| भारत गणराज्य* Bhārat Gaṇarājya Republic of India
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| Motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit) सत्यमेव जयते (Devanāgarī) "Truth Alone Triumphs"[1] |
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| Anthem: Jana Gana Mana Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people[2] |
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| National Song[4] Vande Mataram I bow to thee, Mother[3] |
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| Capital | New Delhi | |||||
| Largest city | Mumbai | |||||
| Official languages: Scheduled languages: |
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| Demonym | Indian | |||||
| Government | Federal republic[8] Parliamentary democracy[9] |
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| - | President | Pratibha Patil | ||||
| - | Prime Minister | Manmohan Singh | ||||
| Independence | from British colonial rule | |||||
| - | Declared | 15 August 1947 | ||||
| - | Republic | 26 January 1950 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 3,287,590‡ km² (7th) 1,269,346 sq mi |
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| - | Water (%) | 9. The Constitution of India envisages Hindi as the primary official language to be used by the Union Government, with English as the subsidiary official language Assamese (অসমীয়া) (ɔxɔmija is the easternmost Indo-Aryan language, spoken mainly in the state of Assam in North-East Bodo, pronounced BO-RO is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Bodo people of north-eastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh Not to be confused with the Dogrib language. Dogri (डोगरी or ڈوگرى is an Indo-Aryan Language spoken by Gujarati (ગુજરાતી Gujǎrātī ? Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is Kannada (kn [[wiktಕನ್ನಡ ಕನ್ನಡ]] Kannaḍa) is one of the major Dravidian languages of India, spoken predominantly in the state Kashmiri (कॉशुर کٲشُر Koshur) is a Dardic language spoken primarily in the valley of Kashmir, a region situated in the Indian state Konkani ( Devanāgarī: कोंकणी Roman: Konknni Kannada: ಕೊಂಕಣಿ Malayalam: കൊങ്കണി IAST Maithili (मैथिली Maithilī) is a language spoken in the eastern part of India, mainly in the Indian state of Bihar Not to be confused with the Malay language. Malayalam (മലയാളം malayāḷaṁ) is a Dravidian language used Meitei-lon (মেইতেই লোন্ also Meitei-lol (মেইতেই লোল্ and Manipuri (মনিপুরি (and sometimes the 19th century Marathi (mr मराठी Marāṭhī) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people of what is considered western India. Nepali is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Nepal, Bhutan, and some parts of India and Myanmar (Burma Oriya (ଓଡ଼ିଆ oṛiā) is one of the Indian Languages mainly spoken in the Indian state of Orissa. Punjabi (pa ਪੰਜਾਬੀ in Gurmukhi script pa-PK {{Nastaliq پنجابی}} in Shahmukhi script Pañjābī in Transliteration) is an Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Santali is a Language in the Munda subfamily of Austro-Asiatic, related to Ho and Mundari. Sindhi ( Arabic script: سنڌي Devanagari script: सिन्धी Sindhī) is the language of the Sindh region of South Asia Tamil (ta தமிழ்; t̪əmɨɻ is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised A demonym or gentilic is a word that denotes the members of a People or the inhabitants of a place The Demographics of India are overall remarkably diverse India's population of approximately 1 For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. A federal republic is a Federation of States with a republican form of government A parliamentary system, also known as parliamentarianism (and parliamentarism in American English) is a System of government in which The President of India or Rashtrapati ( Hindi: राष्ट्रपति a Sanskrit Neologism, lit Pratibha Devisingh Patil (प्रतिभा देवीसिंह पाटिल (born December 19, 1934) is the current President of India, the The Prime Minister of India is head of the Council of Ministers, appointed by the President to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive Manmohan Singh (ਮਨਮੋਹਨ ਸਿੰਘ (born 26 September 1932 is the 17th The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its Events 1340 - King Edward III of England is declared King of France. Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Area is a Quantity expressing the two- Dimensional size of a defined part of a Surface, typically a region bounded by a closed Curve. To help compare Orders of magnitude of different surface Areas here is a list of areas between 1 million km² and 10 million km² This is a list of the countries of the world sorted by total area. The square mile is an imperial and US unit of Area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. In Mathematics, a percentage is a way of expressing a number as a Fraction of 100 ( per cent meaning "per hundred" 56 | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2008 estimate | 1,132,446,000[8] (2nd) | ||||
| - | 2001 census | 1,027,015,248 | ||||
| - | Density | 329/km² (31st) 852/sq mi |
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| GDP (PPP) | 2007 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $ 2. In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology List of countries by population in 2005|List of countries by population in 1907This is a list of countries ordered according to Population. Population density (in agriculture standing stock and Standing crop) is a measurement of Population per unit area or unit volume List of countries and dependencies by Population density in inhabitants/km² The purchasing power parity ( PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium Exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their Purchasing power. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been 965 trillion[10] (4th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $ 2700 (165th) | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2007 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $ 1. There are three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP (the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation Per capita is a Latin phrase meaning for each head with Per meaning 'through' or 'by' The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been This article includes three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP at Purchasing power parity (PPP Per capita The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been 089 trillion (12th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $ 977 (132nd) | ||||
| Gini (2004) | 36. PLEASE NO RANDOM FIGURES THERE ARE NO FIGURES BASED ON NATIONAL STATISTICS IN THIS ARTICLE Per capita is a Latin phrase meaning for each head with Per meaning 'through' or 'by' The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been This article includes three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product Per capita at Nominal values, the The Gini coefficient is a measure of statistical dispersion most prominently used as a measure of inequality of income distribution or inequality of wealth 8[11] | |||||
| HDI (2007) | ▲ 0. The Human Development Index ( HDI) is an index combining normalized measures of Life expectancy, Literacy, Educational attainment, and GDP 619 (medium) (128th) | |||||
| Currency | Indian rupee (₨) (INR) |
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| Time zone | IST (UTC+5:30) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | not observed (UTC+5:30) | ||||
| Internet TLD | .in | |||||
| Calling code | +91 | |||||
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India (Hindi: भारत Bhārat; see also other Indian languages), officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is The Constitution of India includes official names of the Republic of India in each of the twenty-three Schedule VIII languages of India. It is the seventh largest country by geographical area, the second most populous country, and the largest democracy in the world (by virtue of the size of its electorate). This is a list of the countries of the world sorted by total area. List of countries by population in 2005|List of countries by population in 1907This is a list of countries ordered according to Population. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system [13] Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi). The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface The Arabian Sea ( Arabic: بحر العرب transliterated: Baḥr al-'Arab Sanskrit: सिन्धु सागर transliterated: The Bay of Bengal is a bay that forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. [14] It borders Pakistan to the west;[15] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. The Kingdom of Bhutan (buːˈtɑːn is a Landlocked nation in South Asia. ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian Ocean. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island The Maldives ( or, or Maldive Islands) officially the Republic of Maldives, is an Island nation consisting of a group of atolls stretching The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface
Home to the Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. Economic history of India, in the sense of the meaning of the term economic in its current sense is at least 5000 years old The culture of India has been shaped by the long History of India, its unique geography and the absorption of customs traditions and ideas from some of its neighbors [16] Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated here, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. Sikhism ( IPA: or; ਸਿੱਖੀ sikkhī, IPA:) founded on the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus in fifteenth century Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Indian Jews are a religious minority of India. Judaism was one of the first non- Dharmic religions to arrive in India in recorded history Christianity is India's third-largest religion, with approximately 24 million followers constituting 2 Islam in India is the second-most practiced religion after Hinduism. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-nineteenth century, India became a modern nation state in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread nonviolent resistance. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant Nonviolent resistance (or nonviolent action) is the practice of achieving socio-political goals through Symbolic Protests Civil disobedience,
India is the world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the fourth largest in purchasing power. PLEASE NO RANDOM FIGURES THERE ARE NO FIGURES BASED ON NATIONAL STATISTICS IN THIS ARTICLE There are three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP (the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation The purchasing power parity ( PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium Exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their Purchasing power. Economic reforms have transformed it into the second fastest growing large economy;[17] however, it still suffers from high levels of poverty,[18] illiteracy, and malnutrition. The list of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (real growth rate shows the increase in value of all final goods and services produced These are lists of Countries of the world by percentage of population living in Poverty. One-third of India's population (roughly equivalent to the entire population of the United States lives below the poverty line and India is home to one-third of the world's poor people traditional definition of literacy is considered to be the ability to read and write or the ability to use Language to read, write, listen, Malnutrition is a general term for a medical condition caused by an improper or insufficient diet. A pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. Religious pluralism (rel Comparative religion) is a loosely defined expression concerning acceptance of different Religions and is used in a number of related Multi-ethnic societies, in contrast to single ethnic societies integrate different Ethnic groups irrespective of differences in culture race and history under a common India has some of the world's most biodiverse regions The political boundaries of India encompass a wide range of ecozones—desert high mountains highlands tropical and India has the following kinds of Protected areas in the sense of the word designated by IUCN.
