The Hurrians (also Khurrites;[1] cuneiform Ḫu-ur-ri 𒄷𒌨𒊑) were a people of the Ancient Near East, who lived in northern Mesopotamia and areas to the immediate east and west, beginning approximately 2500 BC. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Eridu (URUNUNKI; Sumerian:eridug Akkadian: ?) from the Sumerian for 'mighty place' is modern Tell Abu Shahrain, Iraq Uruk ( URU UNUG, Sumerian: unug Akkadian: uruk) from the Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian Toponym 'unug' is modern Ur ( Sumerian:urim; Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, and was a city in ancient Sumer. Lagash ( is modern Tell al-Hiba, Iraq. Located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk Nippur (URUENLIL; Sumerian: Nibru Akkadian: Nibbur) from the Sumerian for 'lord wind' (Enlil is modern ? in Afak Al Qadisyah Ngirsu (cuneiform? Sumerian:Ĝirsu Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell Telloh, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq, and it was a city of Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of Amorite ( Sumerian MARTU, Akkadian Tidnum or Amurrūm, Egyptian Amar, Hebrew ’emōrî Isin (modern Ishan al-Bahriyat was a city of lower Mesopotamia, which flourished during the 20th century BC. Larsa (also Larag or Larak, modern Tell as-Senkereh, Iraq, possibly the Biblical Ellasar) was an important city of Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Chaldea (from Greek grc Χαλδαία Chaldaia; Akkadian akk māt Kaldu Hebrew כשדים Kaśdim, "the Chaldees" of the The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca Mitanni ( Hittite cuneiform, also Mittani) or Hanigalbat ( Assyrian Hanigalbat Khanigalbat cuneiform) Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Assur also spelled Ashur, from Assyrian Aššur, was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria. Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located south of Nineveh on the river Tigris. Dur-Sharrukin ("Fortress of Sargon" present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of Sargon II of Assyria. Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa) See Short chronology for a timeline in absolute dates The Chronology of the Ancient Near East is a framework of dates for Ancient Mesopotamia was settled and conquered by numerous ancient Civilizations. The history of Sumer, taken to include the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods spans the 5th to 3rd millennia BC ending with the downfall of the Third The Sumerian king list is an ancient text in the Sumerian language that lists kings of Sumer from Sumerian and foreign dynasties The following is a list of the kings of Babylonia, a major city and empire in ancient lower Mesopotamia, compiled from the traditional Babylonian king lists and modern Mesopotamian mythology is the collective name given to Sumerian Akkadian Assyrian and Babylonian mythologies from the land between the Tigris The akk Enûma Eliš is the Babylonian Creation myth (named for its Incipit) Gilgamesh was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk (Early Dynastic II first dynasty of Uruk ruling circa 2600 BC according to the Sumerian king The pre- Christian religions of Babylonia and Assyria are the earliest attestation of Ancient Semitic religion, in particular Mesopotamian mythology Assyriology (from Greek grc Ἀσσυρίᾱ Assyriā; and grc -λογία -logia) is the archaeological historical and linguistic study Sumerian ( " native tongue " was the language of ancient Sumer, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia since at least the 4th millennium BC Elamite is an Extinct language, which was spoken by the ancient Elamites. Aramaic is a Semitic language with Hurrian is a conventional name for the language of the Hurrians (Khurrites a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly Hittite or Nesili is the Extinct language once spoken by the Hittites, a people who created an empire centered on ancient Hattusas (modern The Ancient Near East refers to early Civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The 25th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2500 BC to 2401 BC They probably originated in the Caucasus and entered from the north, but this is not certain. The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Their known homeland was centred in Subartu, the Khabur River valley, and later they established themselves as rulers of small kingdoms throughout northern Mesopotamia and Syria. The land of Subar (Sumerian Su-bir4/Subar/Šubur or Subartu (Akkadian Šubartum/Subartum/ina Šú-ba-ri, Assyrian mât Šubarri) was situated The Khabur River (also Habur Habor Kebar Chebar Chaboras; Aramaic: ܚܒܘܪ, Kurdish: Çemê Xabûr, Turkish: Habur Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية The largest and most influential Hurrian nation was the kingdom of Mitanni. Mitanni ( Hittite cuneiform, also Mittani) or Hanigalbat ( Assyrian Hanigalbat Khanigalbat cuneiform)
The Hurrians played a substantial part in the History of the Hittites. Hittites is the conventional English-language term for an ancient people who spoke an Indo-European language and established a kingdom centered in Hattusa
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People
The Hurrians inhabited most likely all parts of the Ancient Near East long before the second millennium BC. The Ancient Near East refers to early Civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq The area later occupied by Hurrians was the centre of the Chalcolithic Halaf culture, and Hurrians are thought to have also been the Khirbet Kerak culture of Syro-Palestine. Tell Halaf ( Akkadian: Guzana; تل حلف, Syria) However, in most parts the Hurrians made up only a minority of the population. A Hurrian population majority existed only in the Khabur River Valley and in the kingdom of Arrapha. The Khabur River (also Habur Habor Kebar Chebar Chaboras; Aramaic: ܚܒܘܪ, Kurdish: Çemê Xabûr, Turkish: Habur Arrapha ( Syriac: ܐܪܦܗܐ أررابخا,عرفة was an ancient Assyrian city that existed in what is today the city of Kirkuk By the first millennium BC the Hurrians had been assimilated with other peoples, except perhaps in the kingdom of Urartu. Urartu ( Assyrian: Urarṭu Urartian: Biainili Ուրարտու was an Iron Age kingdom in Eastern Anatolia ( Transcaucasia) rising It is generally believed that the speakers of this language originally came from the Armenian mountains and spread over southeast Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia before the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The Armenian Highland (Russian Armyanskoye Nagorye; also known as the Armenian Upland or Armenian Plateau, also referred as Eastern Armenia) Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black [2]
