Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi (Arabic: علاء الدين أبو الحسن عليّ بن أبي حزم القرشي الدمشقي ) (born 1213 CE - died 1288 CE / 687 AH), commonly known as Ibn al-Nafis (Arabic: ابن النفيس ), was an Arab Muslim polymath—a physician, anatomist, physiologist, surgeon, ophthalmologist, Hafiz, Hadith scholar, Shafi`i jurist and lawyer, Sunni theologian, Islamic philosopher, logician, novelist, psychologist, sociologist, scientist, science fiction writer, astronomer, cosmologist, futurist, geologist, grammarian, linguist and historian—who was born in Damascus, Syria, and worked in Cairo, Egypt. Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Al-Shafi'i, Arabic Jurist (150 AH/767 AD - 204 AH/820 AD Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunein Bit Ishak أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي; known in Latin as Johannitius (809-873 was a famous and influential ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name This article describes a Qur´an-commentator of the 14th century Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn `Uthman ibn Qaymaz ibn `Abd Allah Shams al-Din Abu `Abd Allah al-Turkmani al-Diyarbakri al-Fariqi al-Dimashqi al-Dhahabi al-Shafi`i ( Arabic:محمد Ismail ibn Kathir (ابن كثير (1301&ndash1373 was an Islamic scholar and renowned commentator on the Qur'an. Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Michael Servetus (also Miguel Servet or Miguel Serveto; 29 September, 1511 &ndash 27 October, 1553) was a Spanish Matteo Realdo Colombo or Renaldus Columbus (c 1516 - 1559 was an Italian professor of Anatomy and a surgeon at the University of Padua William Harvey ( April 1, 1578 – June 3, 1657) was an English Physician who is credited with being the first in Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language 7th century AH is a century in the Islamic calendar that corresponds to 1203 &ndash 1299 CE Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. Hafith or Hafiz ( Arabic: حافظ قرآن or حافظ plural huffaz) literally meaning 'guardian' is a term used by Muslims in modern Muhaddith is an Islamic title referring to one who profoundly knows and narrates Hadiths the chains of their narration ( asaneed) and the original and famous The Shāfi‘ī Madhab ( ar شافعي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh, or religious law within Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story Futurists, or futurologists, are those who speculate about the future A geologist is a contributor to the Science of Geology, studying the physical structure and processes of the Earth and planets of the solar system Arabic is a Semitic language See Arabic language for more information on the language in general The Historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early origins of Islam based on a critical analysis evaluation and examination of authentic Primary Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics.

Ibn al-Nafis is most famous for being the first physician to describe the pulmonary circulation,^[1] and the capillary^[2] and coronary circulations,^[3][4] which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered the father of circulatory physiology^[5] and "the greatest physiologist of the Middle Ages. Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the Cardiovascular system which carries Oxygen -depleted Blood away from the heart to the Lungs, and Capillaries are the smallest of a body's Blood vessels measuring 5-10 μm in diameter which connect Arterioles and Venules and enable the interchange Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the Blood vessels that supply Blood to and from the Heart muscle This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" Cardiovascular physiology is the study of the Circulatory system. Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical "^[6] He was also an early proponent of experimental medicine, postmortem autopsy, and human dissection,^[7][8] first described the concept of metabolism,^[9] and developed his own new Nafisian^[10] systems of anatomy, physiology, psychology and pulsology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic doctrines, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on the four humours, pulsation,^[11] bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, and the anatomy of almost every other part of the human body. Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy, or obduction, is a Medical procedure that consists of a thorough Examination Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the In Anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the Stomach to the Anus and in humans and other mammals consists See also Sense A sensory system is a part of the Nervous system responsible for processing sensory information Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green Alkaline fluid secreted by Hepatocytes from the Liver of most Vertebrates In many species In Anatomy, a canal (or canalis in Latin) is a tubular passage or channel which connect different regions of the body The esophagus or oesophagus (see American and British English spelling differences) sometimes known as the gullet, is an organ in In Human anatomy, the stomach is a J-shaped hollow muscular organ of the Gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of Digestion, following Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration The human body is the entire physical and mental structure of a Human Organism. ^[12] Ibn al-Nafis also drew diagrams to illustrate different body parts in his new physiological system. A diagram is a 2D geometric symbolic Representation of Information according to some Visualization technique ^[13]

Besides his medical contributions, he wrote works on the Islamic religious disciplines, notably A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith, which introduces a more rational and logical classification for the science of hadith. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. This is a sub-article of Scientific method and Hadith. The Science of hadith is the process that Muslim scholars use to evaluate hadith ^[14] He also wrote works on fictional Arabic literature, notably Theologus Autodidactus, which is considered one of the earliest novels, one of the first philosophical novels, the first theological novel,^[15] the first science fiction novel, and one of the first stories to feature a feral child, desert island and coming of age plot, through which he expressed many of his religious, philosophical and scientific themes on a wide variety of subjects. Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story Philosophical novels are works of Fiction in which a significant proportion of the novel is devoted to a discussion of the sort of questions normally addressed in discursive Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective A feral child ( Feral, Wild, or undomesticated) is a human child who has lived isolated from human contact from a very young age and has no (or little The term desert island, or deserted island, refers to an Island which is uninhabited or sparsely inhabited Coming of age is a young person's transition from Adolescence to Adulthood The age at which this transition takes place varies in society as does the nature A theme, from Old French tesme, is a broad idea in a story or literary work or a message or lesson conveyed by a written text ^[9] Both of these works were mainly an attempt by Ibn al-Nafis at reconciling reason with revelation, both by highlighting the rationality of Islamic beliefs and by promoting the use of reason in the science of hadith. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to ^[16]

Overview

Biography

He was born in 1213 in Damascus, Syria. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية He attended the Medical College Hospital (Bimaristan al-Noori) in Damascus. Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- Besides medicine, Ibn al-Nafis was also learned in many other subjects, including Arabic literature, Fiqh (jurisprudence), Kalam (theology) and early Islamic philosophy. Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar He became an expert on the Shafi`i school of jurisprudence and an expert physician. The Shāfi‘ī Madhab ( ar شافعي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh, or religious law within A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health

The opening page of one of Ibn al-Nafis's medical works. This is probably a copy made in India during the 17th or 18th centuries. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country

In 1236, Ibn al-Nafis moved to Cairo, Egypt. Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. He worked at the Al-Nassri Hospital, and subsequently at the Al-Mansouri Hospital, where he became the "Chief of Physicians". ^[17] In 1242, by which time he was about 29 years old, he published his most famous work, the Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, which contained many new anatomical discoveries, most importantly the pulmonary and coronary circulations. Soon afterwards, he begun work on The Comprehensive Book on Medicine, for which he had already published 43 volumes by 641 AH (1243-1244 CE), by which time he was about 31 years old. 7th century AH is a century in the Islamic calendar that corresponds to 1203 &ndash 1299 CE Over the next several decades, he would write down notes for 300 volumes, though he was only able to publish 80 volumes before he died. ^[18] Nevertheless, even in its incomplete state, The Comprehensive Book on Medicine was the largest encyclopedia up until that time, and still remains one of the largest medical encyclopedias to date. An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge

Ibn al-Nafis grew up in a time of political turmoil in Syria and Egypt, during the Crusades and Mongol invasions. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Mongol Empire emerged in the course of the 13th century by a series of conquests and invasions throughout Central and Western Asia, reaching Eastern Europe After the sack of Baghdad in 1258, Syria was soon temporarily occupied by the Mongol Empire in 1259, who were then subsequently repelled by the Egyptian Sultan Baibars at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. The Battle of Baghdad in 1258 was a victory for the Mongol leader Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings Baibars, or al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari ( Arabic ar الملك‭ ‬الظاهر‭ ‬ركن‭ ‬الدين‭ ‬بيبرس‭ ‬البندقداري The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic ar عين جالوت the "Eye of Goliath" or the "Spring of Goliath" took place on 3 September 1260 between Like other traditionalist Muslims in his time, Ibn al-Nafis believed that these invasions may have been a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the Sunnah. Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” ^[19] Between 1260-1277, he became the personal physician of Sultan Baibars. ^[17]