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Etymology
The name India (pronounced /ˈɪndiə/) is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River. The name India may refer to either the region of Greater India (the Indian subcontinent) or to the contemporary Republic of India contained therein The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd The Old Persian language is one of the two attested Old Iranian languages (besides Avestan) A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd [19] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions [20] The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (pronunciation , /bʰɑːrət̪/) as an official name of equal status. The Constitution of India ( Hindi: भारतीय़ संविधान see names in other Indian languages) is the supreme law of India. [21] Hindustan (/hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn/ ), which is the Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” and historically referred to northern India, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India. Hindustan (हिन्दुस्तान, ہندوستان,) is one of the popular Names of India. Geography Northern India lies mainly on continental India and a very small part of it lies on the Indian peninsula [22]
History
Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 The History of the Republic of India began on August 15, 1947 when India became an independent Dominion within the British Commonwealth The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which Humans widely used stone for toolmaking The Bhimbetka rock shelters compose an archaeological site and World Heritage Site located in Raisen District in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP) ( Hindī: मध्य प्रदेश pronounced, Translation: Middle Province) often The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilization,[23] dating back to 3300 BCE in western India. The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin It was followed by the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BC. The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country. Mahajanapadas ( Sanskrit: महाजनपद Mahājanapadas) literally "Great Kingdoms" (from Maha, "great" and Janapada [24]
In the third century BCE, most of South Asia was united into the Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great. The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military Ashoka ( Devanāgarī: अशोकः IAST: Aśokaḥ, aɕoːkə(hə Prakrit Imperial title Devanampriya Priyadarsi [25] From 180 BCE, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, including those led by the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians and Kushans in the north-western Indian subcontinent. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas ( Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was established during the 1st century by Gondophares, and at its greatest extent extended into areas that are in present-day Afghanistan The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age. The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C Different periods have been termed as Golden periods in the Indian history based on the achievements Indians made in the fields of Mathematics, Astronomy, Science "[26][27] Among the notable South Indian empires were the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cholas. South India is the area encompassing India 's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ( Sanskrit: राष्ट्रकूट rāṣṭrakūṭa, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ was a royal The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga Origins See also Origin of Pallava The exact origin of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. The vast scope of the art of India intertwines with the cultural history religions and philosophies which place art production and patronage in social and cultural contexts Indian literature is generally acknowledged as one of the oldest in the world The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent
Following invasions from Central Asia between the tenth and twelfth centuries, much of north India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Mughal Empire. The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Mughal emperors gradually expanded their Kingdoms to cover large parts of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, flourished, especially in the south. The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the Mughal supremacy declined and the Maratha Empire became the dominant power. The Maratha Empire ( Marathi: मराठा साम्राज्य Marāṭhā Sāmrājya; also transliterated Mahratta From the sixteenth century, several European countries, including Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom, started arriving as traders and later took advantage of the fractious nature of relations between the kingdoms to establish colonies in the country. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the British East India Company. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or [28] A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, variously referred to as the India's First War of Independence or Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged the British Company's control but eventually failed. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, As a consequence, India came under the direct rule of the British Crown as a colony of the British Empire. TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power.
During the first half of the twentieth century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organizations. The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant Indian National Congress-I (also known as the Congress Party and abbreviated INC) is a major Political party in India. In the 1920s and 1930, a movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, and displaying commitment to ahimsa, or non-violence, millions of protesters engaged in mass campaigns of civil disobedience. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January Ahimsa ( Devanagari: sa अहिंसा IAST ahiṃsā is a Sanskrit term meaning Non-violence (literally the avoidance of violence - Civil disobedience is the active refusal to obey certain Laws demands and commands of a Government, or of an occupying power, without resorting to physical [29] Finally, on 15 August 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but was partitioned with independent governments for the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan in accordance to wishes of the Muslim League, along the lines of religion to create the Islamic nation state of Pakistan. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, The Dominion of Pakistan was a federal entity that was established in 1947 as a result of the Partition of India into two sovereign dominions the Union The All India Muslim League ( Urdu: آل انڈیا مسلم لیگ Bengali:?????? ??? founded at Dhaka in 1906 was a political party in British Indian Muslim nationalism refers to the political and cultural expression of Nationalism, founded upon the religious tenets and identity of Islam, of the Muslims For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and [30] Three years later, on 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect. Events 1340 - King Edward III of England is declared King of France. Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Constitution of India ( Hindi: भारतीय़ संविधान see names in other Indian languages) is the supreme law of India. [8]
Since independence, India has suffered from religious violence, casteism and insurgencies in various parts, but has been able to control them through tolerance and constitutional reforms. Religious violence in India includes acts of violence by followers of one religious group against followers and institutions of another religious group often in the Caste -related violence and Hate crimes in India have occurred despite the gradual reduction of casteism in the country India is one of the most diverse nations in terms of religion It has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which in 1962 escalated into the brief Sino-Indian War; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. The Sino-Indian War ( Hindi: भारत-चीन युद्ध Bhārat-Chīn Yuddh) also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict, was a war between The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, sometimes known as the First Kashmir War, was fought between India and Pakistan over the region of Kashmir from The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 was a culmination of Skirmishes that took place between April 1965 and September 1965 between India and Pakistan. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a major military conflict between India and Pakistan. The Kargil War, also known as the Kargil conflict, was an armed conflict between India and Pakistan that took place between May and July India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations (as part of British India). The Non-Aligned Movement ( NAM) is an International organization of states considering themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test. The Smiling Buddha was the first nuclear test explosion by India on May 18, 1974 at Pokhran. [31] This was followed by five more tests in 1998, making India a nuclear state. Pokharan-II refers to test explosions of five Nuclear devices three on 11 May and two on 13 May 1998 conducted by India Nations that are known or believed to possess Nuclear weapons are sometimes referred to as the nuclear club. [31] Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms[32] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, adding to its global and regional clout. The list of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (real growth rate shows the increase in value of all final goods and services produced [17]
Government
 National Symbols of India[33] |
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| Flag | Tricolour |
| Emblem | Sarnath Lion Capital |
| Anthem | Jana Gana Mana |
| Song | Vandē Mātaram |
| Animal | Royal Bengal Tiger |
| Bird | Indian Peafowl |
| Flower | Lotus |
| Tree | Banyan |
| Fruit | Mango |
| Sport | Field hockey |
| Calendar | Saka |
The Constitution of India, the longest and the most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on January 26, 1950. "Indian flag" redirects here For flags used by Native American peoples see the tribes' respective articles, for example the Navajo Nation. The Emblem of India is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Jana Gana Mana (জন গণ মন Jôno Gôno Mono) is the National anthem of India. Bande Mataram redirects here for other uses of the term see Bande Mataram (disambiguation. The Bengal tiger, or Royal Bengal tiger ( Panthera tigris tigris or Panthera tigris bengalensis) is a Subspecies of Tiger primarily The Indian Peafowl, Pavo cristatus, also known as the Common Peafowl or the Blue Peafowl, is one of the Species of bird in the genus Pavo Nelumbo nucifera is known by a number of common names including Indian lotus, sacred lotus, bean of India, and sacred water-lily A banyan is a fig that starts its life as an Epiphyte when its Seeds germinate in the cracks and crevices on a host Tree (or on structures like Mangoes belong to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous species of tropical fruiting Trees in the Flowering plant family Anacardiaceae Field hockey is a Team sport in which players attempt to score goals by hitting the Ball across the pitch with a stick The Indian national calendar (sometimes called Saka calendar) is the official civil calendar in use in India. The Constitution of India ( Hindi: भारतीय़ संविधान see names in other Indian languages) is the supreme law of India. [34] The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. The Constitution of India ( Hindi: भारतीय़ संविधान see names in other Indian languages) is the supreme law of India. Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its [35] India has a quasi-federal form of government[36] and a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. In Government, bicameralism (bi + Latin la ''camera'' chamber is the practice of having two legislative or Parliamentary chambers Thus a bicameral TalkParliament#Screen-size. -->A parliament is a Legislature, especially in those The Westminster system is a democratic Parliamentary system of Government modelled after the British government (the Parliament of the United It has three branches of governance: the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation In Political science and Constitutional law, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the State. In Law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of Courts which administer Justice in the name of the sovereign or State
The President of India is the official head of state[37] elected indirectly by an electoral college[38] for a five-year term. The President of India or Rashtrapati ( Hindi: राष्ट्रपति a Sanskrit Neologism, lit Head of state is the generic term for the individual or collective office that serves as the chief public representative of a Monarchic or Republican Nation-state An electoral college is a set of many electors who are empowered to elect a candidate to a particular Office. [39][40] The Prime Minister is, however, the de facto head of government and exercises most executive powers. The Prime Minister of India is head of the Council of Ministers, appointed by the President to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive This article focuses on the cases where the Head of Government is a separate office from the Head of State [37] The Prime Minister is appointed by the President[41] and, by convention, is the candidate supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament. A political party is a Political organization that seeks to attain and maintain political power within Government, usually by participating in electoral See also Umbrella organization A political coalition or political alliance is an agreement for cooperation between different political parties on [37]
The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People). The Parliament of India (or Sansad) is the federal and supreme Legislative body of India. The Rajya Sabha (meaning the "Council of States" is the Upper house of the Parliament of India. The Lok Sabha (also titled the House of the People, by the Constitution) is the directly elected Lower house of the Parliament of India [42] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms. [43] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state's population. India is a union of states comprising twenty-eight states and seven union territories. [43] The 543 of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms. A constituency is any cohesive corporate unit or body bound by shared structures goals or loyalty [43] The other two members are nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community if, in his opinion, the community is not adequately represented. Anglo-Indians are people who have mixed Indian and British ancestry and the term is sometimes used in the West. [43]
The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Cabinet ministers Manmohan Singh - Prime Minister and also in-charge of the Ministries/ Departments not specifically allocated to the charge of any Minister A cabinet is a body of high-ranking members of Government, typically representing the executive branch. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament. [44]
India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, twenty-one High Courts, and a large number of trial courts. The Supreme Court of India is the highest court of the land as established by Part V Chapter IV of the Constitution of India. The term Chief Justice of India refers to the highest judge in the Supreme Court of India. India 's judicial system is made up of the Supreme Court of India at the apex of the hierarchy for the entire country and twenty-one High Courts at the [45] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts. The original jurisdiction of a court is the right to hear a case for the first time as opposed to Appellate jurisdiction when a court has the right to review the decision of The Fundamental Rights in India enshrined in the Part III of the Constitution of India guarantee civil liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace [46] It is judicially independent,[45] and has the power to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the Constitution. Judicial independence is the doctrine that decisions of the Judiciary should be impartial and not subject to influence from the other branches of government or from private or [47] The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court. [48]
Politics