Language
The Hurrians spoke an ergative-agglutinative language, conventionally called Hurrian, unrelated to neighboring Semitic or Indo-European languages, but clearly related to Urartian — a language spoken about a millennium later in northeastern Anatolia — and possibly, very distantly, to the present-day Northeast Caucasian languages. An ergative-absolutive Language (or simply ergative language is a language that treats the argument (" subject " of an Intransitive An agglutinative language is a Language that uses Agglutination extensively most Words are formed by joining Morphemes together Hurrian is a conventional name for the language of the Hurrians (Khurrites a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly The Semitic languages are a Language family whose living representatives are spoken by more than 467 million people across much of the Middle East, Urartian (also called Vannic, in older literature also "Chaldean" is the conventional name for the language spoken by the inhabitants of the ancient kingdom Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The Northeast Caucasian languages, also called East Caucasian, Caspian, Nakho-Dagestanian, or Dagestanian, are a family of Languages Some scholars relate the Hurrian language also to Georgian and its associated South Caucasian or Kartvelian languages. Georgian (ka ქართული ენა kartuli ena) is the Official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus. The South Caucasian languages (also known as Ibero-Caucasian or Kartvelian) are spoken primarily in Georgia, with smaller groups of speakers in Turkey [3] Similarities to Hurrian words have also been suggested in neighboring languages such as Armenian. The Armenian language (hy հայերեն լեզու hajɛɹɛn lɛzu —, conventional short form) is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenian [4][5] It is believed by some scholars that the Hurrians arrived in the Caucasus around 2700 BC. The 27th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2700 BC to 2601 BC [6]
The Hurrians adopted the Akkadian cuneiform script for their own language about 2000 BC. This has enabled scholars to read the Hurrian language. Hurrian is a conventional name for the language of the Hurrians (Khurrites a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly Because the number of Hurrian texts discovered is small, and because many Sumerian logograms are used, masking the phonetic shapes of the Hurrian words they represent, understanding of the Hurrian language is far from complete and many words are missing from their vocabulary. Sumerian ( " native tongue " was the language of ancient Sumer, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia since at least the 4th millennium BC A logogram, or logograph, is a Grapheme which represents a word or a Morpheme (a meaningful unit of language
Texts in the Hurrian language have been found at Hattusa, Ugarit (Ras Shamra), as well as one of the longest of the Amarna letters, written by King Tushratta of Mitanni to Pharaoh Amenhotep III. Hattusa (URU Ḫa-at-tu-ša 𒌷𒄩𒀜𒌅𒊭 Unicode cuneiform article to display these cuneiform characters--> Ugarit ( Ugaritic: ʼugrt; Hebrew:; Arabic:) (modern Ras Shamra رأس شمرة ("top/head/cape of the wild Fennel The Amarna letters (sometimes "Amarna correspondence" or "Amarna tablets" are an archive of correspondence on Clay tablets mostly diplomatic Tushratta was a king of Mitanni at the end of the reign of Amenhotep III and throughout the reign of Akhenaten -- approximately the late 14th century Amenhotep III (sometimes read as Amenophis III meaning Amun is Satisfied was the ninth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty. It was the only long Hurrian text known until a multi-tablet collection of literature in Hurrian with a Hittite translation was discovered at Hattusas in 1983.
According to medieval Islamic sources, the language spoken by Hurrian tribes that primarily belonged to the Yazdanism sect of religious belief spoke a Proto-Pehlewani language. The Kurdish language (Kurdish Kurdî or کوردی is a term used for the language spoken by Kurds. [7] The Hurrian influence on the modern Kurdish language is still evident in its ergativic grammatical structure and in its toponyms. The Kurdish language (Kurdish Kurdî or کوردی is a term used for the language spoken by Kurds. [8]
History
Like most aspects of Hurrian society, their origins are still a mystery. By about 2400 BC, the Hurrians may have expanded from the foothills of the Caucasus. The 24th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2400 BC to 2301 BC The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East In the following centuries, Hurrian names occur sporadically in northern Mesopotamia and the area of Kirkuk in modern Iraq. Kirkuk (also spelled Karkuk or Kerkuk; Kurdish: كهركووك Kerkûk; Arabic: كركوك Turkish:Kerkük; For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Their presence was attested at Nuzi, Urkesh and other sites. Nuzi (or Nuzu; Akkadian Gasur; modern Yorghan Tepe, Iraq) was an ancient Mesopotamian city southwest of Kirkuk Urkesh (or Urkish, modern Tell Mozan, Syria) was a city situated at the base of the Taurus Mountains in what is now northern Syria They eventually infiltrated and occupied a broad arc of fertile farmland stretching from the Khabur River valley to the foothills of the Zagros Mountains. The Khabur River (also Habur Habor Kebar Chebar Chaboras; Aramaic: ܚܒܘܪ, Kurdish: Çemê Xabûr, Turkish: Habur The Zagros Mountains (جبال زاجروس (رشته كوههاى زاگرس ( Sorani Kurdish: Zagros - زاگرۆس make up Iran 's and Iraq 's
The city state of Urkesh
The Khabur River valley became the heart of the Hurrian lands for a millennium. The first known Hurrian kingdom up to date emerged around the city of Urkesh during the third millennium BC, modern Tell Mozan. Urkesh (or Urkish, modern Tell Mozan, Syria) was a city situated at the base of the Taurus Mountains in what is now northern Syria There is evidence that they were allied with the Akkadian Empire indicating they had a firm hold on the area already during the reign of the Akkadian king Naram-Sin. This region hosts other rich cultures (see Tell Halaf and Tell Brak). Tell Halaf ( Akkadian: Guzana; تل حلف, Syria) Nagar (modern Tell Brak, Syria) was an ancient Late Neolithic, Sumerian and Akkadian city on the Khabur River.
