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The history of the world, by convention, is human history, from the first appearance of Homo sapiens to the present. A convention is a set of agreed, stipulated or generally accepted Standards norms social norms or criteria, often taking the form of History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Human history is marked both by a gradual accretion of discoveries and inventions, as well as by quantum leaps — paradigm shifts, and revolutions — that comprise epochs in the material and spiritual evolution of humankind. An invention is a new form composition of matter device or Process. In Physics, a quantum leap or quantum jump is a change of an Electron from one energy state to another within an Atom. Paradigm shift, sometimes known as extraordinary science or revolutionary science, is the term first used by Thomas Kuhn in his influential A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround" is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively Materials are physical Substances used as inputs to production or Manufacturing. Spirituality, in a narrow sense concerns itself with matters of the Spirit, a concept closely tied to religious belief and Faith, a transcendent reality eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus
Human history, as opposed to prehistory, has in the past been said to begin with the invention, independently at several sites on Earth, of writing, which created the infrastructure for lasting, accurately transmitted memories and thus for the diffusion and growth of knowledge. Stone Age Paleolithic See also Paleolithic, Recent African Origin, Early Homo sapiens, Early human migrations "Paleolithic" EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding [1] Writing, in its turn, had been made necessary in the wake of the Agricultural Revolution, which had given rise to civilization, i. The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements e. , to permanent settled communities, which fostered a growing diversity of trades. In biological terms a community is a group of interacting Organisms sharing an environment. Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce.
Such scattered habitations, centered about life-sustaining bodies of water — rivers and lakes — coalesced over time into ever larger units, in parallel with the evolution of ever more efficient means of transport. The term habitat comes from Ecology, and includes many interrelated features especially the immediate physical environment, the Urban environment or the Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another These processes of coalescence, spurred by rivalries and conflicts between adjacent communities, gave rise over millennia to ever larger states, and then to superstates or empires. Conflict is a state of discord caused by the actual or perceived opposition of Needs values and interests A millennium (pl millennia) is a period of Time equal to one thousand Years (from Latin la mille, thousand and la annum A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. A superstate is an agglomeration of nations often linguistically and ethnically diverse under a single political-administrative structure An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that In Europe, the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE) is commonly taken as signaling the end of antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation.
A thousand years later, in the mid-15th century, Johannes Gutenberg's invention of modern printing, employing movable type, revolutionized communication, helping end the Middle Ages and usher in modern times, the European Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg ( 1398 &ndash February 3, 1468) was a German Goldsmith and printer who is credited Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation Communication is the process of conveying information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood the same way The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published
By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology, especially in Europe, had reached a critical mass that sparked into existence the Industrial Revolution. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt A critical mass is the smallest amount of Fissile material needed for a sustained Nuclear chain reaction. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Over the quarter-millennium since, the growth of knowledge, technology, commerce, and — concomitantly with these — the potential destructiveness of war has accelerated geometrically, creating the opportunities and perils that now confront the human communities that together inhabit the planet. A millennium (pl millennia) is a period of Time equal to one thousand Years (from Latin la mille, thousand and la annum Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Commerce is a division of trade or production which deals with the exchange of goods and services from producer to final consumer War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units A planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU is a celestial body Orbiting a Star or stellar remnant that is
Paleolithic period
"Paleolithic" means "Old Stone Age. " This was the earliest period of the Stone Age. The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which Humans widely used stone for toolmaking The Lower Paleolithic predates Homo sapiens, beginning with Homo habilis and the earliest use of stone tools some 2. The Lower Paleolithic (or Lower Palaeolithic) is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. Homo habilis (ˈhoʊmoʊ ˈhæbəlɪs ("handy man" "skillful person" is a Species of the genus Homo, which lived 5 million years ago. Homo sapiens originated some 200,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Paleolithic. The term Archaic Homo sapiens refers generally to the earliest members of the species Homo sapiens. The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe,
Sometime during the Middle Paleolithic, humans also developed language, music, early art, as well as systematic burial of the dead. The origin of language ( glottogony) is a topic that has attracted considerable speculation throughout human history In the History of music, prehistoric music (previously called primitive music) is all Music produced in preliterate cultures ( Prehistory --> In the history of art prehistoric art is all art produced in preliterate cultures (prehistory beginning somewhere in very late geological history See also Prehistoric religion The origin and early Development of religion falls into the Paleolithic.
Humans spread from East Africa to the Near East some 80 millennia ago, and further to southern Asia and Australasia some 60 millennia ago, northwestwards into Europe and eastwards into Central Asia some 40 millennia ago, and further east to the Americas from ca. Australasia is a Region of Oceania: New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and neighbouring Islands in the Pacific Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America 30 millennia ago. The Upper Paleolithic is taken to begin some 40 millennia ago, with the appearance of "high" culture. The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe Africa Expansion to North America and Oceania took place at the climax of the most recent Ice Age, when today's temperate regions were extremely inhospitable. An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets By the end of the Ice Age some 12,000 BP, humans had colonised nearly all the ice-free parts of the globe. Before Present (BP years are a time scale used in Archaeology, Geology, and other scientific disciplines to specify when events in the past occurred
Throughout the Paleolithic, humans generally lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting Hunter-gatherer societies have tended to be very small and egalitarian, though hunter-gatherer societies with abundant resources or advanced food-storage techniques have sometimes developed a sedentary lifestyle, complex social structures such as chiefdoms, and social stratification; and long-distance contacts may be possible, as in the case of Indigenous Australian "highways. A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting In Sociology, social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of Social classes Castes and strata within a Society. Indigenous Australians are descendants of the first known human inhabitants of the Australian continent and its nearby islands. "
Mesolithic period
The "Mesolithic," or "Middle Stone Age" (from the Greek "mesos," "middle," and "lithos," "stone") was a period in the development of human technology between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which Humans widely used stone for toolmaking
The Mesolithic period began at the end of the Pleistocene epoch, some 10,000 BP, and ended with the introduction of agriculture, the date of which varied by geographic region. The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture In some areas, such as the Near East, agriculture was already underway by the end of the Pleistocene, and there the Mesolithic is short and poorly defined. B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period In areas with limited glacial impact, the term "Epipaleolithic" is sometimes preferred. "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. The Epipaleolithic is a term used for the "final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the
Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last ice age ended have a much more evident Mesolithic era, lasting millennia. "Last glacial" redirects here For the period of maximum glacier extent during this time see Last Glacial Maximum The last glacial period In Northern Europe, societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands fostered by the warmer climate. Such conditions produced distinctive human behaviours which are preserved in the material record, such as the Maglemosian and Azilian cultures. Maglemosian (ca 7500 BC - ca 6000 BC) is the name given to a culture of the early Epipaleolithic period in Northern Europe. The Azilian is a name given by Archaeologists to an industry of the Epipaleolithic in northern Spain and southern France. These conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 4000 BCE (6,000 BP) in northern Europe. Before Present (BP years are a time scale used in Archaeology, Geology, and other scientific disciplines to specify when events in the past occurred
Remains from this period are few and far between, often limited to middens. A midden, also known as a kitchen midden, or a shell heap, is a dump for domestic waste. In forested areas, the first signs of deforestation have been found, although this would only begin in earnest during the Neolithic, when more space was needed for agriculture. A forest is an area with a high density of Trees There are many definitions of a forest based on various criteria Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture
The Mesolithic is characterized in most areas by small composite flint tools — microliths and microburins. Flint (or flintstone) is a hard sedimentary Cryptocrystalline form of the Mineral Quartz, categorized as a variety of Chert A microlith is a small stone tool typically knapped of Flint or Chert, usually about three centimetres long or less They are typically one Centimetre A microburin is the residual product of the creation of a Microlith during Flint tool manufacture in many different cultures for instance the European Fishing tackle, stone adzes and wooden objects, e. Fishing tackle, also called fishing gear, is a general term that refers to the equipment used by fishermen while fishing An adze or adz (ædz is a tool used for smoothing rough-cut Wood in hand Woodworking. g. canoes and bows, have been found at some sites. A canoe is a small narrow Boat, typically human-powered though it may also be powered by sails or small electric or gas motors A bow is a Weapon that projects arrows powered by the elasticity of the bow These technologies first occur in Africa, associated with the Azilian cultures, before spreading to Europe through the Ibero-Maurusian culture of Spain and Portugal, and the Kebaran culture of Palestine. The Azilian is a name given by Archaeologists to an industry of the Epipaleolithic in northern Spain and southern France. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Kebarans was an archaeological culture that lived in the eastern Mediterranean area (c Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Independent discovery is not always ruled out. Independent discoveries in Science, termed "multiples" by Robert K
During the Mesolithic as in the preceding Paleolithic period, people lived in small (mostly egalitarian) bands and tribes. The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age was a period in the development of human technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone"
Neolithic period
"Neolithic" means "New Stone Age. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos " This was a period of primitive technological and social development, toward the end of the "Stone Age. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Definition In the absence of agreement about its meaning the term "social" is used in many different senses referring among other things to attitudes The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which Humans widely used stone for toolmaking " Beginning in the 10th millennium BCE (12,000 BP), the Neolithic period saw the development of early villages, agriculture, animal domestication and tools. A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet, but smaller than a Town or City. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Domestication (from Latin domesticus) refers to the process whereby a Population of Animals A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other
Rise of agriculture
A major change, described by prehistorian Vere Gordon Childe as the "Agricultural Revolution," occurred about the 10th millennium BCE with the adoption of agriculture. Vere Gordon Childe (14 April 1892 Sydney, New South Wales –19 October 1957 Mt The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture The Sumerians first began farming ca. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar 9500 BCE. By 7000 BCE, agriculture had spread to India; by 6000 BCE, to Egypt; by 5000 BCE, to China. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country About 2700 BCE, agriculture had come to Mesoamerica. Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined
Although attention has tended to concentrate on the Middle East's Fertile Crescent, archaeology in the Americas, East Asia and Southeast Asia indicates that agricultural systems, using different crops and animals, may in some cases have developed there nearly as early. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Fertile Crescent is a Crescent -shaped region in the Middle East, originally incorporating the Levant and Ancient Mesopotamia, and often The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America the development of organised irrigation, and the use of a specialised workforce, by the Sumerians, began about 5500 BCE. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops Workforce (Voyager episode The workforce is the labour pool in Employment. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Stone was supplanted by bronze and iron in implements of agriculture and warfare. Agricultural settlements had until then been almost completely dependent on stone tools. In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere In Eurasia, copper and bronze tools, decorations and weapons began to be commonplace about 3000 BCE. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus After bronze, the Eastern Mediterranean region, Middle East and China saw the introduction of iron tools and weapons. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26
The Americas may not have had metal tools until the Chavín horizon (900 BCE). The Chavín were an early Civilization that existed in present-day Peru. The Moche did have metal armor, knives and tableware. The Moche civilization (alternately the Mochica culture Early Chimu Pre-Chimu Proto-Chimu etc Even the metal-poor Inca had metal-tipped plows, at least after the conquest of Chimor. Chimor (also Kingdom of Chimor was the political grouping of the Chimú culture that ruled the northern coast of Peru beginning around 850 AD and ending around 1470 AD However, little archaeological research has so far been done in Peru, and nearly all the khipus (recording devices, in the form of knots, used by the Incas) were burned in the Spanish conquest of Peru. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. Quipu or khipu (sometimes called talking knots) were recording devices used in the Inca Empire and its predecessor societies in the Andean The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was a process through which a group of forty (40 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro succeeded in toppling the Inca As late as 2004, entire cities were still being unearthed. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status Some digs suggest that steel may have been produced there before it was developed in Europe. Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0
The cradles of early civilizations were river valleys, such as the Euphrates and Tigris valleys in Mesopotamia, the Nile valley in Egypt, the Indus valley in the Indian subcontinent, and the Yangtze and Yellow River valleys in China. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there In Geology, a valley (also called a vale, dale, glen or strath and near or in Appalachia, a draw) is The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. The Yellow River or Huang He / Hwang Ho ( Hatan Gol Queen river) is the second-longest river in China (after the Yangtze River) and the China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Some nomadic peoples, such as the Indigenous Australians and the Bushmen of southern Africa, did not practice agriculture until relatively recent times. The Bushmen, San, Sho, Basarwa, ǃKung or Khwe are indigenous people of southern Africa that spans most areas of South Africa
Before 1800, many populations did not belong to states. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Scientists disagree as to whether the term "tribe" should be applied to the kinds of societies that these people lived in. A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use Many tribal societies, in Europe and elsewhere, transformed into states when they were threatened, or otherwise impinged on, by existing states. Examples are the Marcomanni, Poland and Lithuania. Marcomanni were a Germanic tribe, probably related to the Buri, Suebi or Suevi Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Some "tribes," such as the Kassites and the Manchus, conquered states and were absorbed by them. The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in
Agriculture made possible complex societies — civilizations. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements States and markets emerged. Technologies enhanced people's ability to control nature and to develop transport and communication. Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another Communication is the process of conveying information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood the same way
Civilization
State
The first Agricultural Revolution led to several major changes. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and It permitted far denser populations, which in time organised into states. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. There are several definitions for the term, "state. " Max Weber and Norbert Elias defined a state as an organization of people that has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force in a particular geographic area. Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (maks 'veːbɐ (21 April 1864 &ndash 14 June 1920 was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered Norbert Elias ( June 22, 1897 &mdash August 1, 1990) was a German sociologist of Jewish descent who later became
The first states appeared in Mesopotamia, western Iran, ancient Egypt and Indus Valley in the late 4th and early 3rd millennia BCE. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd In Bronze Age Mesopotamia and Iran, there were several city-states. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. Ancient Egypt began as a state without cities, but soon developed them. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now States appeared in China in the late 3rd and early 2nd millennia BCE. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National
A state ordinarily needs an army for the legitimate exercise of force. Military history is a Humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict in the history of humanity An army needs a bureaucracy to maintain it. Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government The only exception to this appears to have been the Indus Valley civilization, for which there is no evidence of the existence of a military force. The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin
Major wars were waged among states in the Middle East. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. About 1275 BCE, the Hittites under Muwatalli II and the Egyptians under Ramesses II concluded the treaty of Kadesh, the world's oldest recorded peace treaty. The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established Muwatalli II ( m NIRGÁL) was a king of the New kingdom of the Hittite empire (ca Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now This article is about Kadesh in Syria see also Kadesh (South of Israel or Kedesh Kadesh (also Qadesh) was an ancient city of A peace treaty is an agreement between two hostile parties usually countries or governments that formally ends an armed conflict [2]
Empires came into being, with conquered areas ruled by central tribes, as in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th century BCE), the Achaemenid Persian Empire (6th century BCE), the Mauryan Empire (4th century BCE), Qin and Han China (3rd century BCE), and the Roman Empire (1st century BCE). An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that The Neo-Assyrian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 609 BC The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial
Clashes among empires included those that took place in the 8th century, when the Islamic Caliphate of Arabia (ruling from Spain to Iran) and China's Tang dynasty (ruling from Xinjiang to Korea) fought for decades for control of Central Asia. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south
The largest contiguous land empire in history was the 13th-century Mongolian Empire. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire By then, most people in Europe, Asia and North Africa belonged to states. There were states as well in Mexico and western South America. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a States controlled more and more of the world's territory and population; the last "empty" territories, with the exception of uninhabited Antarctica, would be divided up among states by the Berlin Conference (1884-1885). See also Congress of Berlin (1878 and Berlin Conference of 1954 (Cold War
City and trade
Agriculture also created, and allowed for the storage of, food surpluses that could support people not directly engaged in food production. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an The development of agriculture permitted the creation of the first cities. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status These were centers of trade, manufacture and political power with nearly no agricultural production of their own. Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. Manufacturing (from Latin manu factura, "making by hand" is the use of tools and labor to make things for use or sale Political power ( Imperium in Latin is a type of power held by a group in a Society which allows administration of some or all of Cities established a symbiosis with their surrounding countrysides, absorbing agricultural products and providing, in return, manufactures and varying degrees of military protection. This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek Rural areas can be large and isolated (also referred to as "the country" and/or "the countryside over the course of time
The development of cities equated, both etymologically and in fact, with the rise of civilization itself: first Sumerian civilization, in lower Mesopotamia (3500 BCE), followed by Egyptian civilization along the Nile (3300 BCE) and Harappan civilization in the Indus Valley (3300 BCE). Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd Elaborate cities grew up, with high levels of social and economic complexity. Each of these civilizations was so different from the others that they almost certainly originated independently. It was at this time, and due to the needs of cities, that writing and extensive trade were introduced. Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce.
The earliest known form of writing was cuneiform script, created by the Sumerians from ca. 3000 BC. Events c 3100 BC — Narmer (Menes unifies Upper and Lower Egypt into one country he rules this new country from Memphis Cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs. A pictogram ( also spelled pictogramme) or pictograph is a Symbol representing a Concept, object, activity place or event Over time, the pictorial representations became simplified and more abstract. Cuneiforms were written on clay tablets, on which symbols were drawn with a blunt reed for a stylus. Small tablets made out of clay were used from 5500 BC Tărtăria tablets and later from 4th millennium BC onwards as a writing medium in Sumerian The musical instrument is spelled Cymbal. A symbol is something --- such as an object, Picture, written word a sound a piece Phragmites australis, the common reed, is a large perennial grass found in Wetlands throughout temperate and tropical regions of the A stylus (plural styli or styluses) is a Writing utensil. The word is also used for a computer accessory ( PDAs) The first alphabets were used in the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1500 BCE). The Middle Bronze Age alphabets are two similar Undeciphered scripts dated to be from the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1500 BCE and believed to be ancestral The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for From them evolved the Phoenician alphabet, used for the writing of Phoenician. The Phoenician alphabet is a continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, by convention taken to originate around 1050 BC Phoenician was a language originally spoken in the coastal region then called Pūt in Ancient Egyptian Canaan in Phoenician, Hebrew, and The Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of many of the writing systems used today.
In China, proto-urban societies may have developed from 2500 BCE, but the first dynasty to be identified by archeology is the Shang Dynasty. The Shang Dynasty ( Chinese: 商[[wiktionary 朝|朝]] or Yin Dynasty ( 殷[[wiktionary 代|代]] was according to traditional sources the
The 2nd millennium BCE saw the emergence of civilization in Caanan, Crete, mainland Greece, and central Turkey. Canaanites redirects here For the 1940s social and political movement in Israel, see Canaanites (movement. Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches
In the Americas, civilizations such as the Maya, Zapotec, Moche, and Nazca emerged in Mesoamerica and Peru at the end of the 1st millennium BCE. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas The Zapotec civilization was an indigenous Pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca of southern Mesoamerica. The Moche civilization (alternately the Mochica culture Early Chimu Pre-Chimu Proto-Chimu etc The Nazca culture (often spelled Nasca) flourished in the Nazca region between 300 BC and 800 AD, concomitantly with the Moche culture Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America.
The world's first coinage was introduced around 625 BC in Lydia (western Anatolia, in modern Turkey). A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is Defining Lydia Aside from a legend related by Herodotus, who states that the name Lydia came from king Lydus at the time of the fall of Troy Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches [3]
Trade routes appeared in the eastern Mediterranean in the 4th millennium BCE. A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo Long-range trade routes first appeared in the 3rd millennium BCE, when Sumerians in Mesopotamia traded with the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd The Silk Road between China and Syria began in the 2nd millennium BCE. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Cities in Central Asia and Persia were major crossroads of these trade routes. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Phoenician and Greek civilizations founded trade-based empires in the Mediterranean basin in the 1st millennium BCE. Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements
In the late 1st millennium CE and early 2nd millennium CE, the Arabs dominated the trade routes in the Indian Ocean, East Asia, and the Sahara. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest In the late 1st millennium, Arabs and Jews dominated trade in the Mediterranean. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ In the early 2nd millennium, Italians took over this role, and Flemish and German cities were at the center of trade routes in northern Europe controlled by the Hanseatic League. The' Italian people' are a Southern European Ethnic group located primarily in Italy, Switzerland, France and by virtue of a wide-ranging Flanders (Vlaanderen Flandre Flandern is a geographical region located in parts of present day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Northern Europe is a term for the northern part of Europe. The United Nations defines Northern Europe as (Finland The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade In all areas, major cities developed at crossroads along trade routes. A crossroads (the word rarely appears in singular is a Road junction, where two or more Roads meet (there are three or more arms A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo
Religion and philosophy
New philosophies and religions arose in both east and west, particularly about the 6th century BCE. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The world's principal Religions and spiritual traditions may be classified into a small number of major groups or world religions'. Over time, a great variety of religions developed around the world, with some of the earliest major ones being Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism in India, and Zoroastrianism in Persia. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Abrahamic religions trace their origin to Judaism, around 1800 BCE. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut
In the east, three schools of thought were to dominate Chinese thinking until the modern day. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National These were Taoism, Legalism and Confucianism. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions In Chinese history, Legalism ( was one of the four main philosophic schools during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (the other Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B The Confucian tradition, which would attain dominance, looked for political morality not to the force of law but to the power and example of tradition. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings
In the west, the Greek philosophical tradition, represented by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, was diffused throughout Europe and the Middle East in the 4th century BCE by the conquests of Alexander III of Macedon, more commonly known as Alexander the Great. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ'
Civilizations and regions