India is the largest democracy in the world. [13][49] For most of its democratic history, the federal government has been led by the Indian National Congress (INC). Indian National Congress-I (also known as the Congress Party and abbreviated INC) is a major Political party in India. [50] State politics have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)), and various regional parties. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP (भारतीय जनता पार्टी, Translation: Indian People's Party) founded in 1980 is a major Political The Communist Party of India (Marxist (abbreviated CPI(M or CPM) is a Political party in India. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the "Emergency" declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The Janata Party (जनता पार्टी People's Party in Hindi) was an Indian Political party that contested the Indian Emergency See also State of Emergency in India The Indian Emergency of June 1975–21st March 1977 was a 21-month period when President Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi ( Indirā Priyadarśinī Gāndhī) ( Née: Nehru (19 November 1917 - 31 October 1984 was the Prime Minister of the In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years. Janata Dal is an Indian political party which was formed through the merger of one of the major Janata Party factions the Lok Dal and a group of Congressmen The National Front was a coalition of political parties led by the Janata Dal, which formed India 's government between 1989 and 1991 under the leadership of BamfronttripuraJPG|thumb|right| West Bengal Left Front Committee meeting for solidarity with Tripura]] The Left Front ( Bengali: বাম ফ্রন্ট [51]
The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition. The United Front was a coalition of political parties which formed India 's government between 1996 and 1998 In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several regional parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term. The National Democratic Alliance ( NDA) is a coalition of political parties in India. [52] In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP. Legislative elections were held in India, the world's largest Democracy, in four phases between April 20 and May 10, 2004. United Progressive Alliance ( UPA) is the present ruling coalition of political parties heading the Government of India. [53]
Foreign relations and military
Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia. This is a list of former European Colonies. North America France Canada (most of eastern and central Canada United [54] India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. India played an important role in the multilateral movements of colonies and newly independent countries that developed into the Non-Aligned Movement. [55] After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed at the expense of ties with the United States and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. The Sino-Indian War ( Hindi: भारत-चीन युद्ध Bhārat-Chīn Yuddh) also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict, was a war between The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 was a culmination of Skirmishes that took place between April 1965 and September 1965 between India and Pakistan. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the India has fought four wars with Pakistan, primarily over Kashmir. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir India also fought and won an additional war with Pakistan for the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971. The Bangladesh Liberation War (i ( Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho) was an armed conflict between West Pakistan (later
In recent years, India has played an influential role in the ASEAN[56], SAARC, and the WTO. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, commonly referred to as ASEAN, ˈɑːsiːɑːn AH-see-ahn in English (the Official language The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ( SAARC) is an economic and political organization of eight countries in Southern Asia. [57] India is a founding member and long time supporter of the United Nations, with over 55,000 Indian military and police personnel having served in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations deployed across four continents. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Organization and command structure The headquarters of the Indian Armed Forces is in New Delhi, the capital city. [58] Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT, preferring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program. The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT bans all nuclear explosions in all environments for military or civilian purposes The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, also Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ( NPT or NNPT) is a Treaty to limit the spread Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States, China, and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in South America, Asia, and Africa. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a
India maintains the third largest military force in the world, which consists of the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force. This list of countries by size of armed forces displays national troop levels by active troop strength number of Naval combatants fighter aircraft and Nuclear weapons. The Indian Army (Bharatiya Thalsena भारतीय थाल्सेना is one of the armed forces of India and has the responsibility for land-based The Indian Navy is the naval branch of the armed forces of India. The Indian Air Force (Devanāgarī भारतीय वायु सेना IAST Bhartiya Vāyu Senā is the air arm of the Armed Forces of India and has the [8] Auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command also come under the military's purview. The Paramilitary forces of India are those agencies of the Ministry of Defence or the Ministry of Home Affairs which act as armed forces auxiliaries and are considered The Indian Coast Guard is the fourth service created to guard Republic of India 's vast Coastline. The Indian Strategic Forces Command (SFC sometimes called The Strategic Nuclear Command forms part of India's Nuclear Command Authority (NCA The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian armed forces. The President of India or Rashtrapati ( Hindi: राष्ट्रपति a Sanskrit Neologism, lit India became a nuclear power in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test, Operation Smiling Buddha. Nations that are known or believed to possess Nuclear weapons are sometimes referred to as the nuclear club. The Smiling Buddha was the first nuclear test explosion by India on May 18, 1974 at Pokhran. Further underground testing in 1998 led to international military sanctions against India, which were gradually withdrawn after September 2001. Pokharan-II refers to test explosions of five Nuclear devices three on 11 May and two on 13 May 1998 conducted by India India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy[59] and has a "strong nuclear non-proliferation record" according to the White House,[60] despite not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. No first use refers to a pledge not to use Nuclear weapons as a means of warfare unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, also Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ( NPT or NNPT) is a Treaty to limit the spread
Subdivisions
India is a federal republic of twenty-eight states and seven Union Territories. The subdivisions of India are Indian subnational administrative units they compose a nested hierarchy of Country subdivisions Indian states and territories frequently A federal republic is a Federation of States with a republican form of government Many countries are made up of a number of subnational entities called states (or related terms in languages other than English A Union Territory is a sub-national administrative division of India. [50] All states, the union territory of Puducherry, and the National Capital Territory of Delhi have elected governments. Puducherry (formerly; புதுச்சேரி or பாண்டிச்சேரி పాండిచెర్రి പുതുശ്ശേരി Pondichéry is a Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population The other five union territories have centrally appointed administrators and hence are under direct rule of the President. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were formed on a linguistic basis. The States Reorganization Act of 1956 was a major reform of the boundaries and governance of India 's states and territories. [61] Since then, this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is divided into basic units of government and administration called districts. A district is an administrative division of an Indian state or territory. There are nearly 600 districts in India. A district is an administrative division of a state in India India is divided into twenty-eight states and seven Union territories (UT [62] The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages. A tehsil ( Urdu: تحصیل) (or tahsil, tahasil, taluka, taluk, taluq, mandal) is an Administrative division A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet, but smaller than a Town or City.
States:
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Union Territories: |
Major Cities:[63] Mumbai • Delhi • Bangalore • Kolkata • Chennai • Ahmedabad • Hyderabad • (others)
Geography
- See also: Geological history of India and Climate of India
India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate. The India or Indian Plate is a Tectonic plate that was originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwanaland from which it split off eventually The Indo-Australian Plate is a major Tectonic plate that includes the continent of Australia and surrounding Ocean, and extends northwest to include the [64]
India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean. Gondwana (ɡɒnˈdwɑːnə originally Gondwanaland) was a southern Supercontinent that existed about 500 to 200 Ma ago Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface [65] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east. The Eurasian Plate is a Tectonic plate which includes most of the continent of Eurasia (a landmass consisting of the traditional Continents of Europe In Geology, a subduction zone is an area on Earth where two tectonic plates meet and move towards one another with one sliding underneath the other Geography Northern India lies mainly on continental India and a very small part of it lies on the Indian peninsula North-East India refers to the easternmost region of India consisting of the contiguous Seven Sister States and Sikkim. [65] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast through, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,[66] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Indo-Gangetic Plain also known as the Northern plains and the North Indian River Plain is a large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, [67] To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert. The Aravalli Range is a range of mountains in western India running approximately 800 km from northeast to southwest across Rajasthan state The Thar Desert ( Hindi: थार मरुस्थल also known as the Great Indian Desert, is [68] The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. The Satpura Range is a range of Hills in central India. The range rises in eastern Gujarat state near the Arabian Sea coast running east through The Vindhya Range ( Sanskrit: विन्ध्य is a range of older rounded mountains and hills in the west-central Indian subcontinent which geographically These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east. The Chota Nagpur Plateau (also Chhota Nagpur) is a plateau in eastern India which covers much of Jharkhand state as well as adjacent parts of Orissa, [69] To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;[70] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. The Western Ghats ( Kannada ಸಹ್ಯಾದ್ರಿ Marathi / Konkani - सह्याद्री Sahyadri Malayalam സഹ്യപര്വ്വതം The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains along India 's eastern coast Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude[71] and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude. [72]
India's coast is 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi) long; of this distance, 5,423 kilometers (3,370 mi) belong to peninsular India, and 2,094 kilometers (1,301 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands. [14] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast. Mudflats (also tidal flats, tide flats, etc are coastal wetlands that form when mud is deposited by tides or rivers [14]
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent The Brahmaputra, also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra is a Trans-boundary river and one of the major Rivers of Asia. The Bay of Bengal is a bay that forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. [73] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi, whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. For the goddess of the river who is sometimes called Yamuna see Yami The Yamuna (Sanskrit यमुना Major peninsular rivers whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[74] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea. This article is about the river Godavari in India. For other uses see Godavari (disambiguation The Godavari ( Marathi language:गोदावरी The Mahanadi rises in the highlands ofChhattisgarh It flows through Orissa to reachthe Bay of Bengal The Kaveri River ( Kannada: ಕಾವೇರಿ ನದಿ Tamil: காவிரி ஆறு also spelled Cauvery in English This article is about an Indian river For other meanings of this river names see Krishna (disambiguation and Krishnaveni. The Narmada नर्मदा Gujarati નર્મદા or Nerbudda (Narbada is a river in central India and the fifth largest river in the Indian subcontinent The Tapti River (original name Tapi River) is a river in central India. The Arabian Sea ( Arabic: بحر العرب transliterated: Baḥr al-'Arab Sanskrit: सिन्धु सागर transliterated: [75] Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh. The Rann of Kutch is a seasonally marshy region located in the Thar Desert biogeographic province in Gujarat state of northwestern India The Sundarbans (সুন্দরবন Shundorbôn) is the largest single block of tidal halophytic Mangrove forest in the world [76] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea. Lakshadweep ( (ലക്ഷദ്വീപ്,) the smallest Union territory of India, is a group of islands 200 to 300 km off of the coast of The Andaman & Nicobar Islands is a Union territory of India. Informally the territory's name is often abbreviated to A & N Islands, or ANI The Andaman Sea (မုတ္တမ moʊʔtəma̰ is a body of water to the southeast of the Bay of Bengal, south of Myanmar, west of Thailand and east [77]
India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons. A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months [78] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes. [79] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall. [78] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane. The climate of India defies easy generalisation comprising a wide range of weather conditions across a large geographic scale and varied topography The climate of India defies easy generalisation comprising a wide range of weather conditions across a large geographic scale and varied topography The climate of India defies easy generalisation comprising a wide range of weather conditions across a large geographic scale and varied topography The climate of India defies easy generalisation comprising a wide range of weather conditions across a large geographic scale and varied topography [80]
Flora and fauna
India, which lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, displays significant biodiversity. The Indomalaya ecozone is one of the eight Ecozones that cover the planet's land surface Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. One of eighteen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7. The megadiverse countries are a group of countries that harbor the majority of the earth's species and are therefore considered extremely Biodiverse. 6% of all mammalian, 12. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands 6% of all avian, 6. Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. 2% of all reptilian, 4. Reptiles, or members of the class Reptilia are air-breathing Cold-blooded Vertebrates that have skin covered in scales as opposed to hair or feathers 4% of all amphibian, 11. Prehistoric amphibian Amphibians (class Amphibia such as Frogs Toads Salamanders Newts Gymnophiona, Sirens and 7% of all fish, and 6. Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two 0% of all flowering plant species. The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group [81] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic. Because of its size and range of latitude topography and climate India is home to a great diversity of Ecoregions ranging from permanent ice and snow to Tropical Shola is a type of high-altitude stunted Evergreen forest found in southern India. The South Western Ghats montane rain forests are an Ecoregion of southern India, covering the southern portion of the Western Ghats range in Kerala Endemism is the Ecological state of being unique to a place Endemic species are not naturally found elsewhere [82][83] India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (TSMF also known as tropical moist forests, are a Tropical and Subtropical Forest The Andaman Islands are a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal, and are part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory of India. The Western Ghats ( Kannada ಸಹ್ಯಾದ್ರಿ Marathi / Konkani - सह्याद्री Sahyadri Malayalam സഹ്യപര്വ്വതം North-East India refers to the easternmost region of India consisting of the contiguous Seven Sister States and Sikkim. Temperate coniferous forest is a terrestrial Biome found in temperate regions of the world with warm summers and cool winters and adequate rainfall to sustain a forest Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain. Teak ( Tectona) is a genus of tropical Hardwood Trees in the family Verbenaceae, native to the south and southeast of Asia [84] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. Neem ( Azadirachta indica, syn Melia azadirachta L Antelaea azadirachta (L Herbalism is a traditional Medicinal or Folk medicine practice based on the use of Plants and Plant extracts Herbalism is also known as The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. The Sacred Fig ( Ficus religiosa) or Bo-Tree (from the Sinhala bo) is a Species of Banyan Fig Ficus is a Genus of about 850 Species of woody Trees Shrubs Vines Epiphytes and hemi-epiphytes in the family Mohenjo-daro (موئن جودڑو موئن جو دڙو मोहन जोदड़ो Mound of the Dead was one of the largest city-settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder
Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. A taxon (plural taxa) or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or a group of Organisms In Biological nomenclature according to Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. The India or Indian Plate is a Tectonic plate that was originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwanaland from which it split off eventually Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere Laurasia (lɔˈreɪʃiə lɔˈreɪʒə was a Supercontinent that most recently existed as a part of the split of the Pangaean supercontinent in the late Mesozoic However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. The Deccan Traps are a Large igneous province located on the Deccan Plateau of west-central India (between 17-24N 73-74E and one of the largest Volcanic In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa. [85] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya. Zoogeography is the branch of the science of Biogeography that is concerned with the geographic distribution of Animal Species and their attributes [84] Consequently, among Indian species, only 12. 6% of mammals and 4. 5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45. 8% of reptiles and 55. 8% of amphibians. [81] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. The Nilgiri Langur ( Trachypithecus johnii) is a Lutung (a type of Old World monkey) found in the Nilgiri hills of the Western Ghats in Beddome's Toad ( Bufo beddomii) is a species of Toad found in the Western Ghats of India. India contains 172, or 2. 9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species. The following list includes all animals and birds which occur in India and are rated as Critically Endangered (CR, Endangered (EN or [86] These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle. The Asiatic Lion ( Panthera leo persica) is a subspecies of the Lion which survives today only in India where it is also known as the Indian lion The Bengal tiger, or Royal Bengal tiger ( Panthera tigris tigris or Panthera tigris bengalensis) is a Subspecies of Tiger primarily The Indian White-rumped Vulture ( Gyps bengalensis) is an Old World vulture in the family Accipitridae, which also includes Eagles Diclofenac (marketed as Flector patch, Voltaren, Voltarol, Diclon, Dicloflex Difen, Difene, Cataflam
In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. This is a list of all national parks of India. India 's first National park (an IUCN category II Protected area) was established in 1935 India has the following kinds of Protected areas in the sense of the word designated by IUCN. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[87] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act[88] was enacted in 1980. The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 refers to a sweeping package of legislation enacted in 1972 by the Government of India. Project Tiger is a Wildlife conservation project initiated in India in 1972 to protect the Bengal Tigers It was launched on April 1 Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,[89] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention. India has over 500 animal sanctuaries, referred to as Wildlife Sanctuaries ( IUCN Category IV Protected Area) The Indian government has established 14 Biosphere Reserves of India', (categories roughly corresponding to IUCN Category V Protected areas) which protect larger areas The World Network of Biosphere Reserves was established at the International Conference on Biosphere Reserves in Seville in 1995. The list of Ramsar Sites in India comprises Indian Wetlands deemed to be of "international importance" under the Ramsar Convention. The Ramsar Convention is an international Treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilization of Wetlands i [90]
Economy
- See also: Economic development in India
For most of its post-independence history, India adhered to a quasi-socialist approach with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign direct investment. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution In Economics, the private sector is that part of the economy which is both run for private Profit and is not controlled by the State. International trade is exchange of Capital, Goods, and Services across International borders or Territories. Foreign direct investment ( FDI) in its classic definition is defined as a company from one country making a physical investment into building a factory in another country However, since 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms and reduced government controls on foreign trade and investment. In general liberalization (or liberalisation) refers to a relaxation of previous government restrictions usually in areas of social or economic policy [32] Foreign exchange reserves have risen from US$5. Foreign exchange reserves (also called Forex reserves) in a strict sense are only the foreign Currency deposits held by Central banks and monetary 8 billion in March 1991 to US$300 billion in March, 2008,[91] while federal and state budget deficits have decreased. [92] Privatization of publicly-owned companies and the opening of certain sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate. Privatization is the incidence or process of transferring ownership of business from the Public sector (government to the Private sector (business [93] With a GDP growth rate of 9. 4% in 2006-07, the economy is among the fastest growing in the world. [94] India's GDP in terms of USD exchange-rate is US$1. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been In Finance, the exchange rates (also known as the foreign-exchange rate, forex rate or FX rate) between two currencies specifies how 089 trillion. When measured in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP), India has the world's fourth largest GDP at US$4. The purchasing power parity ( PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium Exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their Purchasing power. There are three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP (the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation 726 trillion. India's per capita income (nominal) is US$977, while its per capita (PPP) is US$2700. Per capita income means how much each individual receives in monetary terms of the yearly income generated in the country
India has the world's second largest labour force, with 516. India 's Labour force exhibits extremes ranging from large numbers of illiterate workers unaccustomed to machinery or routine to a sizable pool of highly educated 3 million people, 60% of whom are employed in agriculture and related industries; 28% in services and related industries; and 12% in industry. Indian agriculture began by 9000 BCE as a result of early cultivation of plants and domestication of crops and animals A service is the non-material equivalent of a good. A service provision is an economic activity that does not result in Ownership, and this is what differentiates For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" [8] Major agricultural crops include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes. The agricultural sector accounts for 28% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18% respectively. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles.
Although the Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades; its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas. [95] Income inequality in India is relatively small (Gini coefficient: 36. This is a list of countries or dependencies by Income inequality metrics, including Gini coefficients according to the United Nations (UN and the The Gini coefficient is a measure of statistical dispersion most prominently used as a measure of inequality of income distribution or inequality of wealth 8 in year 2004[11]), though it has been increasing of late. Wealth distribution in India is fairly uneven, with the top 10% of income groups earning 33% of the income. Distribution of wealth is a comparison of the Wealth of various members or groups in a Society, and is one aspect of the Economy and Social structure [96] Despite significant economic progress, a quarter of the nation's population earns less than the government-specified poverty threshold of $0. The poverty threshold, or poverty line, is the minimum level of Income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate Standard of living in a given country 40 per day. In 2004–2005, 27. 5% of the population was living below the poverty line. [18]
More recently, India has capitalised on its large pool of educated, English-speaking people, and trained professionals to become an important outsourcing destination for multinational corporations and a popular destination for medical tourism. The Business process outsourcing industry in India refers to the Services Outsourcing Industry in India, catering mainly to Western operations of MNCs Medical tourism (also called medical travel, health tourism or global healthcare is a term initially coined by travel agencies and the Mass media [97] India has also become a major exporter of software as well as financial, research, and technological services. Its natural resources include arable land, bauxite, chromite, coal, diamonds, iron ore, limestone, manganese, mica, natural gas, petroleum, and titanium ore. [50]
In 2007, estimated exports stood at US$140 billion and imports were around US$224. 9 billion. Textiles, jewellery, engineering goods and software are major export commodities. While crude oil, machineries, fertilizers, and chemicals are major imports. India's most important trading partners are the United States, the European Union, and China. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in
Demographics
- See also: Religion in India and Languages of India
With an estimated population of 1. 13 billion,[8] India is the world's second most populous country. Almost 70% of Indians reside in rural areas, although in recent decades migration to larger cities has led to a dramatic increase in the country's urban population. India's largest cities are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore), Hyderabad and Ahmedabad. The Status of Indian cities comprises two ranking systems used by the Government of India to allocate compensatory allowances to the cities in the country This article lists the top hundred metropolitan areas in India by population as of 2008. Mumbai ( Marathi:,, IPA: formerly Bombay, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the financial Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population Bangalore ( officially Bengaluru ( Kannada: ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು) is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. Ahmedabad (અમદાવાદ Amdāvād, Hindi: अहमदाबाद) is the largest city in [50]
India is the second most culturally, linguistically and genetically diverse geographical entity after the African continent. [50] India is home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). The Indo-Aryan languages (within the context of Indo-European studies also Indic) are a branch of the Indo-European language family The Dravidian family of languages includes approximately 73 languages (including the four literary languages of Tamil, Telugu, Kannada Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. The Austro-Asiatic languages are a large Language family of Southeast Asia, and also scattered throughout India and Bangladesh. The Tibeto-Burman family of languages (often considered a sub-group of the Sino-Tibetan Language family) is spoken in various central and south Asian countries including Hindi, with the largest number of speakers,[98] is the official language of the union. Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is [99] English, which is extensively used in business and administration, has the status of a 'subsidiary official language. '[6] The constitution also recognises in particular 21 other languages that are either abundantly spoken or have classical status. The Constitution of India envisages Hindi as the primary official language to be used by the Union Government, with English as the subsidiary official language The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652. [100]
Over 800 million Indians (80. 5%) are Hindu. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Other religious groups include Muslims (13. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. 4%), Christians (2. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings 3%), Sikhs (1. Sikhism ( IPA: or; ਸਿੱਖੀ sikkhī, IPA:) founded on the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus in fifteenth century 9%), Buddhists (0. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices 8%), Jains (0. Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. 4%), Jews, Zoroastrians, Bahá'ís and others. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut The Bahá'í Faith is a Religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in nineteenth-century Persia, emphasizing the spiritual unity of all humankind [101] Tribals constitute 8. Ādivāsīs (in Devanagari script: आदिवासी literally "original inhabitants" comprise a substantial indigenous minority of the population 1% of the population. [102]
India's literacy rate is 64. 8% (53. 7% for females and 75. 3% for males). [8] The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate (91%);[103] Bihar has the lowest (47%). Kerala ( Malayalam: {{Kerala in Malayalam}}; Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. [104] The national human sex ratio is 944 females per 1,000 males. In Anthropology and Demography, the human sex ratio is the Sex ratio for Homo sapiens (i India's median age is 24. A population pyramid, also called age-sex pyramid and age structure diagram, is a graphical illustration that shows the distribution of various age groups in a 9, and the population growth rate of 1. Population growth is the change in Population over time and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals in a population using "per unit time" for 38% per annum; there are 22. 01 births per 1,000 people per year. [8]
| Rank | Core City | State | Pop. | Rank | Core City | State | Pop. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Mumbai | Maharashtra | 13,662,885 | 11 | Jaipur | Rajasthan | 2,997,114 | |||
| 2 | Delhi | Delhi | 11,954,217 | 12 | Lucknow | Uttar Pradesh | 2,621,063 | |||
| 3 | Bangalore | Karnataka | 5,180,533 | 13 | Nagpur | Maharashtra | 2,359,331 | |||
| 4 | Kolkata | West Bengal | 5,021,458 | 14 | Indore | Madhya Pradesh | 1,768,303 | |||
| 5 | Chennai | Tamil Nadu | 4,562,843 | 15 | Patna | Bihar | 1,753,543 | |||
| 6 | Hyderabad | Andhra Pradesh | 3,980,938 | 16 | Bhopal | Madhya Pradesh | 1,712,355 | |||
| 7 | Ahmedabad | Gujarat | 3,867,336 | 17 | Thane | Maharashtra | 1,673,465 | |||
| 8 | Pune | Maharashtra | 3,230,322 | 18 | Ludhiana | Punjab | 1,662,325 | |||
| 9 | Surat | Gujarat | 3,124,249 | 19 | Agra | Uttar Pradesh | 1,590,073 | |||
| 10 | Kanpur | Uttar Pradesh | 3,067,663 | 20 | Vadodara | Gujarat | 1,487,956 | |||
| 2008 estimation[105] | ||||||||||
Culture
India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism[107] and cultural pluralism. Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs often while melding practices of various schools of thought Cultural pluralism is a term used when small groups within a larger society maintain their unique cultural identities [108] It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants.