The city state of Urkesh still had some powerful neighbors, however. Urkesh (or Urkish, modern Tell Mozan, Syria) was a city situated at the base of the Taurus Mountains in what is now northern Syria At some point in the early second millennium BC the Amorite kingdom of Mari to the south subdued Urkesh into a vassal state. Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of In the continuous power struggle over Mesopotamia another Amorite dynasty made themselves masters over Mari in the eighteenth century BC. The capital of this Old Assyrian kingdom called Shubat-Enlil was founded some distance from Urkesh at another Hurrian settlement in the Khabur River valley, modern Tell Leilan. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Tell Leilan, Syria is the site of a city known as Shekhna in ancient times The Khabur River (also Habur Habor Kebar Chebar Chaboras; Aramaic: ܚܒܘܪ, Kurdish: Çemê Xabûr, Turkish: Habur
The kingdom of Yamhad
The Hurrians also migrated west in this period. By 1725 BC they are found also in parts of northern Syria, such as Alalakh. The 18th century BC was the Century which lasted from 1800 BC to 1701 BC Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Alalakh (or Alalah, modern Tell Atchana near Antakya (ancient Antioch) Turkey) is the name of an ancient Amorite The Amoritic-Hurrian kingdom of Yamhad is recorded as struggling for this area with the early Hittite king Hattusilis I around 1600 BC. Yamhad (also written Yamkhad or Jamhad) was an ancient Amorite kingdom centered at Halab (modern Aleppo, Syria) Labarna II was the first king of the Hittite empire to reign from Hattusa (while the earlier kings had been at Neša) taking the throne name of Hattusili Hurrians also settled in the coastal region of Adaniya in the country of Kizzuwatna. Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna) is the name of an ancient Anatolian kingdom in the Second millennium BC. Yamhad eventually weakened to the powerful Hittites, but this also opened Anatolia for Hurrian cultural influences. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The Hittites were influenced by the Hurrian culture over the course of several centuries.
The emergence of Mitanni
The Hittites continued expanding south after the defeat of Yamhad. Mitanni ( Hittite cuneiform, also Mittani) or Hanigalbat ( Assyrian Hanigalbat Khanigalbat cuneiform) Yamhad (also written Yamkhad or Jamhad) was an ancient Amorite kingdom centered at Halab (modern Aleppo, Syria) The army of the Hittite king Mursili I made its way down to Babylon and sacked the city. Mursili I was a king of the Hittites ca 1556 – 1526 BC ( Short chronology) and was the grandson of his predecessor Hattusili I. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq The destruction of the Babylonian kingdom, as well as the kingdom of Yamhad, helped the rise of another Hurrian dynasty. The first ruler was a legendary king called Kirta who founded the kingdom of Mitanni around 1500 BC. Kirta is a legendary Hurrian king He is thought to have founded the dynasty of Mitanni, but no contemporary inscriptions from his time are known to exist Mitanni ( Hittite cuneiform, also Mittani) or Hanigalbat ( Assyrian Hanigalbat Khanigalbat cuneiform) Mitanni gradually grew from the region around Khabur valley and became the most powerful kingdom of the Near East in c. The Khabur River (also Habur Habor Kebar Chebar Chaboras; Aramaic: ܚܒܘܪ, Kurdish: Çemê Xabûr, Turkish: Habur 1450-1350 BC.
The state of Arrapha
Another Hurrian kingdom also benefited from the demise of Babylonian power in sixteenth century BC. Hurrians had inhabited the region northeast of river Tigris, around the modern Kirkuk. The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern Kirkuk (also spelled Karkuk or Kerkuk; Kurdish: كهركووك Kerkûk; Arabic: كركوك Turkish:Kerkük; This was the kingdom of Arrapha. Arrapha ( Syriac: ܐܪܦܗܐ أررابخا,عرفة was an ancient Assyrian city that existed in what is today the city of Kirkuk Excavations at Yorgan Tepe, ancient Nuzi, proved to be one of the most important sites for our knowledge about the Hurrians. Nuzi (or Nuzu; Akkadian Gasur; modern Yorghan Tepe, Iraq) was an ancient Mesopotamian city southwest of Kirkuk Hurrian kings such as Ithi-Teshup and Ithiya ruled over Arrapha, yet by the mid-fifteenth century BC they had become vassals of the Great King of Mitanni. Arrapha ( Syriac: ܐܪܦܗܐ أررابخا,عرفة was an ancient Assyrian city that existed in what is today the city of Kirkuk Arrapha itself was destroyed by the Assyrians in the fourteenth century BC. The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria.
The fall of the Hurrians
By the thirteenth century BC all of the Hurrian states had been vanquished by other peoples. The heart of the Hurrian lands, the Khabur river valley, became an Assyrian province. It is not clear what happened to the Hurrian people at the end of the Bronze Age. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for Some scholars have suggested Hurrians lived on in the country of Subartu north of Assyria during the early Iron Age. The land of Subar (Sumerian Su-bir4/Subar/Šubur or Subartu (Akkadian Šubartum/Subartum/ina Šú-ba-ri, Assyrian mât Šubarri) was situated This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man.
