders. In consequence the new British Raj was constructed in part around a conservative agenda, based on a preservation of tradition and hierarchy. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British
On a political level it was also felt that the previous lack of consultation between rulers and ruled had been yet another significant factor in contributing to the uprising. In consequence, Indians were drawn into government at a local level. Though this was on a limited scale a crucial precedent had been set, with the creation of a new 'white collar' Indian elite, further stimulated by the opening of universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, a result of the Indian Universities Act. So, alongside the values of traditional and ancient India, a new professional middle class was starting to arise, in no way bound by the values of the past. Their ambition can only have been stimulated by Victoria's Proclamation of November 1858, in which it is expressly stated that "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligations of duty which bind us to our other subjects. . . it is our further will that. . . our subjects of whatever race or creed, be freely and impartially admitted to offices in our service, the duties of which they may be qualified by their education, ability and integrity, duly to discharge. "
Acting on these sentiments, Lord Ripon, viceroy from 1880 to 1885, extended the powers of local self-government and sought to remove racial practices in the law courts by the Ilbert Bill. George Frederick Samuel Robinson 1st Marquess of Ripon KG, GCSI, CIE, PC ( 24 October 1827 &ndash 9 July The Ilbert Bill was a bill introduced in 1883 for British India by Lord Ripon that proposed an amendment for existing laws in the country at the time to But a policy at once liberal and progressive at one turn was reactionary and backward at the next, creating new elites and confirming old attitudes. The Ilbert Bill only had the effect of causing a White Mutiny, and the end of the prospect of perfect equality before the law. In 1886 measures were adopted to restrict Indian entry into the civil service.
Militarily, the rebellion transformed both the "native" and European armies of British India. The British increased the ratio of British to Indian soldiers. Regiments which had remained loyal were retained, and the number of Gurkha units, which had been crucial in the Delhi campaign, was increased. Prithvi Naraya Shahdev and Sri Teen Maharaja Jung Bahadur The Way of Sacrifice The Rajputs Pages 28-30 Graduate Thesis South Asian Studies Department Dr The inefficiencies of the old organisation, which had estranged sepoys from their British officers, were addressed, and the post-1857 units were mainly organised on the "irregular" system. (Before the rebellion, Bengal Infantry units had 26 British officers, who held every position of authority down to the second-in-command of each company. In irregular units, there were only six or seven or even fewer European officers, who associated themselves far more closely with their soldiers, while more trust and responsibility was given to the Indian officers. ) Most new units were raised from among the so-called "Martial Races", which were not part of mainstream Indian culture. Martial Race or Martial Races Theory is an Ideology based on the assumption that certain Ethnic groups are inherently more martially inclined Sepoy artillery was abolished also, leaving all artillery (except some small detachments of mountain guns) in British hands. The post-rebellion changes formed the basis of the military organisation of British India until the early 20th century.
Timeline[89]
1857
| Events of 1857 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Date | Event | |||
| Jan | Problems in Dum Dum over greased cartridges | |||
| Feb | Mutinies at Barrackpore and Berhampore | |||
| Apr 8th | Pandey hanged at Barrackpore | |||
| Apr | Unrest at Ambala, 48th Mutiny at Lucknow | |||
| May 10th | Mutiny and Murders at Meerut, troops head towards Delhi | |||
| May 11th | Europeans, and Christians slaughtered in Delhi | |||
| May 22nd | Peshawar garrison disarmed | |||
| May 23rd | Part of 9th Native Infantry mutiny at Agra | |||
| May 30th | Mutinies at Muttra and Lucknow | |||
| May 31st | Bhurtpore Army mutinies | |||
| June 5th | Cawnpore 2nd Cavalry Mutinies | |||
| June 6th | Cawnpore Siege begins, Mutiny at Allahabad | |||
| June 7th | Wilson and Barnard meet at Alipur | |||
| June 8th | Battle of Badli-ki-Serai; Massacre at Jhansi | |||
| June 11th | Lucknow Police rebel; Neill arrives at Allahabad | |||
| June 25th | Nana Sahib offers terms at Cawnpore | |||
| June 27th | Satichaura Ghat Massacre at Cawnpore | |||
| June 30th | British defeat at Chinhat; Lucknow Residency besieged | |||
| July 1st | Indore Mutiny | |||
| July 2nd | Arrival of Bakht Khan at Delhi | |||
| July 4th | Sir Henry Lawrence dies at Lucknow | |||
| July 5th | General Barnard dies of cholera | |||
| July 7th | Havelock's force leaves for Cawnpore | |||
| July 7th | Massacre of women and children in the Bibighar at Cawnpore. | |||
| July 16th | Nana Sahib defeated in first battle for Cawnpore | |||
| July 27th | Siege of Arrah starts | |||
| July 29th | Havelock's victory at Unao | |||
| August 5th | Havelock's victory at Bashiratganj | |||
| August 13th | Havelock withdrawal to Cawnpore | |||
| August 14th | John Nicholson arrives at Delhi Ridge | |||
| August 16th | Havelock victory at Bithur | |||
| September 5th | Sir James Outram's arrival at Cawnpore | |||
| September 14th | Wilson's assault on Delhi begins, Nicholson wounded | |||
| September 19th | Havelock and Outram march to Lucknow | |||
| September 20th | Delhi captured and cleared of rebel troops | |||
| September 21st | William Hodson captures King of Delhi | |||
| September 22nd | Hodson executes Mughal princes | |||
| September 23ed | Nicholson dies of wounds | |||
| September 25th | First relief of Lucknow | |||
| October 10th | Agra mutineers defeated | |||