Multicultural concerns have long informed India’s history and traditions, constitution and political arrangements. The term multiculturalism generally refers to a state of racial, cultural and ethnic diversity within the Demographics of a specified [109]
Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. The Taj Mahal (tɑdʒ Mughal architecture, an amalgam of Islamic, Persian and Indian architecture, is the distinctive style developed by the Mughal Empire Dravidian architecture was a style of architecture that emerged thousands of years ago in the Indian subcontinent Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation. Indian vernacular architecture is the informal functional architecture of structures often in rural areas of India built of local materials and designed to meet the needs of the local
Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. The music of India' includes multiple varieties of folk, popular, pop, and classical music. Classical music is split mainly between the North Indian Hindustani and South Indian Carnatic traditions. The origins of Indian classical music can be found from the oldest of Scriptures part of the Hindu tradition the Vedas. Hindustani Classical Music ( Hindi: हिन्दुस्तानी शास्त्रीय संगीत Urdu: ہندوستانی شاستریے سنگیت Carnatic music (also spelled Karnatak music or Karnatik music, and originally called Karṇāṭaka sangīta or Karṇāṭaka sangītam in India Highly regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Filmi (or Filmy used as an adjective is a colloquial term which refers to anything relating to the Bollywood film industry Indian folk music is diverse because of India's vast cultural diversity Bauls (বাউল are a group of mystic Minstrels from Bengal, which comprises Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal
Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Dance in India covers a wide range of dances from the ancient classical to modern styles Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Bihar and Orissa and the ghoomar of Rajasthan. See also Dance in India Indian folk and tribal dances are simple dances and are performed to express joy Bhangra (ਭੰਗੜਾ pa-PK بھنگڑا pə̀ŋgɽäː is a lively form of music and dance that originated in the Punjab region of Pakistan and India Bihu denotes a set of three different largely secular festivals of Assam. Chhau dance (or Chau dance is form of tribal martial dance attributed to origins in Mayurbhanj princly state of Orissa. Ghoomar is a traditional women's Folk dance of Rajasthan, India which was developed by the Bhil tribe and was adopted by the Rajputs Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. Hindu mythology is the large body of Mythology related to Hinduism, notably as contained in Sanskrit literature, such as the Sanskrit epics and Indian classical dance is a relatively new umbrella term for various codified art forms rooted in Natya, the sacred Hindu Musical theatre styles whose theory Sangeet Natak Akademi ( Devanāgarī: संगीत नाटक अकादेमी or The National Academy for Music Dance and Drama in These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of the state of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam. Bharatanatyam (பரதநாட்டியம்is a classical Dance form originating in Tamil Nadu, See Kāṭhaka for the Vedic school Kathak ( Hindi: कथक Urdu: کتھک) is a classical dance Kathakali (കഥകളി kat̪ʰəkaɭi is a form of highly stylised classical Indian Dance - Drama that is noted for its attractive make-up of characters Mohiniyattam ( Malayalam: മോഹിനിയാട്ടം is a traditional South Indian Dance form from Kerala, India. Kuchipudi ( తెలుగు: కూచిపూడి (pronounced as 'Koochipoodi' is a Classical Indian dance form from Andhra Pradesh, a state of Manipuri dance is one of the major Indian classical dance forms. Odissi is the classical dance form of Orissa in north-east India Sattriya, or Sattriya Nritya, is one among eight principal classical Indian dance traditions [110]
Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue. India was invaded a number of times This played a major role in shaping of Indian Culture and heritage. [111] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka. Hindu mythology is the large body of Mythology related to Hinduism, notably as contained in Sanskrit literature, such as the Sanskrit epics and Bhavai (Strolling Players is a popular folk theatre form of Gujarat. Jatra is a form of folk-theatre in Bangladesh and West Bengal province of India. Nautanki is a famous form of theater very much popular in northern India especially in the states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Ramlila ( Hindi: रामलीला is a dramatic folk re-enactment of the ten day battle between Lord Ram and Ravan, as described in the Hindu Tamasha is a traditional folk art form often with singing and dancing Terukkuttu or Kattaikkuttu is a Tamil Street theatre form practised in Tamil Nadu state of India and Tamil-speaking regions of Yakshagana ( Kannada:ಯಕ್ಷಗಾನ pronounced as yaksha-gaana) is a classical Folk art form of the state of Karnataka in India [112]
The Indian film industry is the largest in the world. The Indian film industry is the largest in the world in terms of ticket sales and number of films produced annually (877 feature films and 1177 short films were released in the year 2003 [116] Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world. Bollywood (बॉलीवूड بالی وڈ is the informal term popularly used for the Mumbai -based Hindi-language Film industry in India [117] Established traditions also exist in Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas. The history of cinema in Bengal dates back to the 1890s when the first " Bioscopes quot were shown in theatres in Calcutta. The Cinema of Karnataka, sometimes colloquially referred to as Sandalwood encompasses movies made in the Indian state of Karnataka. Malayalam cinema refers to Films made in the Indian state of Kerala in the Malayalam language. Marathi cinema (मराठी चित्रपट is one of the oldest in regional Indian films industry Tamil cinema or Kollywood ( Tamil: கோலிவுட் kōlivūṭ) is the English name of the popular Tamil Film Industry based in the [118]
The earliest works of Indian literature were transmitted orally and only later written down. Indian literature is generally acknowledged as one of the oldest in the world [119] These included works of Sanskrit literature – such as the early Vedas, the epics Mahābhārata and Ramayana, the drama Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya[120] – and the Tamil language Sangam literature. Literature in Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India; the golden age of Classical "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki Shakuntala RRVjpg|right|thumb|200px|Shakuntala writes to Dushyanta Literature in Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India; the golden age of Classical Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years 300 BCE and 600 CE [121] Among Indian writers of the modern era active in Indian languages or English, Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in 1913. Indian English Literature (IEL refers to the body of work by writers in India who write in the English language and whose native or co-native language could be one
Indian cuisine is characterized by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east) and wheat (predominantly in the north). [122] Spices originally native to the Indian subcontinent that are now consumed world wide include black pepper; in contrast, hot chili peppers, popular across India, were introduced by the Portuguese. Portuguese India (Índia Portuguesa or Estado da Índia) was the aggregate of Portugal 's colonial holdings in India. [123]
Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Indian dress varies widely throughout India. Women's Clothing Headline text Traditional Dress by Age See also Sari Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular. for the town in Nepal see Sari Nepal A sari or saree or shari is a female garment in the Indian subcontinent The pancha in Telugu, called dhoti or doti in Hindi, Laacha in Punjabi, Mundu in Malayalam The lungi ( Bengali: লুঙ্গি) is a Garment worn around the waist in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar Salwar kameez ( also spelled shalwar kameez or shalwar qameez) is a traditional dress worn by both women and men in Southern Asia. A kurta ( Persian / Urdu: کرتا, Hindi: कुरता কুর্তা also called a panjabi in Bengali (or kurti Kids in pajamasjpg|thumb| Boys in pyjamas]] Pajamas or pyjamas (see also spelling differences) is a word with several different related meanings in Trousers are an item of Clothing worn on the lower part of the body from the waist to the ankles covering both legs separately (rather than with cloth stretching across A shirt is a cloth garment for the upper body Originally an item of underwear worn exclusively by men it has become in American English a catch-all term for
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. India, being a multicultural and multireligious society celebrates holidays and festivals of various religions Some popular festivals are Diwali, Thai Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadashami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti and Vaisakhi. Diwali, or Deepavali, (also called Tihar and Swanti in Nepal (Markiscarali is a major Indian and Nepalese festival and a significant Thai Pongal (தைப்பொங்கல் is a Harvest festival equivalent to a Thanksgiving event celebrated by Tamils across the world Holi ( or language|Bhojpuri]] also called the Festival of Colours, is a popular Hindu spring Festival observed in India, Onam is the state festival of Kerala. It is celebrated in honour of Mahabali, the mythical Asura king of ancient Kerala Dasara, also called "Navaratri" is among the most important festivals celebrated in India. Durga Puja (দুর্গা পূজা ‘Worship of Durga’ also referred as Durgotsab (bn দুর্গোৎসব ‘Festival of Durga’ is an annual Eid ul-Fitr or Id-ul-Fitr (عيد الفطر ‘Īdu l-Fiṭr) often abbreviated to Eid, is a Muslim Holiday that marks the end of Eid al-Adha ( Arabic: عيد الأضحى ‘Īd ul-’Aḍḥā, Urdu: بقرعید or the Festival of Sacrifice is a religious festival celebrated Vesak is an annual holiday observed by practicing Buddhists in many Asian countries like Thailand, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Vaisakhi (ਵਸਾਖੀ vaisākhī, also known as Baisakhi) is an ancient Harvest festival in Punjab, which also marks beginning of [124] India has three national holidays. India has three National days ref> National Portal of India: Know India: AT A GLANCE out of the many public holidays. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair.
Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, although urban families now prefer the nuclear family structure due to the socio-economic constraints imposed by traditional joint family system. The term nuclear family developed in the Western world to distinguish the Family group consisting of parents most commonly a Father and Mother
Sports
India's national sport is field hockey although cricket is the most popular sport in India. Popular sports in India include Cricket, Football, Field hockey, Lawn tennis, Golf and Chess. Field hockey is a Team sport in which players attempt to score goals by hitting the Ball across the pitch with a stick Cricket is a bat-and-ball team Sport that originated in England and is now played in more than 100 countries In some states, particularly those in the northeast and the states of West Bengal, Goa, and Kerala, football (soccer) is also a popular sport. North-East India refers to the easternmost region of India consisting of the contiguous Seven Sister States and Sikkim. Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a Team sport played between two teams of eleven players and is widely considered [125] In recent times, tennis has also gained popularity. Tennis is a sport played between two players ( singles) or between two teams of two players each ( doubles) Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is also gaining popularity with the rise in the number of Indian grandmasters. Chess is a recreational and competitive Game played between two players. The game of Chess has been attributed to the Indians both by the Persians and by the Arabs However the origin of the game remains lost in antiquity The title Grandmaster is awarded to extremely strong Chess masters by the world chess organization FIDE. Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played nationwide. Kabaddi (sometimes written Kabbadi or Kabadi) (கபடி otherwise known as சடுகுடுకబడ్డీ ਕਬੱਡੀ कबड्डी कबड्डीکبڈی Kho Kho is an Indian sport played by teams of twelve players who try to avoid being touched by members of the opposing team only 9 players of the team enter the field Gilli-danda ( Devanagari: गिल्ली डण्डा or gulli-danda or Guli Danda is an Amateur sport, similar to Cricket India is also home to the ancient martial arts, Kalarippayattu and Varma Kalai. The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of Martial arts. Kalarippayattu or kalaripayattu ( Malayalam കളരിപയറ്റ് kaɭəɾipːajətːɨ̆ is a Martial art with origins in Kerala Varma Kalai (also called Varmam) (வர்மக்கலை meaning " the art of vital points " is an ancient martial art which has its origins
See also
External links
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This article contains Indic text. The Brahmic family is a family of syllabaries (writing systems used in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of Central Asia and East Asia, Without rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes or other symbols instead of Indic characters; or irregular vowel positioning and a lack of conjuncts. Mojibake is the happenstance of incorrect unreadable characters (garbage characters shown when Computer software fails to render a text correctly according to its associated |
- Government
- Official entry portal of the Government of India
- Official directory of Indian Government websites
- General reference
- India entry at The World Factbook
- Encyclopædia Britannica entry on India
- BBC country profile of India
- Library of Congress Country Studies entry on India
- Other
- India travel guide from Wikitravel
Wikimedia Atlas of India- Incredible India - The Official Tourism Website of Ministry of Tourism, Government of India
- India at the Open Directory Project
Notes
- ^ State Emblem -Inscription. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc The Country Studies are works published by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress ( USA) freely available for use by researchers Wikitravel is a Web -based project "to create a free, complete up-to-date and reliable worldwide travel guide. The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directory National Informatics Centre(NIC). The National Informatics Centre (NIC is the main Science & technology organization of the Government of India in the field of Informatics Services Retrieved on 2007-06-17. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat
- ^ National Anthem - Know India portal. National Informatics Centre(NIC) (2007). The National Informatics Centre (NIC is the main Science & technology organization of the Government of India in the field of Informatics Services Retrieved on 2007-08-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne
- ^ National Song - Know India portal. National Informatics Centre(NIC) (2007). The National Informatics Centre (NIC is the main Science & technology organization of the Government of India in the field of Informatics Services Retrieved on 2007-08-30. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1363 - Beginning date of the Battle of Lake Poyang; the forces of two Chinese rebel leaders— Chen Youliang and
- ^ CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA — VOLUME XII. Constituent Assembly of India: Debates. parliamentofindia. nic. in, National Informatics Centre (24 January 1950). Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-06-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 512 - A Solar eclipse is recorded by a monastic chronicler in Ireland. “The composition consisting of the words and music known as Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it. ”
- ^ The Union: Official Language. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Ministry of Home Affairs ( Hindi: गृह मन्त्रालय known as the Home Ministry or MHA) is an Indian government ministry National Informatics Centre(NIC) (2007). The National Informatics Centre (NIC is the main Science & technology organization of the Government of India in the field of Informatics Services Retrieved on 2007-06-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 972 - Battle of Cedynia, the first documented victory of Polish forces takes place
- ^ a b Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L., dated 27 April, 1960. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Ministry of Home Affairs ( Hindi: गृह मन्त्रालय known as the Home Ministry or MHA) is an Indian government ministry National Informatics Centre(NIC). The National Informatics Centre (NIC is the main Science & technology organization of the Government of India in the field of Informatics Services Retrieved on July 4, 2007.
- ^ Official Languages Resolution, 1968, para. 2.
- ^ a b c d e f g h CIA Factbook: India. CIA Factbook. The World Factbook ( ISSN; also known as the CIA World Factbook) is an annual publication of the Central Intelligence Agency of the Central Intelligence Agency. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all Retrieved on 2007-03-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing
- ^ a b India at a Glance. Know India Portal. National Informatics Centre(NIC). The National Informatics Centre (NIC is the main Science & technology organization of the Government of India in the field of Informatics Services Retrieved on 2007-12-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 43 BC - Marcus Tullius Cicero assassinated 1696 - Connecticut Route 108, one of the oldest highways
- ^ CIA - The World Factbook - India
- ^ a b Field Listing - Distribution of family income - Gini index. The World Factbook. The World Factbook ( ISSN; also known as the CIA World Factbook) is an annual publication of the Central Intelligence Agency of the CIA (15 May 2008). near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Retrieved on 2008-06-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- ^ Total Area of India (PDF). Country Studies, India. The Country Studies are works published by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress ( USA) freely available for use by researchers Library of Congress – Federal Research Division (December 2004). The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress The Federal Research Division ( FRD) is the research and analysis unit of the United States Library of Congress. Retrieved on 2007-09-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius “The country’s exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 square kilometers and the total land area as 3,060,500 square kilometers; the United Nations lists the total area as 3,287,263 square kilometers and total land area as 2,973,190 square kilometers. ”
- ^ a b (by virtue of the size of electorate) Country profile: India. BBC (9 January 2007). Events 475 - Byzantine Emperor Zeno is forced to flee his capital at Constantinople. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2007-03-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem.
- ^ a b c Kumar et al. 2006, p. 531
- ^ Footnote: The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Borders define geographic boundaries of political entities or legal jurisdictions such as Governments States or subnational administrative This is because it considers the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. ( Dogri: जम्मू और कश्मीर Urdu: جموں و کشمیر is the northernmost state of India. A ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani held territory. A ceasefire (or truce) is a temporary stoppage of a War or any Armed conflict, where each side of the conflict agrees The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistan-administered territory. The Azad State of Jammu and Kashmir, usually shortened to Azad Jammu and Kashmir ( AJK) or simply Azad Kashmir (literally "free
- ^ Oldenburg, Phillip. 2007. "India: History," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007© 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation.
- ^ a b India is the second fastest growing economy. Economic Research Service (ERS). United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved on 2007-08-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia.
- ^ a b Poverty estimates for 2004-05, Planning commission, Government of India, March 2007. Accessed: August 25, 2007
- ^ "India", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 2100a. Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. d. Oxford University Press
- ^ Basham, A. L. (2000). The Wonder That Was India. The Wonder That was India is book on Indian history written by A South Asia Books. ISBN 0283992573.
- ^ Official name of the Union. Courts Informatics Division, National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Comm. The National Informatics Centre (NIC is the main Science & technology organization of the Government of India in the field of Informatics Services and Information Tech. Retrieved on 2007-08-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. “Name and territory of the Union- India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States. ”
- ^ Hindustan. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc (2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-18. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries
- ^ Introduction to the Ancient Indus Valley. Harappa (1996). Retrieved on 2007-06-18. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries
- ^ Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, p. A107. ISBN 0070483698.
- ^ Jona Lendering. Maurya dynasty. Retrieved on 2007-06-17. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat
- ^ Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history. National Informatics Centre (NIC). The National Informatics Centre (NIC is the main Science & technology organization of the Government of India in the field of Informatics Services Retrieved on 2007-10-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's
- ^ Heitzman, James. (2007). "Gupta Dynasty," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007
- ^ History : Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947). National Informatics Centre (NIC). The National Informatics Centre (NIC is the main Science & technology organization of the Government of India in the field of Informatics Services Retrieved on 2007-10-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's “And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly established. ”
- ^ (1997) Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited, p. Dorling Kindersley is a leading publisher of illustrated reference books 455. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4.
- ^ (1997) Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited, p. Dorling Kindersley is a leading publisher of illustrated reference books 322. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4.