By the last centuries BCE, the Mediterranean, the Ganges River and the Yellow River had become seats of empires which future rulers would seek to emulate. The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent The Yellow River or Huang He / Hwang Ho ( Hatan Gol Queen river) is the second-longest river in China (after the Yangtze River) and the An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that In India, the Mauryan Empire ruled most of southern Asia, while the Pandyas ruled southern India. This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation South India is the area encompassing India 's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union In China, the Qin and Han dynasties extended their imperial governance through political unity, improved communications and Emperor Wu's establishment of state monopolies. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Governance relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. Background birth and years as crown prince Emperor Wu was the tenth child of Emperor Jing, and was born to one of Emperor Jing's favorite Concubines, In Economics, government monopoly (or public monopoly) is a form of Coercive monopoly in which a Government agency is the sole provider of a
In the west, the ancient Greeks established a civilization that is considered by most historians to be the foundational culture of modern western civilization. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Some centuries later, in the 3rd century BCE, the Romans began expanding their territory through conquest and colonisation. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC By the reign of Emperor Augustus (late 1st century BCE), Rome controlled all the lands surrounding the Mediterranean. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was By the reign of Emperor Trajan (early 2nd century CE), Rome controlled much of the land from England to Mesopotamia. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding
The great empires depended on military annexation of territory and on the formation of defended settlements to become agricultural centres. An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking Annexation ( Latin ad, to and nexus, joining is the legal incorporation of some territory into another geo-political entity (either adjacent or non-contiguous The relative peace that the empires brought, encouraged international trade, most notably the massive trade routes in the Mediterranean that had been developed by the time of the Hellenistic Age, and the Silk Road. International trade is exchange of Capital, Goods, and Services across International borders or Territories. This article focuses on the historical aspects of the Hellenistic age for the cultural aspects see Hellenistic civilisation. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the
The empires faced common problems associated with maintaining huge armies and supporting a central bureaucracy. These costs fell most heavily on the peasantry, while land-owning magnates were increasingly able to evade centralised control and its costs. A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position The pressure of barbarians on the frontiers hastened the process of internal dissolution. "Barbarian" is a pejorative term for an uncivilized person either in a general reference to a member of a nation or Ethnos perceived China's Han Empire fell into civil war in 220 CE, while its Roman counterpart became increasingly decentralised and divided about the same time. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial
Throughout the temperate zones of Eurasia, America and North Africa, empires continued to rise and fall. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan
The gradual break-up of the Roman Empire, spanning several centuries after the 2nd century CE, coincided with the spread of Christianity westward from the Middle East. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The western Roman Empire fell under the domination of Germanic tribes in the 5th century, and these polities gradually developed into a number of warring states, all associated in one way or another with the Roman Catholic Church. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic Polity ( Greek: Πολιτεία or Πολίτευμα transliterated as Politeía or Políteuma) was originally a term used in Ancient Greece The remaining part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern Mediterranean, would henceforth be the Byzantine Empire. Centuries later, a limited unity would be restored to western Europe through the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire in 962, which comprised a number of states in what is now Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, Italy, and France. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in Events By Place Europe February 2 — Pope John XII crowns Otto I the Great Holy Roman Emperor. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics.
In China, dynasties would similarly rise and fall. A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations After the fall of the Eastern Han Dynasty and the demise of the Three Kingdoms, Nomadic tribes from the north began to invade in the 4th century CE, eventually conquering areas of Northern China and setting up many small kingdoms. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Three Kingdoms period ( is a period in the History of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that The Sui Dynasty reunified China in 581, and under the succeeding Tang Dynasty (618-907) China entered a second golden age. The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Events By Place Europe Tauric Chersonesus is besieged by the Gokturks. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Events By Place Asia The Sui Dynasty ends and the Tang Dynasty begins in China. Events By Place Asia Oleg leads the Kievan Rus' in a campaign against Constantinople (see Rus'-Byzantine The term Golden age is best known from Greek mythology and legend but can also be found in other ancient cultures (see below The Tang Dynasty also splintered, however, and after half a century of turmoil the Northern Song Dynasty reunified China in 982. Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907-960 was an era of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Events By Place Americas Greenland is discovered by Erik the Red (the first known European contact with North Yet pressure from nomadic empires to the north became increasingly urgent. North China was lost to the Jurchens in 1141, and the Mongol Empire conquered all of China in 1279, as well as almost all of Eurasia's landmass, missing only central and western Europe, and most of Southeast Asia and Japan. Northern China or North China ( literally "China's north" is a Geographical region of China. The Jurchens ( were a Tungus people who inhabited the region of Manchuria ( Northeast China) until the 17th century when they adopted the name Manchu The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics.
In these times, northern India was ruled by the Guptas. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C In southern India, three prominent Dravidian kingdoms emerged: Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. Dravidian peoples refers to the peoples that natively speak languages belonging to the Dravidian language family. History In early Tamil literature the great Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral Kuttuvan Irumporai Kollipurai and Athan Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation The ensuing stability contributed to heralding in the golden age of Hindu culture in the 4th and 5th centuries CE. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical
At this time also, in Central America, vast societies also began to be built, the most notable being the Maya and Aztecs of Mesoamerica. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined As the mother culture of the Olmecs gradually declined, the great Mayan city-states slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spread throughout Yucatán and surrounding areas. A mother culture is a term for an early people and their Culture, with great and widespread influence on later cultures and people The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. Yucatán is one of the 31 states of Mexico, located on the north of the Yucatán Peninsula. The later empire of the Aztecs was built on neighboring cultures and was influenced by conquered peoples such as the Toltecs. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political Toltec-style Vessel 1jpg|thumb|250px|right|A rather expressive orange-ware clay vessel in the Toltec style
In South America, the 14th and 15th centuries saw the rise of the Inca. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a The Inca Empire of Tawantinsuyu, with its capital at Cusco, spanned the entire Andes Mountain Range. The Inca Empire (or Inka Empire) was the largest empire in Pre-Columbian America. The Inca Empire (or Inka Empire) was the largest empire in Pre-Columbian America. ||} Cusco (also spelled Cuzco, and in the local Quechua language as Qusqu 'qos The Andes form the world's longest exposed Mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. A mountain range is a chain of Mountains bordered by highlands or separated from other mountains by passes or valleys The Inca were prosperous and advanced, known for an excellent road system and unrivaled masonry. Among the many roads and trails constructed in pre-Columbian South America, the Inca road system, or Qhapaq Ñan was the most extensive Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar, and the term "masonry" can also refer to the units themselves
Islam, which began in 7th century Arabia, was also one of the most remarkable forces in world history, growing from a handful of adherents to become the foundation of a series of empires in the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, India and present-day Indonesia. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia.
In northeastern Africa, Nubia and Ethiopia remained Christian enclaves while the rest of Africa north of the equator converted to Islam. This article is about the region in Africa for other uses see Nubia (disambiguation. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth The equator (sometimes referred to colloquially as "the Line") is the intersection of the Earth 's surface with the plane perpendicular to the For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. With Islam came new technologies that, for the first time, allowed substantial trade to cross the Sahara. The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest Taxes on this trade brought prosperity to North Africa, and the rise of a series of kingdoms in the Sahel. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Sahelian kingdoms were a series of kingdoms or empires that were centered on the Sahel, the area of grasslands south of the Sahara.