The Hurrian population of Syria in the following centuries seems to have given up their language in favor of the Assyrian dialect of Akkadian or, more likely, Aramaic. Aramaic is a Semitic language with This was around the same time that an aristocracy speaking Urartian, similar to old Hurrian, seems to have first imposed itself on the population around Lake Van, and formed the Kingdom of Urartu. Urartu ( Assyrian: Urarṭu Urartian: Biainili Ուրարտու was an Iron Age kingdom in Eastern Anatolia ( Transcaucasia) rising
The Indo-Aryan connection
The question of Indo-Aryan cultural influences, or even a ruling aristocracy, among the Hurrians is an ambiguous issue. Some theonyms proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan Superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan Early scholars (Belardi, Burrow, Kammenhuber, Lesný) were convinced the Hurrians were dominated by an elite of foreign rulers. These foreigners spoke an Indo-Iranian language from Central Asia related to Avestan and even more closely related to Vedic Sanskrit (for example, the word for "one" in this language was aika, similar to Sanskrit eka vs. The Indo-Iranian language group constitutes the easternmost extant branch of the Indo-European family of languages Avestan is an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the Zoroastrian Avesta. Vedic Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language, the language of the Vedas, the oldest Shruti texts of Hinduism. Avestan aeva). The presence of an Indo-Aryan people among the Hurrians was put in doubt by Manfred Mayrhofer (1966), and called in question by Gernot Wilhelm (1982).
They introduced the cremation of their dead, and introduced the use of the horse and chariot in the battlefield — a situation that has obvious similarities to the events in northern India at about the same time. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country While this foreign aristocracy eventually abandoned their language in favor of that of their Hurrian subjects, they retained Indo-Iranian names, they invoked Vedic gods in some of their treaties, and some words from their Indo-Iranian language survived as loanwords in Hurrian, particularly technical terms related to horses and their training (Mayrhofer, 1974). This article discusses the historical religious practices in the Vedic time period see Hinduism and Indian religions for details
Particularly the state of Mitanni, itself believed to be an Indo-Aryan word, was connected with the Indo-Aryan culture. Most rulers of Mitanni seem to have had Indo-Aryan names, and the ruling aristocracy was called maryanni, meaning "young warrior" in Sanskrit marya. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical
Culture and society
Knowledge of Hurrian culture relies on archaeological excavations at sites such as Nuzi and Alalakh as well as on cuneiform tablets, primarily from Hattusas (Boghazköy), the capital of the Hittites, whose civilization was greatly influenced by the Hurrians. Nuzi (or Nuzu; Akkadian Gasur; modern Yorghan Tepe, Iraq) was an ancient Mesopotamian city southwest of Kirkuk Alalakh (or Alalah, modern Tell Atchana near Antakya (ancient Antioch) Turkey) is the name of an ancient Amorite Hattusa (URU Ḫa-at-tu-ša 𒌷𒄩𒀜𒌅𒊭 Unicode cuneiform article to display these cuneiform characters--> Tablets from Nuzi, Alalakh, and other cities with Hurrian populations (as shown by personal names) reveal Hurrian cultural features even though they were written in Akkadian. Nuzi (or Nuzu; Akkadian Gasur; modern Yorghan Tepe, Iraq) was an ancient Mesopotamian city southwest of Kirkuk Alalakh (or Alalah, modern Tell Atchana near Antakya (ancient Antioch) Turkey) is the name of an ancient Amorite Hurrian cylinder seals were carefully carved and often portrayed mythological motives. A cylinder seal is a cylinder engraved with a 'picture story' used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface generally wet Clay. They are a key to the understanding of Hurrian culture and history.
Ceramic ware
The Hurrians were masterful ceramists. Their pottery is commonly found in Mesopotamia and in the lands west of the Euphrates; it was highly valued in distant Egypt, by the time of the New Kingdom. The New Kingdom, sometimes referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period in Ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BC and Archaeologists use the terms Khabur ware and Nuzi ware for two types of wheel-made pottery used by the Hurrians. Khabur ware is characterized by reddish painted lines with a geometric triangular pattern and dots, while Nuzi ware has very distinctive forms, and are painted in brown or black.
Metallurgy
The Hurrians had a reputation in metallurgy. Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their The Sumerians borrowed their copper terminology from the Hurrian vocabulary. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Copper was traded south to Mesopotamia from the highlands of Anatolia. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The Khabur River Valley had a central position in the metal trade, and copper, silver and even tin were accessible from the Hurrian-dominated countries Kizzuwatna and Ishuwa situated in the Anatolian highland. The Khabur River (also Habur Habor Kebar Chebar Chaboras; Aramaic: ܚܒܘܪ, Kurdish: Çemê Xabûr, Turkish: Habur Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna) is the name of an ancient Anatolian kingdom in the Second millennium BC. Isuwa (transcribed Išuwa and sometimes rendered Ishuwa) was the ancient Hittite name for one of its neighboring Anatolian kingdoms to the east in an area Gold was in short supply, and the Amarna letters inform us that it was acquired from Egypt. The Amarna letters (sometimes "Amarna correspondence" or "Amarna tablets" are an archive of correspondence on Clay tablets mostly diplomatic Not many examples of Hurrian metal work have survived, except from the later Urartu. Urartu ( Assyrian: Urarṭu Urartian: Biainili Ուրարտու was an Iron Age kingdom in Eastern Anatolia ( Transcaucasia) rising Some small fine bronze lion figurines were discovered at Urkesh. Urkesh (or Urkish, modern Tell Mozan, Syria) was a city situated at the base of the Taurus Mountains in what is now northern Syria
The horse
The Hurrians were closely associated with horses. They might actually have introduced the horse into the Near East from Central Asia around 2000 BC. The name of the country of Ishuwa, which might have had a substantial Hurrian population, meant “horse-land”. Isuwa (transcribed Išuwa and sometimes rendered Ishuwa) was the ancient Hittite name for one of its neighboring Anatolian kingdoms to the east in an area A famous text discovered at Hattusa deals with the training of horses. Hattusa (URU Ḫa-at-tu-ša 𒌷𒄩𒀜𒌅𒊭 Unicode cuneiform article to display these cuneiform characters--> The man who was responsible for the horse-training was a Hurrian called Kikkuli. Kikkuli, "master horse trainer ( assussanni, virtually Sanskrit aśva-sana-) of the land Mitanni " (LÚ A-AŠ-ŠU-UŠ-ŠA-AN-NI The terminology used in connection with horses contains many Indo-Aryan loan-words (Mayrhofer, 1974). The Indo-Aryan languages (within the context of Indo-European studies also Indic) are a branch of the Indo-European language family This convinced earlier scholars the elite in the Hurrian society was an Indo-Aryan ethnic group who invaded the region with their horses and chariots, like the Vedic Indians. The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being
Music
Among the Hurrian texts from Ugarit are the oldest known instances of written music, dating from c. Ugarit ( Ugaritic: ʼugrt; Hebrew:; Arabic:) (modern Ras Shamra رأس شمرة ("top/head/cape of the wild Fennel 1800 BC. A reconstructed hymn is replayed at the Urkesh webpage.