- ^ a b India Profile. Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) (2003). Retrieved on 2007-06-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun.
- ^ a b Montek Singh Ahluwalia (2002). Montek Singh Ahluwalia (born November 24, 1943) has been a key figure in India 's economic reforms from the early 1980s onwards "Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked?" (MS Word). . Journal of Economic Perspectives Retrieved on 2007-06-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1525 - Martin Luther marries Katharina von Bora, against the Celibacy rule decreed by the Roman Catholic Church for
- ^ National Symbols of India. High Commission of India, London. Retrieved on 2007-09-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius
- ^ Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Longest Constitutional Document", Constitutional Government in India, 2nd edition, S. Chand, 4. Awards Federation of Indian Publishers Award Book Sellers Best Publisher Dadabhai Naoroji Millennium Award Knowledge Pillar of ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved on 2007-10-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse
- ^ Dutt, Sagarika (1998). "Identities and the Indian state: An overview". Third World Quarterly 19 (3): 411–434. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. at p. 421
- ^ Wheare, K. C. (1964). Federal Government, 4th edition, Oxford University Press, 28.
- ^ a b c Sharma, Ram (1950). "Cabinet Government in India". Parliamentary Affairs 4 (1): 116–126.
- ^ Election of President. The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. “The President shall be elected by the members of an electoral college”
- ^ Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution, 2nd edition, Stevens and Sons, 112.
- ^ Tenure of President's office. The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. “The President shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office”
- ^ Appointment of Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. “The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. ”
- ^ Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution, 2nd edition, Stevens and Sons, 127.
- ^ a b c d Our Parliament A brief description of the Indian Parliament. www. parliamentofindia. gov. in. Retrieved on 2007-06-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1487 - Battle of Stoke Field, the last dying breath of the Wars of the Roses.
- ^ Matthew, K. M. . Manorama Yearbook 2003. Malayala Manorama, pg 524. Malayala Manorama (മലയാള മനോരമ is a popular Malayalam daily newspaper in Kerala, India. ISBN 8190046187.
- ^ a b Neuborne, Burt (2003). "The Supreme Court of India". International Journal of Constitutional Law 1 (1): 476–510. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. at p. 478.
- ^ Supreme Court of India. Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. National Informatics Centre. Retrieved on 2007-10-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1512 - Martin Luther joins the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg.
- ^ Sripati, Vuayashri (1998). "Toward Fifty Years of Constitutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back to See Ahead (1950-2000)". American University International Law Review 14 (2): 413–496. at pp. 423-424
- ^ Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Union Judiciary: The Supreme Court", Constitutional Government in India, 2nd edition, S. Chand, 314. Awards Federation of Indian Publishers Award Book Sellers Best Publisher Dadabhai Naoroji Millennium Award Knowledge Pillar of ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved on 2007-11-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1570 - A Tidal wave in the North Sea devastates the coast from Holland to Jutland, killing more than 1000
- ^ World's Largest Democracy to Reach One Billion Persons on Independence Day. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA is part of the United Nations Secretariat and is responsible for the follow-up to the major United Nations United Nations: Population Division. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The Commission on Population and Development is one of the ten Functional Commissions of the United Nations Economic and Social Council. Retrieved on 2007-12-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1060 - Béla I of Hungary is crowned king of Hungary 1240 - Mongol invasion of Rus: Kiev
- ^ a b c d e Country Profile: India (PDF). Library of Congress - Federal Research Division (December 2004). The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress The Federal Research Division ( FRD) is the research and analysis unit of the United States Library of Congress. Retrieved on 2007-06-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 972 - Battle of Cedynia, the first documented victory of Polish forces takes place
- ^ Bhambhri, Chandra Prakash (1992). Politics in India 1991-92. Shipra Publications, 118, 143. ISBN 978-8185402178.
- ^ Patrick Dunleavy, Rekha Diwakar, Christopher Dunleavy. The effective space of party competition. London School of Economics and Political Science. The London School of Economics and Political Science, more commonly referred to as The London School of Economics or LSE, is a specialist college of the Retrieved on 2007-10-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela.
- ^ Hermann, Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge, 384. ISBN 978-0415329194.
- ^ Significance of the Contribution of India to the Struggle Against Apartheid1 by M. Moolla
- ^ History of Non Aligned Movement. Retrieved on 2007-08-23. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire
- ^ http://www.heritage.org/Research/AsiaandthePacific/bg2008.cfm
- ^ http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/genf/50205.pdf
- ^ India and the United Nations. Retrieved on 2006-04-22. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1500 - Portuguese Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral becomes the first European to sight Brazil.
- ^ Brig. Vijai K. Nair (Indian Army). The Indian Army (Bharatiya Thalsena भारतीय थाल्सेना is one of the armed forces of India and has the responsibility for land-based No More Ambigiuity: India's Nuclear Policy (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-06-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins
- ^ India's Nuclear profile. India Civil Nuclear Cooperation: Responding to Critics. White House: Press Release (March 8, 2006). See also Executive Office of the President of the United States The White House, formerly known as the Executive Mansion, is the Official residence Retrieved on 2007-10-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 869 - The Fourth Council of Constantinople is convened to decide about what to do about Patriarch Photius of Constantinople “India has been a peaceful and vibrant democracy with a strong nuclear nonproliferation record”
- ^ States Reorganisation Act, 1956. Constitution of India. Commonwealth Legal Information Institute. Retrieved on 2007-10-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse ; See also: Political integration of India
- ^ Districts of India. At the time of Indian independence, "British India " was divided into two sets of territories the first being the territories under the direct control of Government of India. National Informatics Centre (NIC). The National Informatics Centre (NIC is the main Science & technology organization of the Government of India in the field of Informatics Services Retrieved on 2007-11-25. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1034 - Máel Coluim mac Cináeda, King of Scots dies Donnchad, the
- ^ Cities with Compensatory City Allowance (CCA) classification A-1. See Status of Indian cities for details. The Status of Indian cities comprises two ranking systems used by the Government of India to allocate compensatory allowances to the cities in the country "No.2(21)/E.II.(B)/2004". 2006. Ministry of Finance, Department of Expenditure. Government of India. Retrieved on 18 November, 2004
- ^ Ali & Aitchison 2005, pp. 170-171
- ^ a b Ali & Aitchison 2005, pp. 172-173
- ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 7
- ^ Prakash et al. 2000, p. 445
- ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 11
- ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 8
- ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, pp. 9-10
- ^ India's northernmost point is the region of the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir (including the Northern Areas currently administered by Pakistan) to be its territory, and therefore assigns the longitude 37° 6' to its northernmost point. see Siachen conflict for the military conflict over this area The Siachen Glacier is located in the eastern Karakoram range in the Himalaya ( Dogri: जम्मू और कश्मीर Urdu: جموں و کشمیر is the northernmost state of India. The Northern Areas ( Urdu:,) is officially referred to by the government of Pakistan as the Federally Administered Northern Areas (FANA
- ^ (Government of India 2007, p. 1)
- ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 15
- ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 16
- ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 17
- ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 12
- ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 13
- ^ a b Chang 1967, pp. 391-394
- ^ Posey 1994, p. 118.
- ^ Heitzman & Worden 1996, p. 97.
- ^ a b Dr S. K. Puri. Biodiversity Profile of India (Text Only). Retrieved on 2007-06-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun.
- ^ Botanical Survey of India. 1983. Flora and Vegetation of India — An Outline. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. p. 24.
- ^ Valmik Thapar, Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent, 1997. ISBN 978-0520214705
- ^ a b Tritsch, M. E. 2001. Wildlife of India Harper Collins, London. 192 pages. ISBN 0-00-711062-6
- ^ K. Praveen Karanth. (2006). Out-of-India Gondwanan origin of some tropical Asian biota
- ^ Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lvi + 286 pp.
- ^ The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Helplinelaw. com (2000). Retrieved on 2007-06-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1487 - Battle of Stoke Field, the last dying breath of the Wars of the Roses.
- ^ The Forest Conservation Act, 1980. AdvocateKhoj. com (2007). Retrieved on 2007-11-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1777 - San Jose California, is founded as el Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe
- ^ Biosphere Reserves of India. Retrieved on 2007-06-17. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat
- ^ The List of Wetlands of International Importance (PDF) p. 18. The Secretariat of the Convention of on Wetlands (June 4, 2007). Events 781 BC - The first historic Solar eclipse is recorded in China. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2007-06-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun.
- ^ Weekly Statistical Supplement. Reserve Bank of India (June 1, 2007). The Reserve Bank of India (RBI भारतीय रिज़र्व बैंक is the Central bank of India, and was established on April Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2007-06-11. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes.
- ^ "Revenue surge boosts fiscal health". Business Standard. Business Standard is a financial daily from Business Standard Ltd (BSL Retrieved on 2006-12-28. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of
- ^ Mohan, T. T. Ram. "Privatization in India: Issues and Evidence" (PDF). . Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad Retrieved on 2007-08-03. The Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs are India's premier Management institutes that also conduct research and provide consultancy services in the field of management Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 8 - Roman Empire General Tiberius defeats Dalmatians on the river Bathinus.
- ^ Quarterly estimates of gross domestic product, 2006-07. Government of India. Retrieved on 2007-05-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt.
- ^ "Inclusive Growth and Service delivery: Building on India’s Success". World Bank (2006). The World Bank is an internationally supported Bank that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for development programs (e Retrieved on 2007-04-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title
- ^ "In Pictures – Middle Class, or Upper Class? ". India Together. Civil Society Information Exchange. August 2003
- ^ Mudur, Ganapati (June 2004). "Hospitals in India woo foreign patients". British Medical Journal 328: 1338. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15178611.
- ^ Languages by number of speakers according to 1991 census. Central Institute of Indian Languages. Retrieved on August 2, 2007.
- ^ Mallikarjun, B. (Nov. , 2004), Fifty Years of Language Planning for Modern Hindi–The Official Language of India, Language in India, Volume 4, Number 11. ISSN 1930-2940.
- ^ Matthew, K. M. (2006). Manorama Yearbook 2003. Malayala Manorama, pg 524. Malayala Manorama (മലയാള മനോരമ is a popular Malayalam daily newspaper in Kerala, India. ISBN 81-89004-07-7.