This period in the history of the world was marked by slow but steady technological advances, with important developments such as the stirrup and moldboard plow arriving every few centuries. For the bone see Stapes. For other uses of the word stirrup see Stirrup (disambiguation. The plough ( American spelling plow; both plaʊ is a Tool used in Farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed There were, however, in some regions, periods of rapid technological progress. Most important, perhaps, was the Mediterranean area during the Hellenistic period, when hundreds of technologies were invented. This article focuses on the historical aspects of the Hellenistic age for the cultural aspects see Hellenistic civilisation. Such periods were followed by periods of technological decay, as during the Roman Empire's decline and fall and the ensuing early medieval period. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Early Middle Ages is a period in the History of Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire spanning roughly five centuries from AD 500
The Plague of Justinian was a pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541–542 AD. The Plague of Justinian was a Pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541 – 542 A pandemic (from Greek παν pan all + δήμος demos people is an Epidemic of Infectious disease that spreads through Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 1 — Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius is appointed as Consul in Events By Place Byzantine Empire An outbreak of the plague kills at least 230000 in Constantinople (before they stopped It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100 million people across the world. [4][5] It caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between 541 and 700. Medieval Demography is the study of human Demography in Europe during the Middle Ages. [6] It also may have contributed to the success of the Arab conquests. The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab [7][8]
Rise of Europe
Background
Nearly all the agricultural civilizations were heavily constrained by their environments. See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and Productivity remained low, and climatic changes easily instigated boom and bust cycles that brought about civilizations' rise and fall. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of In Economics, the term boom and bust refers to the movement of an economy through Economic cycles. By about 1500, however, there was a qualitative change in world history. Technological advance and the wealth generated by trade gradually brought about a widening of possibilities. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Wealth derives from the old English word "weal" which means "well-being Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce.
Even before the 16th century, some civilizations had developed advanced societies. In ancient times, the Greeks and Romans had produced societies supported by a developed monetary economy, with financial markets and private-property rights. The archaic period in Greece ( 750 BC 480 BC) is a period of Ancient Greek history Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The monetary economy is that part of a society's Economic system where products and services are traded in exchange for money In Economics, a financial market is a mechanism that allows people to easily buy and sell ( Trade) financial Securities (such as stocks and bonds Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual These institutions created the conditions for continuous capital accumulation, with increased productivity. Most generally the accumulation of capital refers simply to the gathering or amassment of objects of value the increase in wealth or the creation of wealth Productivity in Economics refers to measures of output from production processes per unit of input By some estimates, the per-capita income of Roman Italy, one of the most advanced regions of the Roman Empire, was comparable to the per-capita incomes of the most advanced economies in the 18th century. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial (see [1]) The most developed regions of classical civilization were more urbanized than any other region of the world until early modern times. This civilization had, however, gradually declined and collapsed; historians still debate the causes.
China had developed an advanced monetary economy by 1,000 CE. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The monetary economy is that part of a society's Economic system where products and services are traded in exchange for money China had a free peasantry who were no longer subsistence farmers, and could sell their produce and actively participate in the market. A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground The agriculture was highly productive and China's society was highly urbanized. The country was technologically advanced as it enjoyed a monopoly in piston bellows and printing. A piston is a component of Reciprocating engines Pumps and Gas compressors It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by Piston Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press (see Joseph Needham). But, after earlier onslaughts by the Jurchens, in 1279 the remnants of the Sung empire were conquered by the Mongols. The Jurchens ( were a Tungus people who inhabited the region of Manchuria ( Northeast China) until the 17th century when they adopted the name Manchu The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that
Outwardly, Europe's Renaissance, beginning in the 14th century, consisted in the rediscovery of the classical world's scientific contributions, and in the economic and social rise of Europe. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area Definition In the absence of agreement about its meaning the term "social" is used in many different senses referring among other things to attitudes But the Renaissance also engendered a culture of inquisitiveness which ultimately led to Humanism, the Scientific Revolution, and finally the great transformation of the Industrial Revolution. Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century, however, had no immediate impact on technology; only in the second half of the 18th century did scientific advances begin to be applied to practical invention. The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt An invention is a new form composition of matter device or Process.
The advantages that Europe had developed by the mid-18th century were two: an entrepreneurial culture, and the wealth generated by the Atlantic trade (including the African slave trade). The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system An entrepreneur is a person who has possession over a company enterprise, or Venture, and assumes significant accountability for the inherent risks and the outcome This article discusses systems of slavery within Africa the history and effects of the slavery trade upon Africa By the late 16th century, American silver accounted for one-fifth of Spain's total budget. Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen [9] The profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution. The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting This is a history of the economy of the United Kingdom and of the countries that joined to form it in 1707 and 1801 The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the [10] While some historians conclude that, in 1750, labour productivity in the most developed regions of China was still on a par with that of Europe's Atlantic economy (see Wolfgang Keller and Carol Shiue), other historians like Angus Maddison hold that the per-capita productivity of western Europe had by the late Middle Ages surpassed that of all other regions. Productivity in Economics refers to measures of output from production processes per unit of input China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Angus Maddison, Emeritus Professor at the Faculty of Economics at the University of Groningen. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' [11]
A number of explanations are proffered as to why, from the late Middle Ages on, Europe rose to surpass other civilizations, become the home of the Industrial Revolution, and dominate the world. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Max Weber argued that it was due to a Protestant work ethic that encouraged Europeans to work harder and longer than others. Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (maks 'veːbɐ (21 April 1864 &ndash 14 June 1920 was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered The Protestant work ethic, sometimes called the Puritan work ethic, is a sociological theoretical concept Another socioeconomic explanation looks to demographics: Europe, with its celibate clergy, colonial emigration, high-mortality urban centers, periodic famines and outbreaks of the Black Death, continual warfare, and late age of marriage had far more restrained population growth, compared to Asian cultures. Medieval Demography is the study of human Demography in Europe during the Middle Ages. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. This is an incomplete list of major Famines ordered by date A complete list will almost certainly never become available The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia This is a listing of lists of Wars, sorted by country date region and type of conflict Population growth is the change in Population over time and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals in a population using "per unit time" for A relative shortage of labour meant that surpluses could be invested in labour-saving technological advances such as water-wheels and mills, spinners and looms, steam engines and shipping, rather than fueling population growth. A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial Building where workers manufacture goods Spinning is an ancient textile art in which plant, animal or synthetic Fibers are twisted together to form Yarn (or thread A loom is a Machine or device for Weaving thread or Yarn into Textiles Looms can range from very small hand-held frames to large free-standing A steam engine is a Heat engine that performs Mechanical work using Steam as its Working fluid. Shipping is physical process of Transporting goods and Cargo.