| November 9th | Kavanagh escapes from Lucknow | |||
| November 17th | Second relief of Lucknow | |||
| November 19th | Women and children evacuated from Lucknow | |||
| November 22nd | British withdraw from Lucknow | |||
| November 24th | Havelock dies of dysentry | |||
| November 28th | Windham defeated at second battle of Cawnpor | |||
| December 6th | Tatya Tope defeated at third battle of Cawnpore | |||
| Sources: www.britishempire.co.uk and Saul David, The Indian Mutiny | ||||
1858
| Events of 1858 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Date | Event | |||
| January 6th | Campbell reoccupies Fategarh | |||
| March 2nd | Campbell returns to Lucknow | |||
| March 21st | Last rebels removed from Lucknow | |||
| April 3rd | Jhansi captured and sacked | |||
| April 15th | Walpole defeated at Ruiya | |||
| April 23rd | Rose enters Kalpi | |||
| May 5th | Campbell victory at Bareilly | |||
| June 5th | Death of the Maulvi | |||
| June 17th | Battle of Kotah-ki-Serai, death of Rani of Jhansi | |||
| June 19th | Battle of Gwalior | |||
| November 1st | Royal Proclamation replacing East India Company with British Government | |||
| Source: www.britishempire.co.uk | ||||
1859
| Events of 1859 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Date | Event | |||
| March 29th | Bahadur Shah found guilty | |||
| April 18th | Tatya Tope executed | |||
| Source: www.britishempire.co.uk | ||||
Debate about name
There is no agreed name for the events of this period,
- In India it has often been termed as the "War of Independence of 1857" or "First War of Independence"[90] but it is not uncommon to use terms such as the "Revolt of 1857". The First War of Indian Independence is a term sometimes used mainly in India to describe the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which has been described variously as "uprising"
- In the UK it is commonly called the "Indian Mutiny"[91], but terms such as "Great Indian Mutiny", the "Sepoy Mutiny", the "Sepoy Rebellion", the "Sepoy War", the "Great Mutiny", the "Rebellion of 1857", the "Mahomedan Rebellion" and the "Revolt of 1857" have also been used. [92]
| “ | A number of dispossessed dynasts, both Hindu and Muslim, exploited the well-founded caste-suspicions of the sepoys and made these simple folk their cat's paw in gamble for recovering their thrones. The last scions of the Delhi Mughals or the Oudh Nawabs and the Peshwa, can by no ingenuity be called fighters for Indian freedom [95] | ” |
| “ | In the light of the available evidence, we are forced to the conclusion that the uprising of 1857 was not the result of careful planning, nor were there any master-minds behind it. As I read about the events of 1857, I am forced to the conclusion that the Indian national character had sunk very low. The leaders of the revolt could never agree. They were mutually jealous and continually intrigued against one another. . . . In fact these personal jealousies and intrigues were largely responsible for the Indian defeat. | ” |
— Maulana Abul Kalam Azad[96] |
William Dalrymple, in his recent work on the event, The Last Mughal, refers to it as "the Uprising". William Dalrymple (born 20 March 1965 in Scotland) is a historian and writer The Last Mughal The Fall of a Dynasty Delhi 1857 is a 2006 historical book by William Dalrymple.
The use of the term "Indian Mutiny" is considered by some historians and Indian politicians as unacceptable and offensive, as it is perceived to belittle what they see as a "First War of Independence" and therefore reflecting a biased, imperialistic attitude of the erstwhile colonists. Other historians dispute this interpretation.
For example, in October, 2006, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Indian Parliament said:
| “ | The War of 1857 was undoubtedly an epoch-making event in India’s struggle for freedom. The Lok Sabha (also titled the House of the People, by the Constitution) is the directly elected Lower house of the Parliament of India For what the British sought to deride as a mere sepoy mutiny was India’s First War of Independence in a very true sense, when people from all walks of life, irrespective of their caste, creed, religion and language, rose against the British rule. | ” |
— Chaterjee, Somnath - Office of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha [97] |
- See also: First War of Indian Independence (term)
Debate about character
Almost from the moment the first sepoys mutinied in Meerut, the nature and the scope of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 has been contested and argued over. The First War of Indian Independence is a term sometimes used mainly in India to describe the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which has been described variously as "uprising" Speaking in the House of Commons in July 1857, Benjamin Disraeli labeled it a 'national revolt' while Lord Palmerston, the Prime Minister, tried to downplay the scope and the significance of the event as a 'mere military mutiny'[98]. The House of Commons' is the Lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords Benjamin Disraeli 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS (born Benjamin D'Israeli; 21 December 1804 &ndash 19 April 1881 was "Lord Palmerston" and "Henry Temple" redirect here Reflecting this debate, the early historian of the rebellion, Charles Ball, sided with the mutiny in his title (using mutiny and sepoy insurrection) but labeled it a 'struggle for liberty and independence as a people' in the text [99]. Historians remain divided on whether the rebellion can properly be considered a war of Indian independence or not[100], although it is popularly considered to be one in India. Arguments against include:
- A united India did not exist at that time in political terms;
- The rebellion was put down with the help of other Indian soldiers drawn from the Madras Army, the Bombay Army and the Sikh regiments, 80% of the British forces were Indian [101];
- Many of the local rulers fought amongst themselves rather than uniting against the British.