- ^ Census of India 2001, Data on Religion. Census of India. Retrieved on November 22, 2007.
- ^ Tribes: Introduction. National Informatics Centre. The National Informatics Centre (NIC is the main Science & technology organization of the Government of India in the field of Informatics Services Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved on April 12, 2007.
- ^ Kerala's literacy rate. kerala. gov. in. Government of Kerala. The Government of Kerala ( India) is a democratically elected body with the Governor as the nominal head of state Retrieved on 2007-12-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life
- ^ Census Statistics of Bihar: Literacy Rates Literacy rate of Bihar. Government of Bihar. Chief Ministers of Bihar See also Bihar Retrieved on 2007-12-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life
- ^ World Gazetteer online
- ^ Taj Mahal (English). World Heritage List. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved on September 28, 2007. “The World Heritage List includes 851 properties forming part of the cultural and natural heritage which the World Heritage Committee considers as having outstanding universal value. ”
- ^ Das, N. K. (July 2006). "Cultural Diversity, Religious Syncretism and People of India: An Anthropological Interpretation". Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology 3 (2nd). ISSN 1819-8465. “The pan-Indian, civilizational dimension of cultural pluralism and syncretism encompasses ethnic diversity and admixture, linguistic heterogeneity as well as fusion, and variations as well as synthesis in customs, behavioural patterns, beliefs and rituals. ”
- ^ Baidyanath, Saraswati (2006). "Cultural Pluralism, National Identity and Development", Interface of Cultural Identity Development, 1stEdition, xxi+290pp. ISBN 81-246-0054-6. Retrieved on 2007-06-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable
- ^ Bhattacharyya, Harihar; UNESCO (December 2003). "Multiculturalism in Contemporary India". IJMS 5 (2): 148–161. ISSN 1817-4574. .
- ^ 1. "South Asian arts: Techniques and Types of Classical Dance" From: Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 Oct. 2007. 2. Sangeet Natak Academi (National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama, New Delhi, India). Sangeet Natak Akademi ( Devanāgarī: संगीत नाटक अकादेमी or The National Academy for Music Dance and Drama in 2007. Dance Programmes. 3. Kothari, Sunil. 2007. Sattriya dance of the celibate monks of Assam, India. Royal Holloway College, University of London.
- ^ Lal 1998
- ^ (Karanth 1997, p. 26). Quote: "The Yakṣagāna folk-theatre is no isolated theatrical form in India. We have a number of such theatrical traditions all around Karnataka. . . In far off Assam we have similar plays going on by the name of Ankia Nat, in neighouring Bengal we have the very popular Jatra plays. Maharashtra has Tamasa. (p. 26)
- ^ Rabindanath Tagore: Asia's First Nobel laureate.... Time Asia. Retrieved on October 3, 2007.
- ^ The Nobel Prize in Literature 1913. Nobel Prize Winners. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on October 3, 2007.
- ^ Massey 2006, p. 186
- ^ Country profile: India. BBC.
- ^ Dissanayake & Gokulsing 2004
- ^ Rajadhyaksha & Willemen (editors) 1999
- ^ MacDonell 2004, p. 1-40
- ^ Johnson 1998, MacDonell 2004, p. 1-40, and Kalidasa & Johnson (editor) 2001
- ^ Zvelebil 1992, p. 12
- ^ Delphine, Roger, "The History and Culture of Food in Asia", in Kiple & Kriemhild 2000, p. 1140-1151
- ^ Achaya 1994, Achaya 1997
- ^ 18 Popular India Festivals. Retrieved on 2007-12-23. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 962 - Byzantine-Arab Wars: Under the future Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine troops stormed the city
- ^ Majumdar & Bandyopadhyay 2006, p. 1-5
References
- History
- Brown, Judith M. (1994), Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 474, ISBN 0198731132, <http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780198731139>.
- Kulke, Hermann & Dietmar Rothermund (2004), A History of India, 4th edition. Routledge, Pp. xii, 448, ISBN 0415329205, <http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Hermann-Kulke/dp/0415329205/>.
- Metcalf, Barbara & Thomas R. Metcalf (2006), A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise Histories), Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Pp. xxxiii, 372, ISBN 0521682258, <http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Modern-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521682258/>.
- Spear, Percival (1990), A History of India, Volume 2, New Delhi and London: Penguin Books. Pp. 298, ISBN 0140138366, <http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Vol-2/dp/0140138366/ref=pd_ybh_a_6/104-7029728-9591925>.
- Stein, Burton (2001), A History of India, New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiv, 432, ISBN 0195654463, <http://www.amazon.com/History-India-World/dp/0631205462/ref=pd_ybh_a_7/104-7029728-9591925>.
- Thapar, Romila (1990), A History of India, Volume 1, New Delhi and London: Penguin Books. Romila Thapar (born 1931 is an Indian Historian whose principal area of study is ancient India. Pp. 384, ISBN 0140138358, <http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Penguin/dp/0140138358/>.
- Wolpert, Stanley (2003), A New History of India, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Stanley Wolpert (b 1927 is an American historian who specializes in the history of India and Pakistan. Pp. 544, ISBN 0195166787, <http://www.amazon.com/New-History-India-Stanley-Wolpert/dp/0195166787/>.
- Geography
- Ali, Jason R. & Jonathan C. Aitchison (2005), "Greater India", Earth-Science Reviews 72 (3-4): 169-188, DOI 10. 1016/j. earscirev. 2005. 07. 005.
- Dikshit, K. R. ; Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2007). Joseph E Schwartzberg (born 1928 is a University of Minnesota professor emeritus of geography and prominent World federalist scholar "India: The Land", Encyclopædia Britannica, pp. 1-29. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- Government of India (2007), India Yearbook 2007, Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, ISBN 81-230-1423-6.
- Heitzman, J & RL Worden (1996), India: A Country Study, Library of Congress (Area Handbook Series), ISBN 0-8444-0833-6.
- Kumar, V. Sanil; K. C. Pathak & P. Pednekar et al. (2006), "Coastal processes along the Indian coastline", Current Science 91 (4): 530-536, <http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/350/1/Curr_Sci_91_530.pdf>
- Posey, CA (1994), The Living Earth Book of Wind and Weather, Reader's Digest Association, ISBN 0-8957-7625-1.
- Prakash, B. ; Sudhir Kumar & M. Someshwar Rao et al. (2000), "Holocene tectonic movements and stress field in the western Gangetic plains", Current Science 79 (4): 438-449, <http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf>
- Flora and fauna
- Ali, Salim & S. Dillon Ripley (1995), A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. Sálim Ali, born Sálim Moizuddin Abdul Ali ( November 12, 1896 - July 27, 1987) was an Indian Ornithologist and naturalist Sidney Dillon Ripley ( 20 September 1913 - 12 March 2001) was a noted American ornithologist and leader in Wildlife Pp. 183, 106 colour plates by John Henry Dick, ISBN 0195637321
- Blatter, E. & Walter S. Millard (1997), Some Beautiful Indian Trees, Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. Ethelbert Blatter, SJ (15 December 1877&ndash26 May 1934 was a Swiss Jesuit priest and pioneering botanist in British India. Walter Samuel Millard (1864-1952 was a British Entrepreneur and naturalist who was honorary secretary of the Bombay Natural History Society and editor Pp. xvii, 165, 30 colour plates, ISBN 019562162X
- Israel, Samuel & Toby Sinclair (editors) (2001), Indian Wildlife, Discovery Channel and APA Publications. , ISBN 9812345558
- Prater, S. H. (1971), The book of Indian Animals, Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. Stanley Henry Prater (12 March 1890 &mdash12 October 1960) was a British naturalist in India best known as a long-time affiliate of the Bombay Pp. xxiii, 324, 28 colour plates by Paul Barruel. , ISBN 0195621697.
- Rangarajan, Mahesh (editor) (1999), Oxford Anthology of Indian Wildlife: Volume 1, Hunting and Shooting, New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Pp. xi, 439, ISBN 0195645928
- Rangarajan, Mahesh (editor) (1999), Oxford Anthology of Indian Wildlife: Volume 2, Watching and Conserving, New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Pp. xi, 303, ISBN 0195645936
- Tritsch, Mark F. (2001), Wildlife of India, London: Harper Collins Publishers. Pp. 192, ISBN 0007110626
- Culture
- Dissanayake, Wimal K. & Moti Gokulsing (2004), Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change, Trentham Books, Pp. 161, ISBN 1858563291 . , <http://books.google.com/books?id=_plssuFIar8C&dq>
- Johnson, W. J. (translator and editor) (1998), The Sauptikaparvan of the Mahabharata: The Massacre at Night, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press (Oxford World's Classics). Pp. 192, ISBN 0192823618. , <http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780192823618>
- Kalidasa & W. "Kalidasa" redirects here For the true bug Genus, see Kalidasa (insect. J. Johnson (editor) (2001), The Recognition of Śakuntalā: A Play in Seven Acts, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press (Oxford World's Classics). Pp. 192, ISBN 0192839114. , <http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780192839114>
- Karanth, K. Shivarama (1997), Yakṣagāna, (Forward by H. Kota Shivaram Karanth ( Kannada:ಕೋಟಾ ಶಿವರಾಮ ಕಾರಂತ) ( October 10, 1902 - December 9, 1997 Y. Sharada Prasad). Abhinav Publications. Pp. 252, ISBN 8170173574.
- Kiple, Kenneth F. & Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè, eds. (2000), The Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521402166
- Lal, Ananda (1998), Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 600, ISBN 0195644468, <http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Indian-Theatre/dp/0195644468/>
- MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004), A History Of Sanskrit Literature, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1417906197. Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1854 - 1930 7th of Lochgarry, was a noted Sanskrit scholar
- Majumdar, Boria & Bandyopadhyay, Kausik (2006), A Social History Of Indian Football: Striving To Score, Routledge, ISBN 0415348358
- Massey, Reginald (2006), India's Dances, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 8170174341
- Rajadhyaksha, Ashish & Paul Willemen (editors) (1999), Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema, 2nd revised edition, University of California Press and British Film Institute, Pp. 652, ISBN 0851706696 . , <http://www.ucpress.edu/books/bfi/pages/PROD0008.html>
- Vilanilam, John V. (2005), Mass Communication in India: A Sociological Perspective, Sage Publications, ISBN 0761933727
- Zvelebil, Kamil V. (1992), Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 9004093656