Ibn al-Nafis died on 17 December 1288 CE (11 Dhu al-Qi'dah 687 AH), and posthumously donated his house, library and clinic to the Mansuriya Hospital. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila Dhu al-Qi'dah (ar ذو القعدة is the eleventh month in the Islamic calendar. 7th century AH is a century in the Islamic calendar that corresponds to 1203 &ndash 1299 CE ^[17]

Religious background

Ibn al-Nafis was an orthodox Sunni Muslim and a scholar of the Shafi`i school of Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and Sharia (Islamic law). Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic The Shāfi‘ī Madhab ( ar شافعي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh, or religious law within Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. He wrote a number of works on philosophy, and was particularly interested in reconciling reason with revelation and blurring the line between the two. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication Unlike some of his contemporaries and predecessors, he made no distinction between philosophy and theology. Ibn al-Nafis adhered to the teachings of the Qur'an and accepted the authority of the hadiths, but required each hadith to be rationally acceptable. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to ^[20]

Ibn al-Nafis, who grew up in a time of political turmoil during the Crusades and Mongol invasions, commented on these conflicts and, like other traditionalist Muslims in his time, believed that these invasions may have been a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the Sunnah. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Mongol Empire emerged in the course of the 13th century by a series of conquests and invasions throughout Central and Western Asia, reaching Eastern Europe Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” As a result, the falsafa, some of whom held ideas incompatible with the Sunnah, became targets of criticism from a number of traditionalist Muslims. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar On the other hand, Ibn al-Nafis, who was a traditionalist himself, made an attempt at reconciling reason with revelation in some of his works to show that there is harmony between religion and philosophy. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication Being a traditionalist, Ibn al-Nafis also disliked the misuse of wine as self-medication, while citing both medical and religious reasons against it, arguing that "I will not meet God, the Most High, with any wine in me. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Self-medication is the use of drugs, sometimes illicit to treat a perceived or real malady often of a psychological nature " His image as a God-fearing and Sunnah-abiding religious scholar, an intelligent rational philosopher, and an accomplished medical physician, had a positive impression on both traditionalists and rationalists alike. ^[19] The fact that Ibn al-Nafis' student was Abu Hayyan Al Gharnati, a famous Imam and Hafiz at the time, also appealed to traditionalists such as al-Dhahabi. This article describes a Qur´an-commentator of the 14th century An imam (إمام plural ائمة A'immah, امام is an Islamic leader often the leader of a Mosque and/or community Hafith or Hafiz ( Arabic: حافظ قرآن or حافظ plural huffaz) literally meaning 'guardian' is a term used by Muslims in modern Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn `Uthman ibn Qaymaz ibn `Abd Allah Shams al-Din Abu `Abd Allah al-Turkmani al-Diyarbakri al-Fariqi al-Dimashqi al-Dhahabi al-Shafi`i ( Arabic:محمد ^[21]

Latin translations

The Sharh al-Adwiya al-Murakkaba (Commentary on Compound Drugs) was a commentary on the last part of Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine concerning pharmacopoeia, which was written by Ibn al-Nafis sometime before he wrote his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon in 1242. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian Pharmacopoeia (literally the art of the drug compounder in its modern technical sense is a book containing directions for the identification of samples and the preparation of compound The Commentary on compound drugs, however, did contain criticisms of Galen's doctrines on the heart and the blood vessels and dealt with the circulatory system to some extent. This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" This work was later translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago of Belluno (d. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Belluno ( Italian: Belluno; Friulian: Belun; German: Beilun) is a town in the Veneto region of northern 1520), who had lived in Syria for about 30 years before returning to Italy with a collection of medical Arabic books. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest A printed version of his translation was available in Venice from 1547. A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the ^[22]

Ibn al-Nafis' work on the pulse, where he criticized the Avicennian and Galenic theories and corrected them, was also translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago sometime before 1522 in printed in Venice in 1547. In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. ^[23]

It is known that Ibn al-Nafis' Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, which first described the pulmonary and coronary circulations, was also available in Venice as an Arabic manuscript,^[24] and it is believed that it may have also been translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago. Along with Latin translations of his Commentary on compound drugs and his work on the pulse, it may have had an influence on the descriptions of pulmonary circulation given by Michael Servetus (d. Michael Servetus (also Miguel Servet or Miguel Serveto; 29 September, 1511 &ndash 27 October, 1553) was a Spanish 1553), Realdo Colombo (d. Matteo Realdo Colombo or Renaldus Columbus (c 1516 - 1559 was an Italian professor of Anatomy and a surgeon at the University of Padua 1559) and William Harvey (1578-1657). William Harvey ( April 1, 1578 – June 3, 1657) was an English Physician who is credited with being the first in ^[25] Servetus was himself a nontrinitarian who is said to have been interested in Islam and familiar with the Qur'an. Nontrinitarianism includes all Christian belief systems that reject as non-scriptural wholly or partly the doctrine of the Trinity; the Doctrine For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran ^[26]

Edward D. Coppola wrote:^[27]

"A possible way by which Ibn an-Nafis' theory of the pulmonary circulation could have reached the West [. . . ] Andrea Alpago knew of Ibn an-Nafis, had read his exposition on the Vth canon of Avicenna, his exposition on the book of Samarcandi and was familiar with certain of Ibn an-Nafis' ideas concerning the cardio-vascular system. [. . . ] It is possible that somewhere among the unpublished manuscripts of Andrea Alpago is to be found a rendering of Ibn an-Nafis' description of the lesser circulation. Certainly such manuscripts are extant. [. . . ] It is possible that these and other manuscripts left by Andreas Alpago may yet come to light, and that among them we eventually may find a description of the pulmonary circulation by Ibn an-Nafis. "

Joseph Schacht wrote:^[28]

"A possible influence of the theory of Ibn al-Nafis on the three sixteenth century authors in the light of what we now know of Andrea Alpago, cannot be ruled out any longer. Joseph Schacht, born in Ratibor, 15 March 1902, died in Englewood, 1 August 1969, was a British-German professor of [. . . ] Servetus shows a specific knowledge of the theory of Ibn al-Nafis on whom he is dependent more than his two contemporaries; he made additions of his own, partly anatomical, partly theoretical, which recur, elaborated and partly modified, in Colombo. [. . . ] Colombo probably had direct knowledge of the theory of Ibn al-Nafis. "

Legacy

During and after his lifetime, Ibn al-Nafis' 80-volume medical encyclopedia, The Comprehensive Book on Medicine, had eventually replaced The Canon of Medicine of Avicenna (Ibn Sina) as a medical authority in the medieval Islamic world. An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Muslim biographers, historians and reviewers from the 13th century onwards considered Ibn al-Nafis the greatest physician in history, with some referring to him as "the second Ibn Sina" and others considering him even greater than all his predecessors. See also Critic. A review is an evaluation of a publication such as a movie, Video game, Musical composition Al-Dhahabi (d. Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn `Uthman ibn Qaymaz ibn `Abd Allah Shams al-Din Abu `Abd Allah al-Turkmani al-Diyarbakri al-Fariqi al-Dimashqi al-Dhahabi al-Shafi`i ( Arabic:محمد 1348) and al-Isnawī (d. 1370) considered him "unsurpassed in medicine during his lifetime and unparalleled in his preparation of medicinal treatments and medical inferences", while the biographers Tāj al-Dīn al-Subkī (d. Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment, is the attempted Remediation of a health problem usually following a Diagnosis Inference is the act or process of deriving a Conclusion based solely on what one already knows 1370) and Ibn Qadi Shuhba wrote:^[29]