Religion
The Hurrian culture made a great impact on the religion of the Hittites. The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established From the Hurrian cult centre at Kummanni in Kizzuwatna Hurrian religion spread to the Hittite people. Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna) is the name of an ancient Anatolian kingdom in the Second millennium BC. Syncretism merged the Old Hittite and Hurrian religions. Hurrian religion spread to Syria, where Baal became the counterpart of Teshub. Ba'al (pronounced; Hebrew בעל (ordinarily spelled Baal in English is a Northwest Semitic title and honorific meaning "master" or "lord" Teshub (also written Teshup) was the Hurrian god of sky and storm The later kingdom of Urartu also venerated gods of Hurrian origin. Urartu ( Assyrian: Urarṭu Urartian: Biainili Ուրարտու was an Iron Age kingdom in Eastern Anatolia ( Transcaucasia) rising The Hurrian religion, in different forms, influenced the entire ancient Near East, except ancient Egypt and southern Mesopotamia. The Ancient Near East refers to early Civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding
The main gods in the Hurrian pantheon were:
- Teshub, Teshup; the mighty weathergod. Teshub (also written Teshup) was the Hurrian god of sky and storm
- Hebat, Hepa; his wife, the mother goddess, regarded as the Sun goddess among the Hittites. The Mother goddess of the Hurrians. Hebat also Kheba or Khepat, known as "the mother of all living" was the consort of Teshub
- Sharruma, or Sarruma, Šarruma; their son. Sarruma or Sharruma is an originally Hurrian god who was adopted into the Hittite pantheon
- Kumarbi; the ancient father of Teshub; his home as described in mythology is the city of Urkesh. Kumarbi is the Hurrian god son of Anu, and father of the Weather-God Teshub. Teshub (also written Teshup) was the Hurrian god of sky and storm Urkesh (or Urkish, modern Tell Mozan, Syria) was a city situated at the base of the Taurus Mountains in what is now northern Syria
- Shaushka, or Shawushka, Šauska; was the Hurrian counterpart of Assyrian Ishtar, and a goddess of healing. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Ishtar ( D IŠTAR 𒀭𒌋𒁯 is the Assyrian and Babylonian counterpart to the Sumerian Inanna and to
- Shimegi, Šimegi; the sun god.
- Kushuh, Kušuh; the moon god. The Hurrian moon-god His holy number is 30 Kusuh ( Kushuh) has been identified with the Hittite god Kaskuh. Symbols of the sun and the crescent moon appear joined together in the Hurrian iconography. Iconography is the branch of Art history which studies the identification description and the interpretation of the content of images
- Nergal; a Babylonian deity of the netherworld, whose Hurrian name is unknown. The name Nergal (or Nirgal, Nirgali) refers to a Deity in Babylonia with the main seat Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital
- Ea; was also Babylonian in origin, and may have influenced Canaanite El, and also Yah, known as Yam, God of the Sea and River.
Names of Indo-Aryan gods Mitra and Varuna especially, from the Vedic religion have survived in texts and personal names, but it is not known if any cult or temples actually existed. *mitra ( Proto-Indo-Iranian, nominative *mitras) was an important Indo-Iranian divinity In Vedic religion, Varuna or Waruna ( Devanagari:वरुण IAST: varuṇa) is a god of the Sky, of Rain and This article discusses the historical religious practices in the Vedic time period see Hinduism and Indian religions for details
Hurrian cylinder seals often depict mythological creatures such as winged humans or animals, dragons and other monsters. A cylinder seal is a cylinder engraved with a 'picture story' used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface generally wet Clay. The interpretation of these depictions of gods and demons is uncertain. They may have been both protective and evil spirits. Some is reminiscent of the Assyrian shedu. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture The Sumerian word lama, which is rendered in Akkadian as lamassu, refers to a beneficient protective female deity
The Hurrian gods do not appear to have had particular "home temples", like in the Mesopotamian religion or Ancient Egyptian religion. The Religions of the Ancient Near East were mostly Polytheistic, with some early examples of emerging Henotheism ( Atenism, early Ancient Egyptian religion encompasses the various religious beliefs and rituals practiced in Ancient Egypt from the predynastic period until the adoption of Christianity Some important cult centres were Kummanni in Kizzuwatna, and Hittite Yazilikaya. Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna) is the name of an ancient Anatolian kingdom in the Second millennium BC. Yazılıkaya ( Turkish for "inscribed rock" was a sanctuary of Hattusa, the capital city of the Hittite Empire, today in the Çorum Harran was at least later a religious centre for the moon god, and Shauskha had an important temple in Nineve, when the city was under Hurrian rule. Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa) A temple of Nergal was built in Urkesh in the late third millennium BC. The name Nergal (or Nirgal, Nirgali) refers to a Deity in Babylonia with the main seat Urkesh (or Urkish, modern Tell Mozan, Syria) was a city situated at the base of the Taurus Mountains in what is now northern Syria The town of Kahat was a religious centre in the kingdom of Mitanni. Tell Barri is an ancient site in north-eastern Syria. In ancient times it may have been called Kahat though this identification is disputed Mitanni ( Hittite cuneiform, also Mittani) or Hanigalbat ( Assyrian Hanigalbat Khanigalbat cuneiform)