- Many rebel Sepoy regiments disbanded and went home rather than fight.
- Not all of the rebels accepted the return of the Moghuls.
- The King of Delhi had no real control over the mutineers. [102]
- The revolt was largely limited to north and central India. Whilst risings occurred elsewhere they had little impact due to their limited nature.
- A number of revolts occurred in areas not under British rule, and against native rulers, often as a result of local internal politics.
- The revolt was fractured along religious, ethnic and regional lines. [103]
| “ | "the demon of communalism also raised its head. The Muslims spat over the Hindus and openly defiled their houses by sprinkling them with cows' blood and placing cows' bones within the compounds. Concrete instances are given where Hindu Sepoy came into clash with Muslim hooligans and a complete riot ensued. The Hindus, oppressed by the Muslims, were depressed at the success of the Mutiny, and daily offered prayers to God for the return of "the English. " [104] | ” |
A second school of thought while acknowledging the validity of the above-mentioned arguments opines that this rebellion may indeed be called a war of India's independence. The reasons advanced are:
- Even though the rebellion had various causes (e. g. Sepoy grievances, British high-handedness, the Doctrine of Lapse etc. The Doctrine of Lapse was an Annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and ), most of the rebel sepoys set out to revive the old Mughal empire, that signified a national symbol for them, instead of heading home or joining services of their regional principalities, which would not have been unreasonable if their revolt were only inspired by grievances;
The hanging of two participants in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Albumen silver print by Felice Beato, 1858 - There was a widespread popular revolt in many areas such as Awadh, Bundelkhand and Rohilkhand. Felice Beato (born 1833 or 1834 died c 1907 sometimes known as Felix Beato, was a Corfiote Photographer. For the Oudh tree see Agarwood. Awadh ( Hindi: अवध Urdu: اودھ) also known in various British historical texts as Oudh Geography Bundelkhand lies between the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the north and the Vindhya Range to the south Rohilkhand ( Hindi: रुहेलखण्ड Urdu: روہیل کھنڈ) is a region of northwestern Uttar Pradesh state of India The rebellion was therefore more than just a military rebellion, and it spanned more than one region;
- The sepoys did not seek to revive small kingdoms in their regions, instead they repeatedly proclaimed a "country-wide rule" of the Moghuls and vowed to drive out the British from "India", as they knew it then. (The sepoys ignored local princes and proclaimed in cities they took over: Khalq Khuda Ki, Mulk Badshah Ka, Hukm Subahdar Sipahi Bahadur Ka - i. e. the world belongs to God, the country to the Emperor and executive powers to the Sepoy Commandant in the city). The objective of driving out "foreigners" from not only one's own area but from their conception of the entirety of "India", signifies a nationalist sentiment;
- The troops of the Bengal Army were used extensively in warfare by the British and had therefore travelled extensively across the Indian subcontinent, leading them perhaps to develop some notion of a nation-state called India. They displayed for the first time in this rebellion, some contemporary British accounts (Malleson) suggest, patriotic sentiments in the modern sense.
| “ | To live in India, now, was like standing on the verge of a volcanic crater, the sides of which were fast crumbling away from our feet, while the boiling lava was ready to erupt and consume us. . . The infanticide Rajput, the bigoted Brahmin, the fanatic Mussalman, had joined together in the cause; cow-killer and the cow-worshipper, the pig-hater and the pig-eater… had revolted together. - Thomas Lowe, British chronicler, 1860[105] | ” |
In summary:
- If the criterion of a National War of Independence is "a war (or numerous conflicts) spread all over the nation cutting across regional lines", the rebellion does not qualify.
- If the criterion for a National War of Independence is "a war, which even if geographically confined to certain regions, is waged with the intention of driving out from the complete national area a power perceived to be foreign", the rebellion does qualify.
The 150th anniversary
The Government of India celebrated 2007 as the 150th anniversary of what many Indians term as "India's First War of Independence". In the Union Budget of 2007, Rs. 10 crore was set aside for the celebration. A crore is a unit in the Indian numbering system and was formerly a unit in the Persian numbering system still widely used in Bangladesh, India, Maldives The British National Army Museum in London mounted a display to mark the 150th anniversary on 10 May 2007, and has an ongoing online exhibition called "India Rising". Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. [106] Several books written by Indian authors have been released in the anniversary year like Amresh Mishra's voluminous War of Civilizations a great compilation of numerous events of 1857. A novel titled Recalcitrance by Anurag Kumar has also been released. It is one of the few novels in English written by an Indian based on the events of 1857.