"As for medicine, there has never been anyone on this earth like [Ibn al-Nafīs]. Some say that after Ibn Sīnā there has never been one like [Ibn al-Nafīs], while some say that he was better than Ibn Sīnā in practical treatment. "

A number of later Arabic commentaries on The Canon of Medicine, including ones by Sadid al-Din Muhammad ibn Mas'ud al-Kazaruni in 1344 and Ali ibn Abdallah Zayn al-Arab al-Misri in 1350, understood and repeated Ibn al-Nafis' descriptions of the pulmonary circulation, suggesting that knowledge of his discovery was fairly widespread among Muslim physicians in the Islamic world. ^[30]

Shortly after his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon was re-discovered in modern times, George Sarton, the "father of the history of science", wrote the following on the significance of Ibn al-Nafis' discovery of pulmonary circulation to the history of medicine:^[2]

"If the authenticity of Ibn al-Nafis' theory is confirmed his importance will increase enormously for he must be considered one of the main forerunners of William Harvey and the greatest physiologist of the Middle Ages. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, Death, and Disease. William Harvey ( April 1, 1578 – June 3, 1657) was an English Physician who is credited with being the first in "

Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon

In 1924, an Egyptian physician, Dr. Year 1924 ( MCMXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Muhyo Al-Deen Altawi, discovered a manuscript from 1242, titled Sharh Tashrih al-Qanun Ibn Sina (Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon), in the Prussian State Library in Berlin while studying the history of Arab Medicine at the medical faculty of Albert Ludwig's University in Germany. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. This script is considered one of the best scientific books in which Ibn al-Nafis covers in detail the topics of anatomy, pathology and physiology. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Pathology (from Greek grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study and Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical In this work, his experimental approach to physiology is evident as he writes:^[31]

". In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or . . In determining the use of each organ we shall rely necessarily on verified examinations and straightforward research, disregarding whether our opinions will agree or disagree with those of our predecessors. "

Circulatory system

The theory that was accepted, prior to Ibn al-Nafis, was placed by Galen in the 2nd century and improved by Avicenna in the 11th century. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Galen had theorized that the blood reaching the right side of the heart went through invisible pores in the cardiac septum, to the left side of the heart, where it mixed with air to create spirit, and was then distributed to the body. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic A septum ( Latin: something that encloses; plural Septa) is a partition separating two cavities or spaces Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five According to Galen's views, the venous system was quite separate from the arterial system, except when they came in contact through the unseen pores. Arteries are Blood vessels that carry blood away from the Heart.

Ibn al-Nafis proved this Galenic-Avicennian doctrine wrong in this work and presented the earliest descriptions of pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, which form the basis of the circulatory system. Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the Cardiovascular system which carries Oxygen -depleted Blood away from the heart to the Lungs, and Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the Blood vessels that supply Blood to and from the Heart muscle This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" He extended this with the first correct description of the pulse and a precursor to the capillary circulation. In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Capillaries are the smallest of a body's Blood vessels measuring 5-10 μm in diameter which connect Arterioles and Venules and enable the interchange

Dr. Paul Ghalioungui summarizes the fundamental changes Ibn al-Nafis made to the incorrect Galenic-Avicennian theory that led to his discovery of the circulatory system as follows:^[2]

1. "Denying the existence of any pores through the interventricular septum. Interventricular septum (or ventricular septum, or during development septum inferius) abbreviated IVS is the stout wall separating the lower chambers (the "
2. "The flow of blood from the right ventricle to the lungs where its lighter parts filter into the pulmonary vein to mix with air. Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells ��such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products The right ventricle is one of four chambers (two atria and two ventricles in the Human Heart. lung is the essential Respiration organ in air-breathing Animals including most Tetrapods a few Fish and a few Snails The most primitive The four pulmonary veins carry Oxygen -rich Blood from the Lungs to the left atrium of the Heart. Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five "
3. "The notion that blood, or spirit from the mixture of blood and air, passes from the lung to the left ventricle, and not in the opposite direction. The left ventricle is one of four chambers (two atria and two ventricles in the Human Heart. "
4. "The assertion that there are only two ventricles, not three as stated by Avicenna. In the Heart, a ventricle is a heart chamber which collects Blood from an atrium (another heart chamber that is smaller than a ventricle and TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born "
5. "The statement that the ventricle takes its nourishment from blood flowing in the vessels that run in its substance (i. Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support The blood vessels are part of the Circulatory system and function to transport Blood throughout the body e. the coronary vessels) and not, as Avicenna maintained, from blood deposited in the right ventricle. "
6. "A premonition of the capillary circulation in his assertion that the pulmonary vein receives what comes out of the pulmonary artery, this being the reason for the existence of perceptible passages between the two. Capillaries are the smallest of a body's Blood vessels measuring 5-10 μm in diameter which connect Arterioles and Venules and enable the interchange The pulmonary arteries carry Blood from the Heart to the Lungs. "

Pulmonary circulation

Based on his anatomical knowledge, Ibn al-Nafis stated that:

". . . the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit. The pulmonary arteries carry Blood from the Heart to the Lungs. The four pulmonary veins carry Oxygen -rich Blood from the Lungs to the left atrium of the Heart. . . "

Elsewhere in his book, he said: . . .

"The heart has only two ventricles . In the Heart, a ventricle is a heart chamber which collects Blood from an atrium (another heart chamber that is smaller than a ventricle and . . and between these two there is absolutely no opening. Also dissection gives this lie to what they said, as the septum between these two cavities is much thicker than elsewhere. The benefit of this blood (that is in the right cavity) is to go up to the lungs, mix with what is in the lungs of air, then pass through the arteria venosa to the left cavity of the two cavities of the heart. . . "

In describing the anatomy of the lungs, Ibn al-Nafis stated:

"The lungs are composed of parts, one of which is the bronchi; the second, the branches of the arteria venosa; and the third, the branches of the vena arteriosa, all of them connected by loose porous flesh. lung is the essential Respiration organ in air-breathing Animals including most Tetrapods a few Fish and a few Snails The most primitive A bronchus (plural bronchi, adjective bronchial) is a caliber of airway in the Respiratory tract that conducts air into the Lungs No Gas "

He then added:

". . . the need of the lungs for the vena arteriosa is to transport to it the blood that has been thinned and warmed in the heart, so that what seeps through the pores of the branches of this vessel into the alveoli of the lungs may mix with what there is of air therein and combine with it, the resultant composite becoming fit to be spirit, when this mixing takes place in the left cavity of the heart. An alveolus (plural alveoli, from Latin alveolus, "little cavity" is an anatomical structure that has the form of a hollow cavity The mixture is carried to the left cavity by the arteria venosa. "

Coronary circulation

Ibn al-Nafis' next most important discovery is coronary circulation, the second phase of the circulatory system. Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the Blood vessels that supply Blood to and from the Heart muscle This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" ^[3][4] He was the first to realize that the nutrition of the heart is extracted from the small blood vessels passing through its wall. Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic The blood vessels are part of the Circulatory system and function to transport Blood throughout the body He wrote:^[3]

"Again his [Avicenna's] statement that the blood that is in the right side is to nourish the heart is not true at all, for the nourishment to the heart is from the blood that goes through the vessels that permeate the body of the heart. . . "