The Hurrian myth “The Songs of Ullikummi”, preserved among the Hittites, is a parallel to Hesiod's Theogony; the castration of Uranus by Cronus may be derived from the castration of Anu by Kumarbi, while Zeus's overthrow of Cronus and Cronus's regurgitation of the swallowed gods is like the Hurrian myth of Teshub and Kumarbi. Hesiod ( Greek: Hesiodos) was an early Greek Poet and Rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BCE Theogony ( Greek: Θεογονία theogonia = the birth of God(s is a Poem by Hesiod describing the origins and genealogies Uranus (ˈjʊərənəs jʊˈreɪnəs is the Latinized form of Ouranos () the Greek word for Sky. Cronus or Kronos, ( Ancient Greek Κρόνος Krónos) was the leader and the youngest of the first generation of Titans, divine descendants In Sumerian mythology and later for Assyrians and Babylonians Anu (also An; (from Sumerian *An = sky heaven was a sky-god Kumarbi is the Hurrian god son of Anu, and father of the Weather-God Teshub. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology Teshub (also written Teshup) was the Hurrian god of sky and storm [9] It has been argued that the worship of Attis drew on Hurrian myth. Attis (sometimes written as "Atys" was Cybele 's lover Eunuch attendant and driver of her lion-driven chariot [10] The Phrygian goddess Cybele would then be the counterpart of the Hurrian goddess Hebat. In antiquity Phrygia (Φρυγία was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now modern-day Turkey. Originally a Hittite and Phrygian Goddess, Cybele (Κυβέλη was a deification of the Earth Mother and was worshipped in The Mother goddess of the Hurrians. Hebat also Kheba or Khepat, known as "the mother of all living" was the consort of Teshub
Urbanism
The Hurrian urban culture was not represented by a large number of cities. Urkesh was the only Hurrian city in the third millennium BC. Urkesh (or Urkish, modern Tell Mozan, Syria) was a city situated at the base of the Taurus Mountains in what is now northern Syria In the second millennium BC we know a number of Hurrian cities, such as Arrapha, Harran, Kahat, Nuzi, Taidu and Washukanni – the capital of Mitanni. Arrapha ( Syriac: ܐܪܦܗܐ أررابخا,عرفة was an ancient Assyrian city that existed in what is today the city of Kirkuk Tell Barri is an ancient site in north-eastern Syria. In ancient times it may have been called Kahat though this identification is disputed Nuzi (or Nuzu; Akkadian Gasur; modern Yorghan Tepe, Iraq) was an ancient Mesopotamian city southwest of Kirkuk Tell el Fakhariya, or Tell el Fecheriyeh with variants is an ancient site in the Khabur River basin in the Al Hasakah Governorate of northern Syria Mitanni ( Hittite cuneiform, also Mittani) or Hanigalbat ( Assyrian Hanigalbat Khanigalbat cuneiform) Although the site of Washukanni, alleged to be at Tell Fakhariya, is not known for certain, no tell (city mound) in the Khabur River Valley much exceeds the size of 1 square kilometer (250 acres), and the majority of sites are much smaller. Tell, tel or tall (تلّ tall, and תֵּל tel) meaning "hill" or "mound" is a type of archaeological The Khabur River (also Habur Habor Kebar Chebar Chaboras; Aramaic: ܚܒܘܪ, Kurdish: Çemê Xabûr, Turkish: Habur The Hurrian urban culture appears to have been quite different from the centralized state administrations of Assyria and ancient Egypt. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now An explanation could be that the feudal organization of the Hurrian kingdoms did not allow large palace or temple estates to develop.
Archaeology
Hurrian settlements are distributed over three modern countries, Iraq, Syria and Turkey. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The heart of the Hurrian world is dissected by the modern border between Syria and Turkey. Several sites are situated within the border zone, making access for excavations problematic. A threat to the ancient sites are the dam projects in the Euphrates, Tigris and Khabur river. The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern The Khabur River (also Habur Habor Kebar Chebar Chaboras; Aramaic: ܚܒܘܪ, Kurdish: Çemê Xabûr, Turkish: Habur Several rescue operations have already been undertaken when the construction of dams put entire river valleys under water.