Many have also argued that Europe's institutions were superior, that property rights and free-market economics were stronger than elsewhere due to an ideal of freedom peculiar to Europe. Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual A free market is a Market in which property rights are voluntarily exchanged at a price arranged completely by the mutual consent of sellers and buyers Political freedom is the absence of interference with the sovereignty of an individual by the use of coercion or aggression In recent years, however, scholars such as Kenneth Pomeranz have challenged this view, although the revisionist approach to world history has also met with criticism for systematically "downplaying" European achievements. Kenneth Pomeranz (born 1958 is a professor in the history department at the University of California Irvine in the US. [12]
Europe's geography may also have played an important role. Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena The Middle East, India and China are all ringed by mountains but, once past these outer barriers, are relatively flat. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak By contrast, the Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, Carpathians and other mountain ranges run through Europe, and the continent is also divided by several seas. The Pyrenees (Pirineos French: Pyrénées; Catalan: Pirineus; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians (Carpaţi Czech, Polish and Slovak: Karpaty; Ukrainian: Карпати This article is about the body of water For other uses see SEA and Seas. This gave Europe some degree of protection from the peril of Central Asian invaders. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Before the era of firearms, these nomads were militarily superior to the agricultural states on the periphery of the Eurasian continent and, if they broke out into the plains of northern India or the valleys of China, were all but unstoppable. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. These invasions were often devastating. The Golden Age of Islam was ended by the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258. The Mongol Empire emerged in the course of the 13th century by a series of conquests and invasions throughout Central and Western Asia, reaching Eastern Europe Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous India and China were subject to periodic invasions, and Russia spent a couple of centuries under the Mongol-Tatar Yoke. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National An invasion is a military offensive consisting of all or large parts of the Armed forces of one geopolitical entity aggressively entering territory Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Mongol invasion of Europe from the east took place over the course of three centuries from the Middle Ages to the Early modern period Central and western Europe, logistically more distant from the Central Asian heartland, proved less vulnerable to these threats. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south
Geography also contributed to important geopolitical differences. Geopolitics is the study that analyzes Geography, History and Social science with reference to Spatial politics and patterns at various scales For most of their histories, China, India and the Middle East were each unified under a single dominant power that expanded until it reached the surrounding mountains and deserts. In 1600 the Ottoman Empire controlled almost all the Middle East, the Ming Dynasty ruled China, and the Mughal Empire held sway over India. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most By contrast, Europe was almost always divided into a number of warring states. Pan-European empires, with the major exception of the Roman Empire, tended to collapse soon after they arose. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial
One source of Europe's success is often said to be the intense competition among rival European states. Competition is a rivalry between individuals groups nations or animals for territory or resources In other regions, stability was often a higher priority than growth. Stability can refer to Aircraft flight Stability (aircraft In atmospheric fluid dynamics atmospheric stability, a measure of the turbulence China's growth as a maritime power was halted by the Ming Dynasty's Hai jin ban on ocean-going commerce. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Hai jin ( literally "ocean forbidden" was a ban on maritime activities during China 's Ming Dynasty and again during the Qing Dynasty. In Europe, due to political disunity, a blanket ban of this kind would have been impossible; had any one state imposed it, that state would quickly have fallen behind its competitors.
Another doubtless important geographic factor in the rise of Europe was the Mediterranean Sea, which, for millennia, had functioned as a maritime superhighway fostering the exchange of goods, people, ideas and inventions.
By contrast to Europe, in tropical lands the still more ubiquitous diseases and parasites, sapping the strength and health of humans, and of their animals and crops, were socially-disorganizing factors that impeded progress. The Tropics are centered on the Equator and limited in Latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately 23°26' (23 Tropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions This is a list of topics related to human Parasitic diseases See also the categories shown below
Mercantile dominance
In the fourteenth century, the Renaissance began in Europe. The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century during which Europeans explored The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Some modern scholars have questioned whether this flowering of art and Humanism was a benefit to science, but the era did see an important fusion of Arab and European knowledge. Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal One of the most important developments was the caravel, which combined the Arab lateen sail with European square rigging to create the first vessels that could safely sail the Atlantic Ocean. This article is about the Caravel boat type For the carvel type of boat building see Carvel (boat building. A lateen (from a la trina, meaning triangular or latin-rig is a triangular Sail set on a long yard mounted at an angle on the mast Square rig is a generic type of sail and rigging arrangement in which the primary driving sails are carried on horizontal Spars which are perpendicular or square Along with important developments in navigation, this technology allowed Christopher Columbus in 1492 to journey across the Atlantic Ocean and bridge the gap between Afro-Eurasia and the Americas. Navigation is the process of reading and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer Afro-Eurasia or less commonly Afrasia or Eurafrasia Normally it is divided at the Suez Canal into Eurasia and Africa the former of which can be subdivided The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America
This had dramatic effects on both continents. The Europeans brought with them viral diseases that American natives had never encountered, and uncertain numbers of natives died in a series of devastating epidemics. In Epidemiology, an epidemic (from Greek epi- upon + demos people is a classification of a disease that appears as new cases in a The Europeans also had the technological advantage of horses, steel and guns that helped them overpower the Aztec and Incan empires as well as North American cultures. The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 A gun is a particular Weapon that propels Projectiles The projectile is generally fired through a hollow tube known as the gun's barrel. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political The Inca Empire (or Inka Empire) was the largest empire in Pre-Columbian America.
Gold and resources from the Americas began to be stripped from the land and people and shipped to Europe, while at the same time large numbers of European colonists began to emigrate to the Americas. To meet the great demand for labour in the new colonies, the mass import of Africans as slaves began. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Soon much of the Americas had a large racial underclass of slaves. In West Africa, a series of thriving states developed along the coast, becoming prosperous from the exploitation of suffering interior African peoples. The Slave Coast is the name of the coastal areas of present Togo, Benin (formerly Dahomey) and western Nigeria, a fertile region of coastal
Europe's maritime expansion unsurprisingly — given that continent's geography — was largely the work of its Atlantic seaboard states: Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The Portuguese and Spanish Empires were at first the predominant conquerors and source of influence, but soon the more northern English, French and Dutch began to dominate the Atlantic. The Portuguese Empire was the earliest and longest lived of the modern European colonial empires spanning almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands In a series of wars, fought in the 17th and 18th centuries, culminating with the Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the first world power. As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions It accumulated an empire that spanned the globe, controlling, at its peak, approximately one-quarter of the world's land surface, on which the "sun never set". This article is about the history the use of this phrase For more general information see Empire, Imperialism and articles on the various historical entities
Meanwhile the voyages of Admiral Zheng He were halted by China's Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), established after the expulsion of the Mongols. Zheng He ( Birth name 馬三寶 / 马三宝; Arabic / Persian name حجّي محمود شمس Hajji Mahmud Shams) (1371&ndash1433 was a Hui The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led A Chinese commercial revolution, sometimes described as "incipient capitalism," was also abortive. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where The Ming Dynasty would eventually fall to the Manchus, whose Qing Dynasty at first oversaw a period of calm and prosperity but would increasingly fall prey to Western encroachment. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China
Soon after the invasion of the Americas, Europeans had exerted their technological advantage as well over the peoples of Asia. In the early 19th century, Britain gained control of the Indian subcontinent, Egypt and the Malay Peninsula; the French took Indochina; while the Dutch occupied the Dutch East Indies. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Peninsular Malaysia ( Semenanjung Malaysia) also known as Malaya or West Malaysia, is the part of Malaysia which lies on First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit See http//enwikipediaorg/wiki/WikipediaFootnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the tags and the template below The British also took over several areas still populated by Neolithic peoples, including Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, and, as in the Americas, large numbers of British colonists began to emigrate there. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa In the late 19th century, the European powers divided the remaining areas of Africa. The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa, was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New
This era in Europe saw the Age of Reason lead to the Scientific Revolution, which changed man's understanding of the world and made possible the Industrial Revolution, a major transformation of the world’s economies. 17th century philosophy in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of Modern philosophy, and a departure from the medieval approach The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and used new modes of production — the factory, mass production, and mechanisation — to manufacture a wide array of goods faster and for less labour than previously. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial Building where workers manufacture goods Mass production (also called flow production, repetitive flow production, series production, or serial production) is the production of Mechanization or mechanisation ( BE) is providing human operators with machinery to assist them with the physical requirements of work
The Age of Reason also led to the beginnings of modern democracy in the late-18th century American and French Revolutions. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Democracy would grow to have a profound effect on world events and on quality of life. Quality of life is the degree of well-being felt by an individual or group of people
During the Industrial Revolution, the world economy was soon based on coal, as new methods of transport, such as railways and steamships, effectively shrank the world. Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. A steamboat or steamship, sometimes called a steamer, is a ship in which the primary method of propulsion is steam power, typically driving a Propeller Meanwhile, industrial pollution and environmental damage, present since the discovery of fire and the beginning of civilization, accelerated drastically. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and
Twentieth Century onward
The 20th century opened with Europe at an apex of wealth and power, and with much of the world under its direct colonial control or its indirect domination. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on The 21st century is the current century of the Christian Era or Common Era in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Much of the rest of the world was influenced by heavily Europeanized nations: the United States and Japan. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. As the century unfolded, however, the global system dominated by rival powers was subjected to severe strains, and ultimately yielded to a more fluid structure of independent nations organized on Western models.