Capillary circulation

Ibn al-Nafis discovered a precursor to the "capillary circulation in his assertion that the pulmonary vein receives what comes out of the pulmonary artery, this being the reason for the existence of perceptible passages between the two. Capillaries are the smallest of a body's Blood vessels measuring 5-10 μm in diameter which connect Arterioles and Venules and enable the interchange The pulmonary arteries carry Blood from the Heart to the Lungs. "^[2] Capillary circulation was not known in Europe for several centuries until Marcello Malpighi in 1661. Marcello Malpighi ( March 10, 1628 - September 30, 1694) was an Italian doctor who gave his name to several physiological features

Pulsation

Ibn al-Nafis rejected the incorrect Galenic theory on the pulse and instead proposed his own accurate theory of pulsation. In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Galen believed that "every part of an artery pulsates simultaneously" and that the motion of the pulse was due to natural motions (the arteries expanding and contracting naturally) as opposed to foced motions (the heart causing the arteries to either expand or contract). Ibn al-Nafis rejected this view after discovering that pulsation is a result of both natural and forced motions, and that the "forced motion must be the contraction of the arteries caused by the expansion of the heart, and the natural motion must be the expansion of the arteries. " He notes that the "arteries and the heart do not expand and contract at the same time, but rather the one contracts while the other expands" and vice versa. He also recognized that the purpose of the pulse is to help disperse the blood from the heart to the rest of the body. Ibn al-Nafis briefly summarizes his new theory of pulsation:^[32]

"The primary purpose of the expansion and contraction of the heart is to absorb the cool air and expel the wastes of the spirit and the warm air; however, the ventricle of the heart is wide. Moreover, when it expands it is not possible for it to absorb air until it is full, for that would then ruin the temperament of the spirit, its substance and texture, as well as the temperament of the heart. Thus, the heart is necessarily forced to complete its fill by absorbing the spirit. "

He writes several advantages to this theory, such as the following:^[33]

"To benefit the spirit by moving towards the heart sometimes, and at other times towards the arteries, and maintain its subtlety and substance, and not get [adversely] affected by . . . a lengthy rest in the arteries. "

"The heart must be extremely hot in order to generate properly the spirit from the blood and the cool air, and the arteries must be cold in nature . . . Thus, if the spirit were to reside always in the heart, it would burn out because of the excessive heat, and if it were to reside always in the arteries, it would become cold and thick. "

Other anatomical and physiological discoveries

While the most important discoveries in the Sharh Tashrih al-Qanun Ibn Sina (Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon) were the pulmonary and coronary circulations, this work also contains many other discoveries and discredits many erroneous theories advocated in The Canon of Medicine by Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Galen. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Besides the examples given in this article, the Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon contains numerous other discoveries, criticisms and corrections on the anatomy and physiology of almost every part of the human body, including the bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, etc. See also Sense A sensory system is a part of the Nervous system responsible for processing sensory information The esophagus or oesophagus (see American and British English spelling differences) sometimes known as the gullet, is an organ in In Human anatomy, the stomach is a J-shaped hollow muscular organ of the Gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of Digestion, following ^[12]

Brain

Ibn al-Nafis quotes another error made by Galen, who believed that "blood reaches the brain itself at the section called forebrain through the duramater which divides the vault longitudinally into two equal halves at the sagittal suture. Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells ��such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain In the Anatomy of the Brain of Vertebrates, the prosencephalon (or forebrain) is the Rostral -most (forward-most portion of the The dura mater (from the Latin "hard mother" or pachymeninx, is the tough and inflexible outermost of the three layers of the Meninges surrounding the The sagittal suture is a dense fibrous Connective tissue Joint between the two Parietal bones of the Skull. " Ibn al-Nafis criticized this theory and corrected it as follows:^[12]

"The blood permeates first to the back ventricle (hindbrain) then to the other two ventricles. The rhombencephalon (or hindbrain) is a developmental categorization of portions of the Central nervous system in Vertebrates. In the Heart, a ventricle is a heart chamber which collects Blood from an atrium (another heart chamber that is smaller than a ventricle and Dissection confirms this and disproves what they say. Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function The permeation of arteries into the cranium is well known not to be from the front ventricle. Permeation, in Physics and Engineering, is the penetration of a permeate (such as a Liquid, Gas, or Vapor) through a solid and is Arteries are Blood vessels that carry blood away from the Heart. "

Canals

Another example concerns an incorrect theory on the anatomy of the bilious canals that was supported by Galen and Avicenna, and later repeated by Leonardo da Vinci and even Vesalius during the early modern period. Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green Alkaline fluid secreted by Hepatocytes from the Liver of most Vertebrates In many species In Anatomy, a canal (or canalis in Latin) is a tubular passage or channel which connect different regions of the body Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Andreas Vesalius ( Brussels, December 31, 1514 - Zakynthos, October 15, 1564) was an anatomist, Physician The early modern period is a term initially used by historians to refer mainly to the period roughly from 1500 to 1800 in Western Europe ( Early modern Europe) Ibn al-Nafis was the only physician in pre-modern times to prove this theory wrong:^[12]

"He [Galen] claims that another canal goes from the gall bladder to the intestinal cavaties. The gallbladder (or cholecyst sometimes gall bladder is a small organ whose function in the body is to store Bile and aid in the digestive process In Anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the Stomach to the Anus and in humans and other mammals consists This is completely wrong. We have seen the gall bladder several times and failed to see anything going from it either to the stomach or to the intestines. In Human anatomy, the stomach is a J-shaped hollow muscular organ of the Gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of Digestion, following "

Heart

Another correction he made concerned the incorrect Galenic and Avicennian theories of bones being present beneath the human heart. Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic Ibn al-Nafis proved them both wrong through his own observations and wrote the following criticism on their theories:^[12]

"This is not true. There are absolutely no bones beneath the heart as it is positioned right in the middle of the chest cavity where there are no bones at all. The thoracic cavity (or chest cavity) is the chamber of the human body (and other animal bodies that is protected by the Thoracic wall ( Thoracic cage Bones are only found at the chest periphery not where the heart is positioned. The chest is a part of the Anatomy of humans and various other animals sometimes referred to as the Thorax. "

Muscles

Ibn al-Nafis made the following correction concerning human muscles, where he also briefly refers to his then forthcoming encyclopedia The Comprehensive Book on Medicine:^[12]

"The most important muscles of a human body total 529, details of which you will read in a book we are writing on medicine with full investigations into their shapes, functions, tendons, and origins. Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of Fibrous connective tissue that usually connects Muscle to Bone and is capable of withstanding tension The forthcoming book will also contain details about proper anatomy since what is said about it here, is short and brief. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration "

Nerves

Ibn al-Nafis corrects another theory on the nerves stated by Avicenna, who believed that the glossopharyngeal nerve, vagus nerve and accessory nerve arise from the nerve ganglion and that they are attached to the sigmoid and facial nerves through membranous fascia so that these five nerves look like one nerve emerging as three branches from the back foramen lacerum. A nerve is an enclosed cable-like bundle of peripheral Axons (the long slender projections of Neurons. The glossopharyngeal nerve is the ninth of twelve pairs of Cranial nerves. The vagus nerve (ˈveɪˌgəs (VĀ-gəs (also called pneumogastric nerve or cranial nerve X) is the tenth of twelve paired Cranial nerves, and is the In Anatomy, the accessory nerve is a Nerve that controls specific Muscles of the neck In Anatomy, a ganglion (pl ganglia) is a tissue mass. Neurology In neurological contexts ganglia are composed mainly of The sigmoid colon ( pelvic colon; sigmoid flexure) forms a loop which averages about 40 cm The facial nerve is the seventh (VII of twelve paired Cranial nerves. Fascia (făsh'ē-ə pl fas·ci·ae (făsh'ē-ē adj fascial (făsh'ē-əl (from Latin: a band is the Soft tissue component of The foramen lacerum ( Latin for lacerated piercing) is a triangular hole in the base of the Skull located at the base of the Medial pterygoid plate While examining this theory, Ibn al-Nafis performed the earliest known dissection on the human brain, after he wrote the following criticism on this theory:^[12]