Notes
- ^ The Gurkhas by W. Brook Northey, John Morris. ISBN 8120615778. Page 58
- ^ a b c d e f g Bandyopadhyay 2004, pp. 169-172 Bose & Jalal 2003, pp. 88-103 Quote: "The 1857 rebellion was by and large confined to northern Indian Gangetic Plain and central India. The Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests is a tropical moist broadleaf forest Ecoregion of northern India. ", Brown 1994, pp. 85-87, and Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 100-106
- ^ Bayly 1990, p. 170 Quote: "What distinguished the events of 1857 was their scale and the fact that for a short time they posed a military threat to British dominance in the Ganges Plain. "
- ^ a b Spear 1990, pp. 147-148
- ^ Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 177, Bayly 2000, p. 357
- ^ Brown 1994, p. 94
- ^ Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 179
- ^ Bayly 1990, pp. 194-197
- ^ a b Ludden 2002, p. 133
- ^ a b Brown 1994, p. 88
- ^ Metcalf 1991, p. 48
- ^ Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 171, Bose & Jalal 2003, p. 90
- ^ Essential histories, The Indian Mutiny 1857-1858, Gregory Fremont-Barnes, Osprey 2007, page25
- ^ Essential histories, The Indian Mutiny 1857-1858, Gregory Fremont-Barnes, Osprey 2007, page25
- ^ Victorian Web 1857 Indian Rebellion
- ^ Hibbert 1980, p. 63
- ^ David 2003, p. 53
- ^ David 2003, p. 54
- ^ Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 172, Bose & Jalal 2003, p. 91, Brown 1994, p. 92
- ^ Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 172
- ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 102
- ^ Bose & Jalal 2003, p. 91, Metcalf 1991, Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 173
- ^ Brown 1994, p. 92
- ^ Khan 1859
- ^ Quoted in Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 100
- ^ Stokes & Bayly (ed.) 1986, Brown 1994, p. 91
- ^ Memorandum from Lieutenant-Colonel W. St. L. Mitchell (CO of the 19th BNI) to Major A. H. Ross about his troop's refusal to accept the Enfield cartridges, 27 February 1857, Archives of Project South Asia, South Dakota State University and Missouri Southern State University
- ^ a b "The Indian Mutiny of 1857", Col. Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation Click here for Indian Rebellion of 1857 Year 1857 ( MDCCCLVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the G. B. Malleson, reprint 2005, Rupa & Co. Publishers, New Delhi
- ^ Christopher Hibbert The Great Mutiny (London: Allen Lane) 1978 pp 73-74.
- ^ Hibbert, The Great Mutiny, pp. 80-85
- ^ Sir John Kaye & G. B. Malleson. : The Indian Mutiny of 1857, (Delhi: Rupa & Co. ) reprint 2005 p49
- ^ “the Indian Mutiny”, Saul David, Viking, 2002, page 93
- ^ Hibbert, The Great Mutiny, pp. 93-95
- ^ Hibbert, The Great Mutiny, pp. 98-101
- ^ Hibbert, The Great Mutiny, pp. 152-163
- ^ Michael Edwardes, Battles of the Indian Mutiny, pp 52-53
- ^ Indian mutiny was 'war of religion' - BBC
- ^ The Story of the Storm — 1857
- ^ Zachary Nunn. The British Raj
- ^ The Indian Mutiny, John Harris, Page57, Granada 1973
- ^ Harris John, The Indian Mutiny, Wordsworth editions, 2001
- ^ A.H. Amin, Pakistan Army Defence Journal
- ^ A.H. Amin, Orbat.com
- ^ Lessons from 1857
- ^ The Indian Army: 1765 - 1914
- ^ David Saul The Indian Mutiny Page 19, Viking, 2002
- ^ Qizilbash, Basharat Hussain (30 June 2006) The tragicomic hero The Nation. Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, is defeated and killed by troops of the Usurper Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Nawai-e-Waqt Group.
- ^ God's Acre. The Hindu Metro Plus Delhi. The Hindu is a single-edition English-language Indian newspaper October 28, 2006. Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ 'The Rising: The Ballad of Mangal Pandey'. Daily Mail, August 27, 2005
- ^ essential histories, the Indian Mutiny 1857-58, Gregory Fremont-Barnes, Osprey 2007, page 40
- ^ Dalrymple, The Last Mughal, page400
- ^ The story of Cawnpore: The Indian Mutiny 1857, Capt. Events 479 BC - Greco-Persian Wars: Persian forces led by Mardonius are routed by Pausanias, the Spartan Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Mowbray Thomson, Brighton, Tom Donovan, 1859, pp. 148-159.
- ^ Essential Histories, the Indian Mutiny 1857-58, Gregory Fremont-Barnes, Osprey 2007, page 49
- ^ S&T magazine No. 121 (September 1998), page 56
- ^ a b c Hibbert, The Great Mutiny, p. 191
- ^ A History of the Indian Mutiny by G. W. Forrest, London, William Blackwood, 1904
- ^ Kaye's and Malleson's History of the Indian Mutiny. Longman's, London, 1896. Footnote, p. 257.