This transformation was catalyzed by wars of unparalleled scope and devastation. Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units World War I destroyed many of Europe's empires and monarchies, and weakened France and Britain. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 In its aftermath, powerful ideologies arose. The Russian Revolution of 1917 created the first communist state, while the 1920s and 1930s saw militaristic fascist dictatorships gain control in Italy, Germany, Spain, Japan and elsewhere. See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them Year 1917 ( MCMXVII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based The 1920s is sometimes referred to as the " Jazz Age " or the " Roaring Twenties " when speaking about the United States and Canada The 1930s were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression. Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics.
Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, helped precipitate World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The militaristic dictatorships of Europe and Japan pursued an ultimately doomed course of imperialist expansionism. Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or A dictatorship is usually defined as an autocratic Form of government in which the Government is ruled by a Dictator. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude In general expansionism consists of expansionist policies While some have linked the term to promoting Economic growth (in contrast to no growth / Sustainable policies Their defeat opened the way for the advance of communism into Central Europe, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, China, North Vietnam and North Korea. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and See also Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia ( Serbo-Croatian The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN or less commonly Vietnamese Democratic Republic (Việt Nam Dân Chủ Cộng Hòa was a Country on the northern half of Vietnam North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia,
Following World War II, in 1945, the United Nations was founded in the hope of allaying conflicts among nations and preventing future wars. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The war had, however, left two nations, the United States and the Soviet Union, with principal power to guide international affairs. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Each was suspicious of the other and feared a global spread of the other's political-economic model. This led to the Cold War, a forty-year stand-off between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the With the development of nuclear weapons and the subsequent arms race, all of humanity were put at risk of nuclear war between the two superpowers. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. The term arms race, in its original usage describes a competition between two or more parties for real or apparent military supremacy Such war being viewed as impractical, proxy wars were instead waged, at the expense of non-nuclear-armed Third World countries. A proxy war is the war that results when two powers use third parties as substitutes for fighting each other directly Third World is a name given to nations that are generally considered to be underdeveloped economically
The Cold War lasted through the ninth decade of the twentieth century, when the Soviet Union's communist system began to collapse, unable to compete economically with the United States and western Europe; the Soviets' Central European "satellites" reasserted their national sovereignty, and in 1991 the Soviet Union itself disintegrated. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Satellite state is a political term that refers to a country which is formally independent but under heavy influence or control by another country The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 This left the United States for the time being as the "sole remaining superpower," a status whose permanence came into question as that country's economic supremacy began to show signs of slippage.
In the early postwar decades, the African and Asian colonies of the Belgian, British, Dutch, French and other west European empires won their formal independence but faced challenges in the form of neocolonialism, poverty, illiteracy and endemic tropical diseases. Neocolonialism is a term used by post-colonial critics of Developed countries ' involvement in the developing world In Epidemiology, an Infection is said to be endemic (from Greek en- in or within + demos people in a Population when Tropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions Many of the Western and Central European nations gradually formed a political and economic community, the European Union, which subsequently expanded eastward to include former Soviet satellites. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in
The twentieth century saw exponential progress in science and technology, and increased life expectancy and standard of living for much of humanity. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Life expectancy is the average number of years of life remaining at a given age The standard of living refers to the quality and quantity of goods and services available to people and the way these goods and services are distributed within a population As the developed world shifted from a coal-based to a petroleum-based economy, new transport technologies, along with the dawn of the Information Age, led to increased globalization. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Information Age is a term that has been used to refer to the present era Globalization (or globalisation) in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional phenomena into global ones Space exploration reached throughout the solar system. History First orbital flights The first successful orbital launch was of the Soviet unmanned Sputnik The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. The structure of DNA, the very template of life, was discovered, and the human genome was sequenced, a major milestone in the understanding of human biology and the treatment of disease. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism The human genome is the Genome of Homo sapiens, which is stored on 23 chromosome pairs A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Global literacy rates continued to rise, and the percentage of the world's labor pool needed to produce humankind's food supply continued to drop. traditional definition of literacy is considered to be the ability to read and write or the ability to use Language to read, write, listen, Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture
The century saw the development of new global threats, such as nuclear proliferation, epidemics of contagious diseases, environmental problems such as the greenhouse effect and deforestation, and the dwindling of global resources. Nuclear proliferation is a term now used to describe the spread of Nuclear weapons, fissile material and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information to nations In Epidemiology, an epidemic (from Greek epi- upon + demos people is a classification of a disease that appears as new cases in a See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and The Greenhouse effect refers to the change in the Thermal equilibrium temperature of a planet or moon by the presence of an Atmosphere containing gas that absorbs Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified ( natural) form It witnessed, as well, a dawning awareness of ancient hazards that had probably previously caused mass extinctions of lifeforms on the planet, such as near-earth asteroids and comets, supervolcano eruptions, and gamma-ray bursts. An extinction event (also known as mass extinction; extinction-level event, ELE is a sharp decrease in the number of Species in a relatively short period Asteroids, sometimes called Minor planets or planetoids', are bodies—primarily of the inner Solar System —that are smaller than planets but A comet is a small Solar System body that orbits the Sun and when close enough to the Sun exhibits a visible coma (atmosphere or a tail — A supervolcano or super volcanic eruption is a Volcanic eruption which is Orders of magnitude greater than any volcano in historic times (generally accepted to be Gamma-ray bursts ( GRB s are the most luminous electromagnetic events occurring in the Universe since the Big Bang. Meanwhile the life courses of many states continued to be accompanied by wars, with resulting loss of life, economic devastation, disease, famine and genocide. As of 2008, some 30 ongoing armed conflicts raged in various parts of the world. This is a list of ongoing conflicts that are happening around the world which continue to result in violent deaths
As the 20th century yielded to the 21st, it became increasingly clear that Earth's human population was fast becoming lodged in a historic bottleneck of resource constraints, exacerbated by mounting population and growing environmental degradation. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on The 21st century is the current century of the Christian Era or Common Era in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. In Engineering, bottleneck is a phenomenon by which the performance or capacity of an entire system is severely limited by a single component Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified ( natural) form A matter of particular urgency was the development of more plentiful and safer sources of energy such as renewable energy varieties, and perhaps expanded use of nuclear energy and of "clean" fossil-fuel technologies. In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal Nuclear Energy is released by the splitting (fission or merging together (fusion of the nuclei of Atom (s Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. [13]
Notes
- ^ According to Encyclopedia Americana, 1986 ed. The Encyclopædia Americana is one of the largest general Encyclopedias in the English language. , vol. 29, p. 558, "Writing gives permanence to men's knowledge and enables them to communicate over great distances. . . . The complex society of a higher civilization would be impossible without the art of writing. "
- ^ Ramses/Hattusili Treaty.