"About what he [Ibn Sina] said concerning the sixth nerve being attached to the fifth through membranous facia, I have not so far found a good reason for that attachment, and I have not even verified it. The facial nerve is the seventh (VII of twelve paired Cranial nerves. This sixth pair [a confluence of the glossopharyngeal, vagus and accessory nerves] both arises and emerges from behind the fifth, so there is no way it could be attached to it. "

Another example was Galen's incorrect theory on the optic nerve, in which he stated that the optic nerve "which comes from the right side of the brain goes to the right eye, and the nerve which comes from the left side goes to the left eye. The optic nerve, also called cranial nerve II, is the Nerve that transmits visual information from the Retina to the Brain. " Ibn al-Nafis also proved this theory wrong and stated:^[12]

"In fact it is not like that, [but] each nerve goes to the opposite side. "

Other theories

Embryology and Generation

Ibn al-Nafis criticized previous Aristotelian, Galenic and Avicennian explanations of embryology and proceeds to develop his own theories on embryology and generation. Aristotelianism is a tradition of Philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. Embryology (from Greek grc ἔμβρυον embryon, "unborn embryo" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the development Generation (from the Greek γενεά) also known as procreation, is the act of producing Offspring. He believed that when a male and female semen mix, and when they create a mixed matter that has an appropriate temperament to receive an animal or human soul, God issues a soul to this matter, which then develops into an embryo that grows and generates organs. Physiological aspects Internal and external fertilization Depending on the Species, spermatozoa can fertilize Matter is commonly defined as being anything that has mass and that takes up space. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. An embryo (from Greek:, plural, lit "that which grows" from en- "in" + bryein "to swell be full" is a multicellular In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument ^[34] He further writes:

"Galen believes that each of the two semen has in it the active faculty to fashion and the passive faculty to be fashioned, however the active faculty is stronger in the male semen while the passive in the female semen. The investigators amongst the falasifa believe that the male semen only has the active faculty, while the female only has the passive faculty. . . . As for our opinion on this, and God knows best, neither of the two semen has in it an active faculty to fashion. "^[35]

He then shows that once the male semen and female semen are brought together in the womb, the female semen quenches the hot fire of the male semen through its own cool and wet nature. Once the two semen are mixed, he says:^[36]

"They modify one another’s temperament and [the mixture] obtains a temperament that is prepared for the emanation of the soul from their Supreme Creator. "

Philosophy and Psychology

The commentary also dealt with the early Islamic philosophy and Muslim psychology related to Islamic medicine. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Ibn al-Nafis developed his own theories on hylomorphic psychology and philosophy, mostly on a theological basis. Hylomorphism ( Greek hylo-, "wood matter" + -morphism morphē, "form" is the philosophical theory Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. ^[37]

In particular, he made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and he developed his own theory on the soul. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath He also crtiticized the ideas of Avicenna and Aristotle on the soul originating from the heart. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic Ibn al-Nafis rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few organs. In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument " He further criticized Aristotle's idea that every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Ibn al-Nafis concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul" and he defined the soul as nothing other than "what a human indicates by saying ‘I’. I (aɪ is the first-person, singular Personal pronoun ( subject case) in Modern English. "^[38]

He also identified the "psychic faculties" with cognition, sensation, imagination, and animal locomotion,^[39] and disproved Aristotle's notion that these come from the heart rather than the brain. Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought In Psychology, sensation is the first stage in the biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a Imagination is the ability to form Mental images/sounds/feelings or the ability to Spontaneously Generate images/sounds/feelings within one's own Mind In Biomechanics, animal locomotion is the study of how Animals move. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain After Ibn al-Nafis discovered that the brain and nerves are cooler than the heart and arteries, he argued that the psychic faculties come from the brain on this basis. ^[40] He further wrote that it is the brain which controls sensation, movement and cognition. ^[41]

The Comprehensive Book on Medicine

The most voluminous of his books is Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb (The Comprehensive Book on Medicine), a medical encyclopedia which Ibn al-Nafis begun immediately after he completed his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon in 1242. ^[17] He had already published 43 volumes by 641 AH (1243-1244 CE). 7th century AH is a century in the Islamic calendar that corresponds to 1203 &ndash 1299 CE Over the next several decades, he would wrote down notes for 300 volumes, though he was only able to publish 80 volumes before he died in 1288. ^[18] Even in its incomplete state, however, The Comprehensive Book on Medicine is one of the largest known medical encyclopedias in history, and was much larger than the more famous The Canon of Medicine by Avicenna. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born However, only several volumes of The Comprehensive Book on Medicine have survived. ^[42]

Surgery

To date, three surviving manuscripts comprising volumes 33, 42 and 43 of The Comprehensive Book on Medicine have been found in Damascus and at the Lane Medical Library of Stanford University. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly known as Stanford University or simply Stanford, is a private Research university located in One of the three surviving manuscripts (MS Z 276) of The Comprehensive Book on Medicine is dedicated to surgery, and is divided into three talim. Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The first talim is twenty chapters in length and deals with the "general and absolute principles of surgery", the second talim deals with surgical instruments, and the third examines every type of surgical operation known to him. Only the first five chapters of the first talim has been translated into English and their contents are listed as follows:^[23]

1. "On the different stages of surgical operations, and the role of the patient in each stage"
2. "On the role of the physician during the time of presentation, the time of operative treatment, and the time of preservation"
3. "On a detailed discussion of the role of the physician during the time of presentation"
4. "On relating the things to which the physician should pay attention during the time of operative treatment"
5. "On the patient's posture during surgical treatment"

Ibn al-Nafis states that in order for a surgical operation to be successful, full attention needs to be given to three stages of the operation. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The first stage is the pre-operation period which he calls the "time of presentation" when the surgeon carries out a diagnosis on the affected area of the patient's body. Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything The second stage is the acutal operation which he calls the "time of operative treatment" when the surgeon repairs the affected organs of the patient. In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument The third stage is the post-operation period which he calls the "time of preservation" when the patient needs to take care of himself and be taken care of by nurses and doctors until he recovers "by the will of God". A nurse is responsible—along with other Health care Professionals —for the treatment safety and recovery of acutely or chronically For each stage, he gives detailed descriptions on the roles of the surgeon, patient and nurse, and the manipulation and maintenance of the surgical instruments being used. ^[23] The Comprehensive Book on Medicine was also the earliest book dealing with the decubitus of a patient. Commonly used in medicine the word decubitus is used to mean "lying down" ^[30]

Urology

Sections of the book also dealt with urology, including the issues of sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction. Urology is the branch of Surgery that focuses on the Urinary tracts of males and females and on the reproductive system of males Sexual dysfunction or sexual malfunction (see also Sexual function) is difficulty during any stage of the Sexual act (which includes desire, Ibn al-Nafis was one of the first to prescribe clinically tested drugs as medication for the treatment of these problems. For the episode of the American television series The Office, see " Drug Testing " Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease His treatments were mainly oral drugs, though a few patients were also treated through topical or transurethral means. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body In Medicine, a topical Medication is applied to body surfaces such as the Skin or Mucous membranes for example the Vagina Transurethral resection of the prostate (also known as TURP, plural TURPs and as a transurethral prostatic resection TUPR) is a urological operation ^[43]