- ^ Edwardes, Battles of the Indian Mutiny, p. 56
- ^ S&T magazine No. 121 (September 1998), page 56
- ^ John Harris, The Indian mutiny, Wordsworth millitary library 2001, page 92,
- ^ Essential Histories, the Indian Mutiny 1857-58, Gregory Fremont-Barnes, Osprey 2007, page 53
- ^ S&T magazine No. 121 (September 1998), page 58
- ^ John Harris, The Indian mutiny, Wordsworth millitary library 2001, page 92,
- ^ A History of the Indian Mutiny by G. W. Forrest, London, William Blackwood, 1904
- ^ J. W. Sherer, Daily Life during the Indian Mutiny, 1858, p. 56
- ^ a b Andrew Ward, Our bones are scattered - The Cawnpore massacres and the Indian Mutiny of 1857, John Murray, 1996
- ^ Ramson, Martin & Ramson, Edward, The Indian Empire, 1858
- ^ Michael Edwardes, Battles of the Indian Mutiny, Pan, 1963 ISBN 330-02524-4
- ^ Units of the Army of the Madras Presidency wore blue rather than black shakoes or forage caps
- ^ Raugh, Harold E. (2004). The Victorians at War, 1815-1914: An Encyclopedia of British Military. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 89. Santa Bárbara or Santa Barbara, meaning " Saint Barbara " in several Romance languages may refer to any of the following TV ABC-CLIO is a publisher of reference works for the study of history in academic secondary school and public library settings ISBN 978-1576079256. OCLC 54778450. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose
- ^ Hibbert, "The Great Mutiny", p. 358, 428
- ^ Essential Histories, the Indian Mutiny 1857-58, Gregory Fremont-Barnes, Osprey 2007, page 79
- ^ Lachmi Bai Rani of Jhansi, the Jeanne d'Arc of India (1901), White, Michael (Michael Alfred Edwin), 1866, New York : J. F. Taylor & Company, 1901
- ^ Biographies
- ^ [1]
- ^ Memoirs of Charles John Griffiths
- ^ Charles Allen, Soldier Sahibs, p. 276
- ^ Charles Allen, Soldier Sahibs, p. 283
- ^ Charles Allen, Soldier Sahibs, pp. 290-293
- ^ [2]
- ^ [3][4]
- ^ Sahib: The British Soldier in India 1750-1914 Richard Holmes HarperCollins 2005
- ^ Daily Mail, August 27, 2005 The Rising: The Ballad of Mangal Pandey
- ^ Chakravarty, G. Brigadier Edward Richard Holmes CBE TD JP (born March 29 1946) known as Richard Holmes, is a British soldier (2004). The Indian Mutiny and the British Imagination. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Herbert, C. (2008). War of No Pity: The Indian Mutiny and Victorian Trauma. Princeton University Press.
- ^ Judd, D. (2005). The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600-1947. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Derek Hudson. Martin Tupper: His Rise and Fall, Constable, 1972.
- ^ a b Brantlinger, Patrick (1990). Rule of darkness: British literature and imperialism, 1830-1914. Ithaca, N. Y: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9767-1.
- ^ http://www.britishempire.co.uk/forces/armycampaigns/indiancampaigns/mutiny/mutiny.htm
- ^ First Indian War of Independence January 8, 1998
- ^ Saul David, The Indian Mutiny: 1857,Penguin Books, 2003. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar)
- ^ India's First War of Independence 1857
- ^ Le Monde article on the revolt
- ^ German National Geographic article
- ^ Hindusthan Standard, Puja Annual, 195 p. 22 referenced in the Truth about the Indian mutiny article by Dr Ganda Singh
- ^ Surendranath Sen: Eighteen Fifty-seven (Appx. X & Appx. XV)
- ^ Somnath Chatterjee - Office of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha on the name of the conflict, October 2006 Address at the Function marking the 150th Anniversary of the Revolt of 1857
- ^ The Indian Mutiny and Victorian Trauma by Christopher Herbert, Princeton University Press, Princeton 2007
- ^ The History of the Indian Mutiny: Giving a detailed account of the sepoy insurrection in India by Charles Ball, The London Printing and Publishing Company, London, 1860
- ^ The Truth about the Indian Mutiny by Dr. Somnath Chatterjee (Bengali সোমনাথ চট্টোপাধ্যায় (born July 25, 1929 in Tezpur, Assam) is an The Speaker of the Lok Sabha is the presiding officer of the upper house of Parliament of India. Ganda Singh
- ^ The Indian Mutiny, Spilsbury Julian, Orion, 2007
- ^ S&T magazine issue 121 (September 1988), page 20
- ^ The communal hatred led to ugly communal riots in many parts of U. P. The green flag was hoisted and Muslims in Bareilly, Bijnor, Moradabad, and other places the Muslims shouted for the revival of Muslim kingdom. " R. C. Majumdar: Sepoy Mutiny and Revolt of 1857 (page 2303-31).
- ^ from the account of Bidrohi Bengali of Durgadas Bandyopadhyaya R. C. Majumdar: Sepoy Mutiny and Revolt of 1857 (page 177).
- ^ Sitaram Yechury. Sitaram Yechury ( Telugu: సీతారాం యేచూరి (born August 12, 1952) is an India politician and one of the best known The Empire Strikes Back. Hindustan Times. January 2006.