- ^ The World's First Coin: The Lydian Lion
- ^ The History of the Bubonic Plague
- ^ Scientists Identify Genes Critical to Transmission of Bubonic Plague
- ^ An Empire's Epidemic
- ^ Justinian's Flea
- ^ The Great Arab Conquests
- ^ Conquest in the Americas
- ^ Was slavery the engine of economic growth?
- ^ Homepage of Angus Maddison
- ^ Ricardo Duchesne, "Asia First?", The Journal of the Historical Society, Vol. 6, Issue 1 (March 2006), pp. 69-91
- ^ The Biosphere (A Scientific American Book), passim. Scientific American is a Popular science magazine, published (first weekly and later monthly since August 28, 1845, making it Harrison Brown gives a particularly instructive example (p. 118) of a technological bottleneck that was broken in 18th-century England when three generations of the Abraham Darbys succeeded in developing coke as a substitute for depleted supplies of wood that had been used in the manufacture of iron. Abraham Darby is the name shared by three generations of an English Quaker family that was key to the development of the Industrial Revolution. Coke is a solid Carbonaceous material derived from Destructive distillation of low-ash low-sulfur Bituminous coal. Brown describes the linking of coal to iron as "second only to agriculture in its importance to man. " It resulted in a rapid expansion of the iron industry and led directly to the development of the steam engine, which gave man for the first time a means of concentrating enormous quantities of inanimate energy. A steam engine is a Heat engine that performs Mechanical work using Steam as its Working fluid. In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός This combination of developments in turn gave rise to the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the
References
- The Biosphere (a Scientific American book), San Francisco, W. The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. Scientific American is a Popular science magazine, published (first weekly and later monthly since August 28, 1845, making it H. Freeman & Co. , 1970, ISBN 0-7167-0945-7. This seminal book, originally a 1970 Scientific American magazine issue, covered virtually every major concern and concept that has since been debated regarding materials and energy resources, population trends and environmental degradation. Scientific American is a Popular science magazine, published (first weekly and later monthly since August 28, 1845, making it Materials are physical Substances used as inputs to production or Manufacturing. The use of energy has been a key in the development of the human society by helping it to control and adapt to the environment. In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as Air, Water and Soil; the destruction
- Jared Diamond (1996). TemplateInfobox writer --> Jared Mason Diamond (b 10 September, 1937) is an American Evolutionary biologist Guns, Germs, and Steel: the Fates of Human Societies. Guns Germs and Steel The Fates of Human Societies is a 1997 book by Jared Diamond, professor of Geography and Physiology at UCLA . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
- Fernand Braudel (1996). Fernand Braudel ( August 24 1902 &ndash November 27 1985) was the foremost French historian of the postwar era The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Berkeley, Calif. : University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20308-9.
- Fernand Braudel (1973). Fernand Braudel ( August 24 1902 &ndash November 27 1985) was the foremost French historian of the postwar era Capitalism and Material Life, 1400-1800. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-010454-6.
- Marshall Hodgson, Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam, and World History (Cambridge, 1993). Marshall Goodwin Simms Hodgson (1922–1968 was an Islamic Studies academic and a world historian at the University of Chicago.
- Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton, 2000). Kenneth Pomeranz (born 1958 is a professor in the history department at the University of California Irvine in the US.
- Clive Ponting, World History: a New Perspective (London, 2000). Clive Ponting (born 1947) is a British writer former academic and former senior civil servant.
- Ronald Wright, A Short History of Progress, Toronto, Anansi, 2004, ISBN 0-88784-706-4. Ronald Wright (born 1948, London, England) is a Canadian Author who has written books of travel history and fiction A Short History of Progress is a book-length essay penned by Ronald Wright and published in 2004
- Ankerl, Guy, Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western, Geneva: INUPRESS,2000, ISBN2-88155-004-5.
Further reading
'Rise of the West'
- David Landes, "The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor", New York, W. David S Landes (born New York 1924 is a Professor emeritus of Economics at Harvard University and retired professor of History at The Wealth and Poverty of Nations (ISBN 0-393-04017-8 published in 1998 (with an epilogue added to the 1999 paperback edition is a book by David Landes, currently W. Norton & Company (1999) ISBN 978-0393318883
- David Landes, "Why Europe and the West? Why Not China?," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20:2, 3, 2006. David S Landes (born New York 1924 is a Professor emeritus of Economics at Harvard University and retired professor of History at
- Ricardo Duchesne, "Asia First?", The Journal of the Historical Society, Vol. 6, Issue 1 (March 2006), pp.69-91 (PDF)
- William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1963. William Hardy McNeill (born October 31, 1917) is a noted world historian.
- Larry Gonick, The Cartoon History of the Universe, Volume One, Main Street Books, 1997, ISBN 978-0385265201, Volume Two, Main Street Books, 1994, ISBN 978-0385420938, Volume Three, W. Larry Gonick (born 1946 is a Cartoonist best known for The Cartoon History of the Universe, a history W. Norton, 2002, ISBN 978-0393324037.
See also
History topics
History by period
History by region
- History of Africa
- History of the Americas
- History of Antarctica
- History of Australia
- History of New Zealand
- History of the Pacific Islands
- History of Eurasia
External links
- Universal Concise History of the World, 1832 Full text, free to read, American book on the history of the world with the intriguing perspective of 1832 America. Medieval Demography is the study of human Demography in Europe during the Middle Ages. The technological singularity is a theoretical future point of unprecedented technological progress caused in part by the ability of machines to improve themselves using Artificial Development criticism refers to criticisms of modern Technology, Industrialization, Capitalism and economic Globalization. Names for archaeological periods vary enormously from region to region The categorization of Time into discrete named blocks is called Periodization. The history of Africa begins with the first emergence of Homo sapiens in East Africa, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of The history of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean. The history of North America is the study of the past, particularly the written record, oral histories, and traditions, passed down from generation This is the History of Central America is the study of the past, particularly the written record, oral histories, and traditions, passed The history of the Caribbean reveals the significant role the region played in the colonial struggles of the European powers since the Fifteenth century. The History of South America is the study of the past, particularly the written record, oral histories, and traditions, passed down from The history of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe The written history of Australia began when Dutch explorers first sighted the country in the 17th century The history of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship History of the Pacific Islands covers the History of the Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The history of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, The history of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day The history of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East History of religions Ancestor worship What we know today as the ancient Chinese culture were developed in the northern area of modern China See also Timeline of Middle Eastern history This article is a general overview of the history of the Middle East. The term South Asia usually refers to the political entities of the Sub- Himalayan region - namely Republic of India, Pakistan, The history of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign powers
- WWW-VL: World History at European University Institute
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