Theologus Autodidactus

Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography), also known as Risālat Fād il ibn Nātiq (The Book of Fādil ibn Nātiq), was the first theological novel,^[15] written by Ibn al-Nafis and later translated in the West as Theologus Autodidactus. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story This work is one of the first Arabic novels, the first science fiction novel, and the earliest example of a desert island story and coming of age story. Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers The term desert island, or deserted island, refers to an Island which is uninhabited or sparsely inhabited Coming of age is a young person's transition from Adolescence to Adulthood The age at which this transition takes place varies in society as does the nature ^[9] This novel was written sometime between 1268 and 1277 CE. ^[44]

Plot

The plot of this novel was the earliest example of a desert island story, a coming of age story, and a science fiction story. The term desert island, or deserted island, refers to an Island which is uninhabited or sparsely inhabited Coming of age is a young person's transition from Adolescence to Adulthood The age at which this transition takes place varies in society as does the nature The protagonist of the story is Kamil, an autodidactic adolescent feral child who is spontaneously generated in a cave and living in seclusion on a deserted island. The Protagonist or main character is the central figure of a story. Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is self-education or self-directed learning A feral child ( Feral, Wild, or undomesticated) is a human child who has lived isolated from human contact from a very young age and has no (or little In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic A cave is a natural underground void large enough for a human to enter ^[9] He eventually comes in contact with the outside world after the arrival of castaways who get shipwrecked and stranded on the island,^[45] and later take him back to the civilized world with them. A castaway is a person who is cast adrift or ashore While the situation usually happens after a Shipwreck, some people voluntarily stay behind on a deserted island either A shipwreck can refer to a wrecked ship or to the event that caused the wreck such as the striking of something that causes the ship to sink the stranding of the ship on rocks A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements The plot gradually develops into a coming-of-age story and then becomes the earliest example of a science fiction novel when it eventually reaches its climax with a catastrophic doomsday apocalypse. The climax (from the Greek word “κλῖμαξ” ( klimax) meaning “staircase” and “ladder” or turning point of a Narrative Eschatology (from the Greek, Eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of" is a part of Theology ^[9]

Themes

Ibn al-Nafis uses the plot to express many of his own religious, philosophical and scientific themes on a wide variety of subjects, including biology, cosmology, empiricism, epistemology, experimentation, futurology, geology, Islamic eschatology, natural philosophy, the philosophy of history and sociology, the philosophy of religion, physiology, psychology, and teleology. A theme, from Old French tesme, is a broad idea in a story or literary work or a message or lesson conveyed by a written text Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Futures Studies, Foresight, or Futurology is the science art and practice of postulating possible probable and preferable futures and the worldviews Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Islamic eschatology is concerned with the al-Qiyāmah "Last Judgement" For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Philosophy of religion is a branch of Philosophy that is concerned with the philosophical study of religion including arguments over the nature and existence of God religious Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Teleology ( Greek: telos: end purpose is the philosophical study of design and Purpose. Ibn al-Nafis was thus an early pioneer of the philosophical novel. Philosophical novels are works of Fiction in which a significant proportion of the novel is devoted to a discussion of the sort of questions normally addressed in discursive Through the story of Kamil, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to establish that the human mind is capable of deducing the natural, philosophical and religious truths of the universe through reasoning and logical thinking. MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Deductive reasoning is Reasoning which uses deductive Arguments to move from given statements ( Premises to Conclusions which must be true if the The meaning of the word truth extends from Honesty, Good faith, and Sincerity in general to agreement with Fact or Reality Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. The "truths" presented in the story include the necessity of God's existence, the life and teachings of the prophets of Islam, and an analysis of the past, present, and future, including the origins of the Homo Sapien species and a general prediction of the future on the basis of historicism and historical determinism. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Futures Studies, Foresight, or Futurology is the science art and practice of postulating possible probable and preferable futures and the worldviews Historicism refers to philosophical theories that include one or both of two claims that there is an organic succession of developments a notion also Determinism is the philosophical Proposition that every event including human cognition and behaviour decision and action is causally determined The final two chapters of the story resemble a science fiction plot, where the end of the world, doomsday, resurrection and afterlife are predicted and scientifically explained using his own empirical knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology. Islamic eschatology is concerned with the al-Qiyāmah "Last Judgement" In Islam, Yawm al-Qiyāmah "the Day of Resurrection" (يوم القيامة or Yawm ad-Din "the Day of Faith" (يوم الدين is God's final Akhirah (الآخرة is an Islamic term referring to the Afterlife. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. One of the main purposes behind Theologus Autodidactus was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy through the use of a fictional narrative, hence this was an attempt at reconciling reason with revelation and blurring the line between the two. ^[9]

Ibn al-Nafis described the book as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world. " He presents rational arguments for bodily resurrection and the immortality of the human soul, using both demonstrative reasoning and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case. This article concerns itself with Jesus Christ Christian, Islamic and other religious interpretations of resurrection in general Immortality (or eternal life) is the concept of living in physical or spiritual form for an Infinite length of Time. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings ^[46] The novel also includes references to his new physiology and his theories of pulmonary circulation and pulsation, which he uses to justify bodily resurrection. Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the Cardiovascular system which carries Oxygen -depleted Blood away from the heart to the Lungs, and Some have thus argued that it was his attempts at attempting to prove bodily resurrection that led him to his discovery of the pulmonary circulation. ^[47] Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to Avicenna's metaphysical claim that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died ^[46]

The plot of Theologus Autodidactus was intended to be a response to Ibn Tufail (Abubacer), who wrote the first fictional Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) which was itself a response to al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān ( حي بن يقظان " Alive son of Awake " Philosophus Autodidactus " The Self-Taught Philosopher Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic Ibn al-Nafis thus wrote the narrative of Theologus Autodidactus as a rebuttal of Abubacer's arguments in Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic individuals spontaneously generated in a cave and living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on a desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into a coming-of-age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel. The purpose behind this changing story structure in Theologus Autodidactus was to refute Abubacer's argument that autodidacticism can lead to the same religious truths as revelation, whereas Ibn al-Nafis believed that religious truths can only be attained through revelation, which is represented through Kamil's interactions with other humans. Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is self-education or self-directed learning Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication ^[48]

Biomedical portions

Theologus Autodidactus also contains some passages that are of significance to medicine, particularly physiology and biology, such as the following statement:^[9]

"Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support "

This is seen as the first example of the concept of metabolism, which is comprised of catabolism, where living matter is broken down into simple substances, and anabolism, where food builds up into living matter. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. For the related metabolic process see Anabolism. Catabolism is the set of Metabolic pathways which break down molecules into Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. Anabolism is the set of Metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an ^[9]

Theologus Autodidactus also criticizes the idea of wine being used as self-medication, an idea believed by ancient Greek physicians as well as some unorthodox Muslim physicians in his time, despite the Islamic prohibition of alcohol. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Self-medication is the use of drugs, sometimes illicit to treat a perceived or real malady often of a psychological nature In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon The novel further argues that the consumption of alcohol, along with the prevalence of homosexuality among a small minority of Muslims at the time, were the cause of the Mongol invasions into Islamic lands as a divine punishment. Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation. The Mongol Empire emerged in the course of the 13th century by a series of conquests and invasions throughout Central and Western Asia, reaching Eastern Europe ^[49]

The novel also contains a reference to the pulmonary circulation which Ibn al-Nafis had previously described in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, which is briefly described by the character Kamil when he observes the heart:^[50]

"[Its] right ventricle is filled with blood and its left ventricle is filled with spirit. "

Another passage has a reference to Ibn al-Nafis' theory of pulsation:^[51]

"Its left ventricle is filled with spirit, and this ventricle contracts, thereby sending this spirit in the arteries to the organs. Then it expands, and this spirit returns to it. "