The first major excavations of Hurrian sites in Iraq and Syria began in the 1920s and 1930s. They were led by the American archaeologist Edward Chiera at Yorghan Tepe (Nuzi), and the British archaeologist Max Mallowan at Chagar Bazar and Tell Brak. Sir Max Edgar Lucien Mallowan, CBE ( 6 May, 1904 – 19 August, 1978) was a prominent British Archaeologist, specialising Chagar Bazar is an ancient site in northern Syria, occupied from the sixth to the second millennium BC Nagar (modern Tell Brak, Syria) was an ancient Late Neolithic, Sumerian and Akkadian city on the Khabur River. Recent excavations and surveys in progress are conducted by American, Belgian, Danish, Dutch, French, German and Italian teams of archaeologists, with international participants, in cooperation with the Syrian Department of Antiquities. The tells, or city mounds, often reveal a long occupation beginning in the Neolithic and ending in the Roman period or later. Tell, tel or tall (تلّ tall, and תֵּל tel) meaning "hill" or "mound" is a type of archaeological The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos The characteristic Hurrian pottery, the Khabur ware, is helpful in determining the different strata of occupation within the mounds. The Hurrian settlements are usually identified from the Middle Bronze Age to the end of the Late Bronze Age, with Tell Mozan (Urkesh) being the main exception. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for Urkesh (or Urkish, modern Tell Mozan, Syria) was a city situated at the base of the Taurus Mountains in what is now northern Syria
Important sites
The list includes some important ancient sites from the area dominated by the Hurrians. Excavation reports and images are found at the websites linked. As noted above, important discoveries of Hurrian culture and history were also made at Alalakh, Amarna, Hattusa and Ugarit. Alalakh (or Alalah, modern Tell Atchana near Antakya (ancient Antioch) Turkey) is the name of an ancient Amorite The site of Amarna (commonly known as el-Amarna or incorrectly as Tel el-Amarna; see below ( Arabic: العمارنة al-‘amārnah) is located Hattusa (URU Ḫa-at-tu-ša 𒌷𒄩𒀜𒌅𒊭 Unicode cuneiform article to display these cuneiform characters--> Ugarit ( Ugaritic: ʼugrt; Hebrew:; Arabic:) (modern Ras Shamra رأس شمرة ("top/head/cape of the wild Fennel
- Tell Mozan (ancient Urkesh) Urkesh an overview
- Yorghan Tepe (ancient Nuzi) The Semitic Museum: Nuzi and the Hurrians
- Tell Brak (ancient Nagar) Tell Brak Learning Sites
- Tell Leilan (ancient Shehna and Shubat-Enlil) Yale Tell Leilan Project
- Tell Barri (ancient Kahat) Missione Italiana archaeologica a Tell Barri
- Tell Beydar (ancient Nabada) ESE Tell Beydar
- Kenan Tepe Upper Tigris Archaeological Research Project
- Tell Tuneinir Tell Tuneinir St. Louis Archaeological Expeditions
- Umm el-Marra (ancient Tuba?) The Johns Hopkins/University of Amsterdam Joint Expedition to Tell Umm el-Marra
- Tell Chuera Grabung Tell Chuera
- Hammam al Turkman (ancient Zalpa?) Excavation Hammam al Turkman, Leiden University
- Tell Sabi Abyad Dutch Excavation at Tell Sabi Abyad
- Hamoukar The Hamoukar Expedition University of Chicago
- Chagar Bazar
- Tell el Fakhariya / Ras el Ayn (ancient Washukanni?)
- Tell Hamidiya (ancient Taidu?). Urkesh (or Urkish, modern Tell Mozan, Syria) was a city situated at the base of the Taurus Mountains in what is now northern Syria Nuzi (or Nuzu; Akkadian Gasur; modern Yorghan Tepe, Iraq) was an ancient Mesopotamian city southwest of Kirkuk Nagar (modern Tell Brak, Syria) was an ancient Late Neolithic, Sumerian and Akkadian city on the Khabur River. Tell Leilan, Syria is the site of a city known as Shekhna in ancient times Tell Barri is an ancient site in north-eastern Syria. In ancient times it may have been called Kahat though this identification is disputed Tuba (طوبا (now called Umm el-Marra, أم المرّا east of modern Aleppo in the Jabbul Plain of northern Syria, was one of the Ancient Near Hamoukar (in Arabic: حموقار is a large archaeological site located in the Jazira region of northeastern Syria near the Iraqi border ( Chagar Bazar is an ancient site in northern Syria, occupied from the sixth to the second millennium BC Tell el Fakhariya, or Tell el Fecheriyeh with variants is an ancient site in the Khabur River basin in the Al Hasakah Governorate of northern Syria Tell el Fakhariya, or Tell el Fecheriyeh with variants is an ancient site in the Khabur River basin in the Al Hasakah Governorate of northern Syria Taite (called Taidu in Assyrian sources was one of the capitals of the Mitanni Empire For the results of the Swiss excavations at Tell al-Hamidiya see [1]
Connections and origin theories
I. J. Gelb & E. A. Speiser believed Subarians had been the linguistic and ethnic substratum of northern Mesopotamia since earliest times, while Hurrians were merely late arrivals. Ignace J Gelb (October 14 1907 &ndash December 22 1985 was a Polish - American ancient historian and Assyriologist who pioneered the scientific Ephraim Avigdor Speiser ( January 24, 1902 &ndash June 15, 1965) was a Polish -born American Assyriologist. The land of Subar (Sumerian Su-bir4/Subar/Šubur or Subartu (Akkadian Šubartum/Subartum/ina Šú-ba-ri, Assyrian mât Šubarri) was situated
Tolstov identified the Hurrians as the founders of Khwarezmia, which he explained as meaning Hurri-Land. Khwarezm were a series of States centered on the Amu Darya River delta of the
In the past, Bible scholars sometimes identified them as the Biblical Horites, Hivites and Jebusites, though there is little factual basis for such a connection. Horites (Egyptian Khar) were cave-dwellers mentioned in the Torah ( Genesis 146 3620 Deuteronomy 212 inhabiting areas around Petra The Hivites were one of the sons of Canaan according to the Table of Nations in Genesis 10 According to the Hebrew Bible, the Jebusites ( were a Canaanite tribe who inhabited the region around Jerusalem prior to its capture by King David
Several other ancient peoples of the region, including the Kesedim, Subarians, Gutians, Kassites and Lullubi have all been described at one time or another as Hurrian peoples. The land of Subar (Sumerian Su-bir4/Subar/Šubur or Subartu (Akkadian Šubartum/Subartum/ina Šú-ba-ri, Assyrian mât Šubarri) was situated Gutium was a tribe that overran southern Mesopotamia when the Akkadian empire collapsed ca The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca The Lullubi were an ancient group of tribes that inhabited the Sharazor plain centered in Rania in the Zagros Mountains ca Recently, with the discovery of the Tikunani Prism, there has been growing support for the theory that the Habiru, who were for a time believed to be the ancient Hebrews, may have been Hurrian speakers. The Tikunani Prism is an 8½ inch clay artifact with an Akkadian cuneiform inscription listing the names of the Habiru soldiers of King Tunip-Teššup Habiru (Ha biru or Apiru or prw (Egyptianwas the name given by various Sumerian Egyptian, Akkadian Hittite, Mitanni Hebrews (or Hebertes, Eberites, Hebreians, " Habiru " or " Habiri " Hebrew: עברים
See also
References
- ^ Hittites on Bartleby. Mitanni ( Hittite cuneiform, also Mittani) or Hanigalbat ( Assyrian Hanigalbat Khanigalbat cuneiform) Urartu ( Assyrian: Urarṭu Urartian: Biainili Ուրարտու was an Iron Age kingdom in Eastern Anatolia ( Transcaucasia) rising Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Nairi ( Armenian: Նայիրի in TAO or Նաիրի in RAO) is the Assyrian word rivers, given from the 13th to 10th centuries BC ( Horites (Egyptian Khar) were cave-dwellers mentioned in the Torah ( Genesis 146 3620 Deuteronomy 212 inhabiting areas around Petra The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca
- ^ Hurrian language - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
- ^ Hurrians. The Macmillan Encyclopedia (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved 17 July 2006, from xreferplus
- ^ “Armenians” in Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture or EIEC, edited by J. P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams, published in 1997 by Fitzroy Dearborn.