- ^ India Rising, National Army Museum
References
Text-books and academic monographs
- Alavi, Seema (1996), The Sepoys and the Company: Tradition and Transition 1770-1830, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. The National Army Museum is the British Army's central museum Pp. 340, ISBN 0195634845
- Anderson, Clare (2007), Indian Uprising of 1857–8: Prisons, Prisoners and Rebellion, New York: Anthem Press, Pp. 217, ISBN 9781843312499, <http://atlantis.terrassl.net/anthempress.com/product_info.php?cPath=52&products_id=293&osCsid=9a2s9o8mdu8066m551rr407123>
- Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (2004), From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India, New Delhi and London: Orient Longmans. Pp. xx, 548. , ISBN 8125025960, <https://www.orientlongman.com/display.asp?isbn=978-81-250-2596-2>.
- Bayly, C. A. (1990), Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire (The New Cambridge History of India), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Sir Christopher Alan Bayly, FBA (born 1945 is a British historian specializing in Indian British Imperial and Global History Pp. 248, ISBN 0521386500.
- Bayly, C. A. (2000), Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870 (Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Sir Christopher Alan Bayly, FBA (born 1945 is a British historian specializing in Indian British Imperial and Global History Pp. 426, ISBN 0521663601
- Bose, Sugata & Ayesha Jalal (2003), Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy, London and New York: Routledge, 2nd edition. Sugata Bose is the Gardiner Professor of History at Harvard University. Ayesha Jalal (عائشہ جلال is a Pakistani-American historian Pp. xiii, 304, ISBN 0-415-30787-2, <http://www.amazon.com/Modern-South-Asia-Sugata-Bose/dp/0415307872/>.
- Brown, Judith M. (1994), Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 474, ISBN 0198731132, <http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780198731139>.
- Hibbert, Christopher (1980), The Great Mutiny: India 1857, London: Allen Lane. Sir Allen Lane ( 21 September 1902 &ndash 7 July 1970) (born Allen Lane Williams) was a British Publisher who Pp. 472, ISBN 0140047522
- Judd, Dennis (2004), The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600-1947, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 280, ISBN 0192803581, <http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/India/?view=usa&ci=9780192803580>.
- Keene, H. George. 1995. British Administration During the Revolt of 1857. New Delhi: Inter- India Publications.
- Kulke, Hermann & Dietmar Rothermund (2004), A History of India, 4th edition. Routledge, Pp. xii, 448, ISBN 0415329205, <http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Hermann-Kulke/dp/0415329205/>.
- Ludden, David (2002), India And South Asia: A Short History, Oxford: Oneworld Publications. Pp. xii, 306, ISBN 1851682376, <http://www.oneworld-publications.com/cgi-bin/cart/commerce.cgi?pid=145&log_pid=yes>
- Majumdar, R. C. ; H. C. Raychaudhuri & Kalikinkar Datta (1950), An Advanced History of India, London: Macmillan and Company Limited. 2nd edition. Pp. xiii, 1122, 7 maps, 5 coloured maps. .
- Markovits, Claude (ed) (2005), A History of Modern India 1480-1950 (Anthem South Asian Studies), Anthem Press. Pp. 607, ISBN 1843311526, <http://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-1480-1950-Anthem-Studies/dp/1843311526/>.
- Metcalf, Barbara & Thomas R. Metcalf (2006), A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise Histories), Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Pp. xxxiii, 372, ISBN 0521682258, <http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Modern-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521682258/>.
- Metcalf, Thomas R. (1991), The Aftermath of Revolt: India, 1857-1870, Riverdale Co. Pub. Pp. 352, ISBN 8185054991
- Metcalf, Thomas R. (1997), Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, Pp. 256, ISBN 0521589371
- Mukherjee, Rudrangshu (1984), Awadh in Revolt 1857-1858: A Study of Popular Resistance, Delhi: Oxford University Press
- Palmer, J. A. B. The Mutiny Outbreak at Meerut In 1857. Cambridge: University Press, 1966.
- Ray, Rajat Kanta (2002), The Felt Community: Commonality and Mentality before the Emergence of Indian Nationalism, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, Pp. 596, ISBN 0195658639
- Robb, Peter (2004), A History of India (Palgrave Essential Histories), Houndmills, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Pp. xiv, 344, ISBN 0333691296, <http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Palgrave-Essential-Histories/dp/0333691296/>.
- Roy, Tapti, The politics of a popular uprising : Bundelkhand 1857, Delhi, for the Oxford University Press, 1994.
- Stanley, Peter, White Mutiny: British Military Culture in India, 1825-1875, Christopher Hurst & Co. , London, 1998.
- Stein, Burton (2001), A History of India, New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiv, 432, ISBN 0195654463, <http://www.amazon.com/History-India-World/dp/0631205462/ref=pd_ybh_a_7/104-7029728-9591925>.
- Stokes, Eric (1980), The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India (Cambridge South Asian Studies), Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, Pp. 316, ISBN 0521297702
- Stokes, Eric & C. A. Bayly (ed. ) (1986), The Peasant Armed: The Indian Revolt of 1857, Oxford: Clarendon Press, Pp. 280, ISBN 0198215703
- Taylor, P. J. O. , What really happened during the mutiny : a day-by-day account of the major events of 1857 - 1859 in India, Delhi: Oxford University Press India, 1999.