Ibn al-Nafis makes use of his new systems of anatomy, physiology and psychology which he had developed in his previous works in order to defend his views on bodily resurrection in Theologus Autodidactus. This may have been one of the reasons that initially motivated his discovery of the pulmonary circulation. ^[52]

A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith

Ibn al-Nafis wrote Al-Mukhtasar fi Ilm Usoulil Hadith (A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith), a treatise on the science of hadith. This is a sub-article of Scientific method and Hadith. The Science of hadith is the process that Muslim scholars use to evaluate hadith The work is notable for its use of ijtihad (reason) in the evaluation of a hadith (narration or report) and its isnad (chain of transmission), unlike other contemporary hadith scholars, notably Ibn al-Salāh, who relied on traditional methods of classifying a hadith and its isnad. Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic A Hadith was originally just an Arabic story As the stories began to be used formally it became common to provide their chain of transmitters (or sanad سند plural Ibn al-Nafis, on the other hand, sought to demonstrate the use of rationality and logic to classify the hadiths and to find whether there are any contradictions within them. Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. In Classical logic, a contradiction consists of a logical incompatibility between two or more Propositions It occurs when the propositions taken together yield Later traditionalists, however, disagreed with the use of reason in the science of hadith, including the hadith scholar al-Dhahabi and the polymath Ibn Khaldun, who argued that "there is no place for the intellect in them, save that the intellect may be used in connection with them to relate problems of detail with basic principles. Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn `Uthman ibn Qaymaz ibn `Abd Allah Shams al-Din Abu `Abd Allah al-Turkmani al-Diyarbakri al-Fariqi al-Dimashqi al-Dhahabi al-Shafi`i ( Arabic:محمد Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities "^[53]

Classification

While traditional hadith scholars identified hadiths into three categories; sahih (sound), hasan (fair) and da'if (weak); Ibn al-Nafis instead classified them into four logical categories: decidedly true (maclūm al-sidq), probably true (yuz annu bihi'l-sidq), probably false (yuz annu bihi'l-kadhb) and decidedly false (maclūm al-kadhb). Sahih is an Islamic term that means authentic. It is commonly used to describe the authenticity of a Hadith. Hasan may refer to Hasan (hadith Hasan (name Mount Hasan - volcano Hasan Afghanistan In Islamic context Da'if ( ar ضعيف) is the categorization of a Hadith 's authenticity as "weak" He used reason and logic to judge the veracity or falsity of a report:^[54]

"As for the report whose truthfulness is certain but not on account of the veracity of the reporter, [it is of the following types]: it may be congruous to a report known to be true. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking For example, if one reports something that is in agreement witha report of God, or the Prophet, or is something that [all] Muslims agree upon. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics . . Likewise, what is reported may be known to be true on account of its agreement with fact. Generally a fact is defined as something that is true something that actually exists or something that can be verified according to an established standard of evaluation The knowledge of that may be self-evident, for example if it is said that two is half of four, or that the whole is greater than the parts. Or it may not be self-evident, for example when one says that since we have a creator, the world must be created. As for the report that is known to be false, it may be due to knowing the truth about another report that contradicts it, either by being its opposite or by being incompatible with it. For example, if one reported something that contradicted the saying of God, or his Prophet or the saying of the consensus of Muslims. Consensus has two common meanings One is a general agreement among the members of a given group or Community, each of which exercises some discretion in It may also be false if it is known to contradict facts. Knowledge of that kind could be theoretical speculation such as the reports that the innovators disseminate in texts on anthropomorphism. In Islam, bid‘ah ( is any type of Innovation. Though innovations in worldly matters are acceptable to an extent innovation within the religion is seen as a sin Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely Human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings natural and supernatural phenomena material states and objects . . or it could be self-evidently false, for example if one were to say, ‘The part is greater than the whole!‘"

According to traditional hadith scholars of his time, all sahih hadiths, especially those reported in the canonical Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim hadith collections, should instantly be classified as definitely true on the basis of a reliable isnad (chain of transmission). Sahih is an Islamic term that means authentic. It is commonly used to describe the authenticity of a Hadith. Sahih Muslim ( Arabic: صحيح مسلم ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, full title "Al-Musnadu Al-Sahihu bi Naklil Adli" is one of the Six major collections This is a sub-article of Hadith. According to Muslims tradition the collection of ahadith or sayings by or about the Prophet Muhammad was a meticulous and thorough A Hadith was originally just an Arabic story As the stories began to be used formally it became common to provide their chain of transmitters (or sanad سند plural Ibn al-Nafis disagreed and instead classified most of those same sahih hadiths as "probably true" instead of "decidedly true", as he denied the absolute and unconditional validity of the sahih hadiths that was becoming the norm during his time. He argues thad, while a report emanating from Muhammad is always "decidedly true", most hadiths do not reach them directly from Muhamamd and so they can only be classified as "probably true" or "probably false" based on their isnad. He states that the only hadiths that are "decidedly true" are the multiply transmitted mutawatir (consecutive) hadiths. Mutawatir (متواتر is an Arabic word meaning "consecutive Since most sahih hadiths do not meet the criteria of mutawatir, he rejects the absolute soundness of the Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim collections, placing a strong emphasis on mutawatir hadiths:^[55]

"As for the reports that are at our disposal now, most of what we adhere to are only highly probable [ghālib al-zann] and not indubitable knowledge [al-cilm al-muh aqqaq], contrary to [the majority of] people who say: “Everything that Muslim and Bukhārī agree upon is decidedly certain because the scholars agree on the soundness of these two books. ” But the truth is that that is not the case! For the agreement is only over the permissible actions that are found in these two [texts], but that does not preclude what is in these two from being suspect in its soundness. "

This was a view that was held by a majority of ulema (legal scholars) in his time, but this view was not shared by traditional hadith scholars in his time who did not differentiate between hadiths that were "sahih" and "mutawatir". Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several Ibn al-Nafis further classified the da'if (weak) hadiths as "probably false", and the only hadiths he classified as "decidedly false" were the ones where there was a known liar among the chain of transmission, the ones contradicting a "definitely true" hadith, and the ones dealing with anthropomorphism:^[56]

"As for lies in the meaning of a hadīth, that is as if one said: “The messenger of God said such-and-such,” when the messenger of God actually said, “I do not say that. Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely Human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings natural and supernatural phenomena material states and objects ” Likewise, when something transmitted on the authority of the messenger of God seems absurd rationally [caqlan] or through law [sharcan], then it is permissible to interpret it and reduce it to a likely meaning. "

With his emphasis on reason throughout the text, he wished to highlight the importance of ilm al-dirāya (content analysis) which was practiced by the early hadith scholars but was absent from the hadith scholarship of his time who put far more emphasis on isnad instead. He disagreed with their definition of a sahih hadith as a hadith from the canonical sahih collections, but instead he defined a sahih hadith as a "decidedly true" hadith that is "free from being challenged on account of its transmitters [rijālihi], its content [matnihi] and its meaning [macnāhi], while having a continuous chain of transmitters" and without any anthropomorphic content. ^[57]

Other works

So far, the titles of at least 37 of his works are known, which add up to at least more than a hundred volumes in total, though only a fraction of his works have survived (or yet to be discovered) and even fewer have been printed (or translated). Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press ^[58][59]