- ^ T. V. Gamkrelidze and V. V. Ivanov, The Early History of Indo-European Languages
- ^ T. V. Gamkrelidze and V. V. Ivanov, The Early History of Indo-European Languages
- ^ http://www.xs4all.nl/~tank/kurdish/htdocs/his/orig.html
- ^ A Grammar Of Modern Indo-European
- ^ Güterbock, Hans Gustav: "Hittite Religion"; in Forgotten Religions: Including Some Living Primitive Religions (ed. Tamaz (Thomas V Gamkrelidze ( Georgian თამაზ გამყრელიძე (born October 23, 1929) is a distinguished Georgian Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov (born 21 August 1929 Moscow) is a prominent Soviet / Russian Philologist and Indo-Europeanist probably Tamaz (Thomas V Gamkrelidze ( Georgian თამაზ გამყრელიძე (born October 23, 1929) is a distinguished Georgian Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov (born 21 August 1929 Moscow) is a prominent Soviet / Russian Philologist and Indo-Europeanist probably Vergilius Ferm) (NY, Philosophical Library, 1950), pp. 88–89, 103–104
- ^ Suggested by Jane Lightfoot in the Times Literary Supplement 22 July 2005 p 27, in her account of Philippe Borgeaud, Mother of the Gods: from Cybele to the Virgin Mary, Johns Hopkins 2005 ISBN 0-8018-7985-X.
Bibliography
- Asimov, Isaac, The Near East: 10,000 Years of History,Boston : Houghton Mifflin, 1968. Isaac Asimov (c January 2 1920 &ndash April 6 1992 ˈaɪzək ˈæzɪmʌv originally Исаак Озимов but now transcribed into Russian as, was a Russian
- Chahin, M. 1987. The Kingdom of Armenia. Reprint: Dorset Press, New York. 1991.
- Diakonov I.M., Starostin S.A.Hurro-Urartian as an Eastern Caucasian Languages. Igor Mikhailovich Diakonov (И́горь Миха́йлович Дья́конов was a Russian Historian, linguist, and Translator and a renowned Dr Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin ( Cyrillic: Серге́й Анато́льевич Ста́ростин March 24, 1953 – September 30, Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft, R. Kitzinger, München 1986.
- Duchesne-Guillemin, Marcelle. A Hurrian Musical Score from Ugarit: The Discovery of Mesopotamian Music. Sources from the ancient near east, vol. 2, fasc. 2. Malibu, CA: Undena Publications, 1984.
- Gelb, Ignace J. 1944, Hurrians and Subarians, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization No. 22, Illinois, University of Chicago Press.
- Gurney, O. R. "The Beginning of Civilization,"
- Hawkes, Jacquetta, "The First Great Civilizations"
- Ivanov, Vyacheslav V. and Gamkrelidze,Thomas The Early History of Indo-European Languages, Scientific American, vol. 262, N3, 110116, March, 1990
- Kurkjian, Vahan History of Armenia, Michigan, 1968
- Mayrhofer, Manfred: Die Arier im Vorderen Orient - ein Mythos?, Wien 1974.
- Movsisyan, Artak Sacred Highland: Armenia in the spiritual conception of the Near East, Yerevan, 2000.
- Nersessian, Hovick Highlands of Armenia, Los Angeles, 2000.
- Speiser, E. A. "Introduction to Hurrians,"
- Speiser, E. A. "Hurrians and Subarians,"
- Wilhelm, Gernot: The Hurrians, Aris & Philips Warminster 1989.
- Wilhelm, Gernot (ed. ): Nuzi at seventy-five (Studies in the Civilization and Culture of Nuzi and the Hurrians), Capital Decisions Ltd Bethesda 1999.
External links
- Vyacheslav V. Ivanov, "Comparative Notes on Hurro-Urartian, Northern Caucasian" discusses the difficulties and disagreements faced by linguists working in this area, the term Alarodian being created especially for the Hurro-Urartian-Nakh-Avar languages as a family. The Alarodian languages are a proposed language family that encompasses the Northeast Caucasian or Dagestan languages and the extinct Hurro-Urartian languages
- Dr. Giorgi Leon Kavtaradze's publications about Transcaucasians and Anatolians(htmls, full text in English&Georgian)
- A bibliography on Hurrian
- A bibliography on Urartian
- The Rise of the Hurrians(full text by Robert Antonio)
- The Hurrians and the Ancient Near East History(full text by Jeremiah Genest)
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