- Wolpert, Stanley (2003), A New History of India, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Stanley Wolpert (b 1927 is an American historian who specializes in the history of India and Pakistan. Pp. 544, ISBN 0195166787, <http://www.amazon.com/New-History-India-Stanley-Wolpert/dp/0195166787/>.
Articles in journals and collections
- Alavi, Seema (Feb. , 1993), "The Company Army and Rural Society: The Invalid Thanah 1780-1830", Modern Asian Studies 27 (1): 147-178, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%28199302%2927%3A1%3C147%3ATCAARS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T>
- Baker, David (1991), "Colonial Beginnings and the Indian Response: The Revolt of 1857-58 in Madhya Pradesh", Modern Asian Studies 25 (3): 511-543, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%28199107%2925%3A3%3C511%3ACBATIR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6>
- Blunt, Alison (July, 2000), "Embodying war: British women and domestic defilement in the Indian «Mutiny», 1857–8", Journal of Historical Geography 26 (3): 403-428, <http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jhge.2000.0236>
- English, Barbara (Feb. , 1994), "The Kanpur Massacres in India in the Revolt of 1857", Past and Present (no. 142): 169-178, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-2746%28199402%290%3A142%3C169%3ATKMIII%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L>
- Frykenberg, Robert E. , "India to 1858", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 194-213, ISBN 0199246807
- Klein, Ira (2000), "Materialism, Mutiny and Modernization in British India", Modern Asian Studies 34 (3): 545-580, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%28200007%2934%3A3%3C545%3AMMAMIB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I>
- Lahiri, Nayanjot (Jun. , 2003), "Commemorating and Remembering 1857: The Revolt in Delhi and Its Afterlife", World Archaeology 35 (1): 35-60, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-8243%28200306%2935%3A1%3C35%3ACAR1TR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C>
- Mukherjee, Rudrangshu (Aug. , 1990), "'Satan Let Loose upon Earth': The Kanpur Massacres in India in the Revolt of 1857", Past and Present (no. 128): 92-116, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-2746%28199008%290%3A128%3C92%3A%22LLUET%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2>
- Mukherjee, Rudrangshu (Feb. , 1994), "The Kanpur Massacres in India in the Revolt of 1857: Reply", Past and Present (no. 142): 178-189, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-2746%28199402%290%3A142%3C178%3ATKMIII%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J>
- Roy, Tapti (Feb. , 1993), "Visions of the Rebels: A Study of 1857 in Bundelkhand", Modern Asian Studies 27 (1): 205-228 (Special Issue: How Social, Political and Cultural Information Is Collected, Defined, Used and Analyzed), <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%28199302%2927%3A1%3C205%3AVOTRAS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P>
- Stokes, Eric (Dec. , 1969), "Rural Revolt in the Great Rebellion of 1857 in India: A Study of the Saharanpur and Muzaffarnagar Districts", The Historical Journal 12 (4): 696-627, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-246X%28196912%2912%3A4%3C606%3ARRITGR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P>
- Washbrook, D. A. , "India, 1818-1860: The Two Faces of Colonialism", in Porter, Andrew, Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 395-421, ISBN 0199246785
Other histories
- Dalrymple, William. 2006. The Last Mughal. Viking Penguin, 2006, ISBN 0-67099-925-3
- David, Saul (2003), The Indian Mutiny : 1857, London: Penguin Books, Pp. Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. 528, ISBN 0141005548
- Farrell, J. G. "The Siege of Krishnapur", New York Review of Books, 2004. The Siege of Krishnapur is a novel by the author JG Farrell published in 1973
- Mishra, Amaresh. 2007. War of Civilisations : The Long Revolution (India AD 1857, 2 Vols. ), ISBN 9788129112828
- Ward, Andrew. Our Bones Are Scattered. New York: Holt & Co. , 1996.
First person accounts and classic histories
- Barter, Captain Richard The Siege of Delhi. Mutiny memories of an old officer, London, The Folio Society, 1984. The Folio Society is a publisher of fine books based in London
- Campbell, Sir Colin. Narrative of the Indian Revolt. London: George Vickers, 1858.
- Collier, Richard. The Great Indian Mutiny. New York: Dutton, 1964.
- Kaye, John William. A History of the Sepoy War In India (3 vols). London: W. H. Allen & Co. , 1878.
- Forrest, George W. "A History of the Indian Mutiny", William Blackwood and Sons, London, 1904. (4 vols).
- Fitchett, W. H. , B. A. ,LL. D. , A Tale of the Great Mutiny, Smith, Elder & Co. , London, 1911.
- Innes, Lt. General McLeod: The Sepoy Revolt, A. D. Innes & Co. , London, 1897.
- Kaye, Sir John & Malleson, G. B. : The Indian Mutiny of 1857, Rupa & Co. , Delhi, (1st edition 1890) reprint 2005.
- Khan, Syed Ahmed (1859), Asbab-e Baghawat-e Hind'', Translated as The Causes of the Indian Revolt, Allahabad, 1873
- Malleson, Colonel G. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Bahadur, GCSI (also Sayyid Ahmad Khan (سید احمد خان بہا در October 17 1817 – March 27 1898 commonly known as Sir Syed was an Allahabad ( Hindi: इलाहाबाद Urdu: الہ آباد Ilāhābād) is a city in the north Indian state of Uttar B. The Indian Mutiny of 1857. New York: Scribner & Sons, 1891.