A Summary of Medicine

Ibn al-Nafis' Al-Mujaz fi al-Tibb (A Summary of Medicine) was a 500-page book on medicine. Parts of the book dealt with otolaryngology, and one chapter in particular first described the ear infections otitis media and otitis externa. Otolaryngology is the branch of Medicine that specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of Ear, Nose, Throat, and head and neck disorders Otitis media is Inflammation of the Middle ear, or middle ear infection (the word otitis is Greek and it means “inflammation of the ear” and media Otitis externa ("swimmer's ear" is an Inflammation of the outer Ear and ear canal He described the latter as an "outer ear canal infection" where the "ear was painful and tender, slightly swollen and producing a smelly coloured discharge" and with a "degree of hearing impairment. " It was here that he introduced the concept of dividing a condition into an early acute stage and a later chronic stage, which remains similar to modern classifications of ear diseases. In Medicine, an acute disease is a disease with either or both of a rapid onset a short course (as opposed to a chronic course In Medicine, a chronic disease is a Disease that is long-lasting or recurrent In some of the preparations and remedies he described for their treatment, he introduced the use of vinegar, which is still used for ear infections in modern times. Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the Fermentation of Ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient Acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid ^[60]

The Choice of Foodstuffs

Another famous book, embodying a number of original contributions, was on the effects of diet on health, entitled Kitab al-Mukhtar fi al-Aghdhiya (The Choice of Foodstuffs). His approach to health placed a greater emphasis on diet, nutrition, and controlling the food consumed by a patient, rather than the prescriptions of drugs. Health is a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body ^[59]

The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology

Ibn al-Nafis wrote a large textbook on ophthalmology called The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology in which he made a number of original contributions to the field. Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. The book is divided into two sections: "On the Theory of Ophthalmology" and "Simple and Compounded Ophthalmic Drugs". ^[17]

Ibn al-Nafis discovered that the muscle behind the eyeball does not support the ophthalmic nerve, that they do not get in contact with it, and that the optic nerves transect but do not get in touch with each other. Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain The ophthalmic nerve is one of the three branches of the Trigeminal nerve, the fifth Cranial nerve. The optic nerve, also called cranial nerve II, is the Nerve that transmits visual information from the Retina to the Brain. A transect is a path along which one records and counts occurrences of the phenomenon of study (e He also discovered many new treatments for glaucoma and the weakness of vision in one eye when the other eye is affected by disease. Glaucoma is a group of diseases of the Optic nerve involving loss of retinal ganglion cells in a characteristic pattern of optic neuropathy. The visual system is the part of the Nervous system which allows organisms to see. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly ^[59]

Medical commentaries

The most famous known work of Ibn al-Nafis is his 20-volume commentary on Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, in which Ibn al-Nafis "elucidated the scientific problems, pointed out the logical conclusions, and explained the medical difficulties" in the text according to the biographers Umarī and al-Safadī. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian The most famous part of his commentary is the Sharh Tashrih al-Qanun Ibn Sina (Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon), in which Ibn al-Nafis made his discovery of pulmonary circulation^[61] and coronary circulation. Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the Cardiovascular system which carries Oxygen -depleted Blood away from the heart to the Lungs, and Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the Blood vessels that supply Blood to and from the Heart muscle ^[3] The other four surviving volumes of the commentary are called A Commentary on Generalities, A Commentary on Materia Medica and Compund Drugs, A Commentary on Head-to-Toe Diseases, and A Commentary on Diseases Which Are Not Specific to Certain Organs. In the first of these volumes, A Commentary on Generalities, he repeats his account of the pulmonary circulation. ^[30]

He also wrote the Kitab al-Mujiz or Mujiz al-Qanun (Epitome of the Kitab al-Qanun), another work based on the Canon, but rather than a commentary, this was an edited version of the original Canon for medical students. The sections on anatomy and physiology, however, were removed from the text due to the inaccuracy of those segments, and he also did not include his own commentaries in this work, hence it has no mention of his descriptions on the pulmonary or coronary circulations. This work was popular in the Islamic world and was translated into several other languages, including Turkish and Hebrew, and several commentaries were written on his edited version of the Canon. Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. ^[31]

He also wrote a number of commentaries on the topic of medicine. His commentaries include one on Hippocrates' book, and several volumes on Ibn Sina's Qanun Fil Tibb (The Canon of Medicine). Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian Additionally, he wrote a commentary on Hunayn ibn Ishaq's book. Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunein Bit Ishak أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي; known in Latin as Johannitius (809-873 was a famous and influential In his commentaries on Avicenna and his commentary on Hippocrates, entitled Sharh Fusul Buqrat (Commentary on Hippocrates' Aphorisms), he wrote an introductory note on them, making obvious his rebellious nature against established authorities as he states that he has decided to:^[31]

"throw light on and stand by true opinions, and forsake those which are false and erase their traces. . . "

Other medical writings

His other medical works include the Risalat al-A'ada'a (An Essay on Organs) and Al-Shamel fi al-Tibb (Reference Book for Physicians). ^[59]

Environmental science

Ibn al-Nafis wrote a treatise on environmental science, which covered a number of subjects related to pollution, such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities. Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment An ( EIA) is an assessment of the possible impact&ndashpositive or negative&ndashthat a proposed project may have on the Natural environment. ^[62]

Fiqh jurisprudence and Sharia law

Ibn al-Nafis wrote several books dealing with Fiqh jurisprudence and Sharia law, including the Theologus Autodidactus and a commentary on Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi's Al-Tanbeeh (Exhortation). Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. ^[9]

One of his most famous books on law is Mujaz al-Qanun (The Summary of Law). Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society He also wrote a number of other commentaries on the topic of law.

Linguistics

Ibn al-Nafis wrote two books on Arabic linguistics. Arabic is a Semitic language See Arabic language for more information on the language in general One was his original work, Tareeq al-Fasaha (Road to Eloquence), while the other was a commentary on the linguist Said bin al-Hassan al-Rab'i al-Baghdadi's Al-Fusous (The Segments). ^[9]

Logic

Ibn al-Nafis wrote two books on logic in Islamic philosophy. Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. One of these works deals with Avicennian logic as a commentary of Avicenna's Al-Isharat (The Signs) and Al-Hidayah (The Guidance). Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born His other work on logic, Al-Wurayqat (The Little Papers), deals with Aristotelian logic as a commentary on Aristotle's Organon and Rhetoric. The Organon is the name given by Aristotle 's followers the Peripatetics to the standard collection of his six works on Logic. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The Organon is the name given by Aristotle 's followers the Peripatetics to the standard collection of his six works on Logic. Aristotle 's Rhetoric is an ancient Greek treatise on the art of persuasion dating from the fourth century BCE ^[9]

His Theologus Autodidactus and A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith also deal with the use of logic in Islamic theology. Islamic theology is a branch of Islamic studies regarding the beliefs associated with the Islamic faith

Philosophy

In early Islamic philosophy, Ibn al-Nafis wrote commentaries on Avicennian philosophy, specifically Avicenna's Hidaya f'il-Hikma and the Kitab al-Isharat wa al-Tanbihat (Book of Directives and Remarks) in The Book of Healing, though neither of these commentaries have survived. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Avicennism ( is a school of Early Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Book of Healing ( Arabic: الشفاء Al-Shefa, Latin: Sanatio) is a scientific and philosophical ^[63]

Notes

References

• Bayon, H. P. (1941), “Significance of the demonstration of the Harveyan circulation by experimental tests”, Isis 33: 443-453 
• Fancy, Nahyan A. G. (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", Electronic Theses and Dissertations (University of Notre Dame), <http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615>
• Iskandar, Albert Z. The University of Notre Dame du Lac (or simply Notre Dame) (ˌnoʊtɚˈdeɪm is a private Roman Catholic Research university located in (1974), "Ibn al-Nafis", Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. The Dictionary of Scientific Biography is a scholarly reference work that was published from 1970 through 1980 9, 602-606

See also

• Islamic science
• Islamic medicine
• Early Islamic philosophy
• Arabic literature
• List of Arab scientists and scholars
• Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran
• Circulatory system