- Marx, Karl & Freidrich Engels. The First Indian War of Independence 1857-1859. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1959.
- Pandey, Sita Ram, From Sepoy to Subedar, Being the Life and Adventures of Subedar Sita Ram, a Native Officer of the Bengal Native Army, Written and Related by Himself, trans. Lt. Col. Norgate, (Lahore: Bengal Staff Corps, 1873), ed. James Lunt, (Delhi: Vikas Publications, 1970).
- Raikes, Charles: Notes on the Revolt in the North-Western Provinces of India, Longman, London, 1858. Longman was a publishing company founded in London, England in 1724
- Roberts, Field Marshal Lord, Forty-one Years in India, Richard Bentley, London, 1897 Forty-one years in India, available at Project Gutenberg. Field Marshal Frederick Sleigh Roberts 1st Earl Roberts, VC, KG, KP, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCIE, PC Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works
- Russell, William Howard, My Diary in India in the years 1858-9, Routledge, London, 1860, (2 vols. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals )
- Sen, Surendra Nath, Eighteen fifty-seven, (with a foreword by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad), Indian Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Delhi, 1957.
- Thomson, Mowbray (Capt. ), "The Story of Cawnpore: The Indian Mutiny 1857", Donovan, London, 1859.
- Trevelyan, Sir George Otto, Cawnpore, Indus, Delhi, (first edition 1865), reprint 2002.
- Wilberforce, Reginald G, An Unrecorded Chapter of the Indian Mutiny, Being the Personal Reminiscences of Reginald G. WIlberforce, Late 52nd Infantry, Compiled from a Diary and Letters Written on the Spot London: John Murray 1884, facsimile reprint: Gurgaon: The Academic Press, 1976.
Tertiary Sources
- "Indian Mutiny. " Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Online. http://www.eb.com:180/cgi-bin/g?DocF=micro/342/91.html. 23 Mar. 1998.
- "Lee-Enfield Rifle. " Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 23 Mar. 1998.
Fictional & Narrative Literature
- Farrell, J. G. . The Siege of Krishnapur. The Siege of Krishnapur is a novel by the author JG Farrell published in 1973 New York: Carroll & Graf, 1985 (orig. 1973; Booker Prize winner).
- Fenn, Clive Robert. For the Old Flag: A Tale of the Mutiny. London: Sampson Low, 1899.
- Grant, James. First Love and Last Love: A Tale of the Mutiny. New York: G. Routledge & Sons, 1869.
- Kaye, Mary Margaret. Shadow of the Moon. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979.
- Kilworth, Garry Douglas. Brothers of the Blade: Constable & Robinson, 2004.
- Masters, John. Nightrunners of Bengal. New York: Viking Press, 1951.
- Raikes, William Stephen. 12 Years of a Soldier's Life In India. Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1860.
See also
- Category:Places of Indian Rebellion of 1857
- Vellore Mutiny
- Titumir
- British Raj
- John Paton (VC)
- History of South Asia
- List of wars of independence
- List of revolutions and rebellions
External links
- http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1800_1899/1857revolt/nanasahib/nanasahib.html
- Sepoy Blog, A day by day account of 1857 Rebellion
- Truth behind 1857 panthic. The Vellore Mutiny ( July 10, 1806) was the first instance of a Mutiny by Indian Sepoys against the British East India Company Titumir ( Bangla: তিতুমীর, properly Titu Mir was a rebel against the zamindars and British colonial system in 19th century Bengal, part of British For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British John Paton VC ( 23 December 1833 &ndash 1 April 1914) was a Scottish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest The term South Asia usually refers to the political entities of the Sub- Himalayan region - namely Republic of India, Pakistan, This is a list of wars of independence (national liberation. Listed wars may or may not have been successful in achieving a goal of Independence. This is a list of Revolutions and Rebellions BC 499 BC - 493 BC: Ionian Revolt. org part I, part II, part III
- First War of Independence - Sify
- 1857 first freedom fight :: १८५७ :: अखंड भारतम्
- 1857 was not the first war of Independence
- Development of Situation-January to July 1857 - Maj (Retd) AGHA HUMAYUN AMIN from WASHINGTON DC defencejounal.com
- The Library of Congress (US) - Research Centers - Country Study - India @ 1857
- Alexander Ganse (World History at KMLA - Mutiny 1857
- The Sepoy War of 1857 - Emory.edu
- The Indian Mutiny BritishEmpire.co.uk
- Paintings related to events of 1857
- British Army Official Records of the Era
- Karl Marx, New York Tribune, 1853-1858, The Revolt in India marxists.org
- In Pictures: Rare images of the 1857 uprising in India, BBC News, 12th May 2007
- India Rising National Army Museum (UK)
- A Great British Tradition, John Newsinger on the Great Indian Rebellion, Socialist Review, May 2007. The New York Tribune was an American newspaper first established by Horace Greeley in 1841 which was long considered one of the leading Newspapers in the The Socialist Review is the monthly magazine of the Socialist Workers Party (UK.
- Narrative of Munshi Jeewan Lal
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