Somalia

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Islam in Somalia Somali language History of Somalia Cinema of Somalia Music of Somalia Somali literature Somali writers Cuisine of Somalia Economy of Somalia Military of Somalia Shax (board game) Somali National Anthem Currency of Somalia Public holidays

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Somalia (Somali: Soomaaliya; Arabic: الصومال‎ transliteration: aṣ-Ṣūmāl), officially the Somali Republic (Somali: Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, Arabic: جمهورية الصومال‎ transliteration: Jumhūriyyat aṣ-Ṣūmāl) and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known Islam and poetry have been described as the twin pillars of Somali culture Nearly all Somalis are Sunni Muslims Practicing Islam reinforces distinctions that further set Somalis apart from their immediate African neighbors many of whom are either Christians Somali ( Af Soomaali, الصوماليه is a member of the East Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family spoken by ethnic Somalis Storytelling is an ancient custom in Somali culture. Love of cinema in Somalia is but a modern visual incarnation and continuation of this well-established oral tradition Somalia has the distinction of being one of only a handful of countries in Africa that are composed almost entirely of one ethnic group the Somalis Somalia produced a large amount of literature through Islamic Poetry and Hadith from Somali scholars of the last centuries to modern Fiction The Cuisine of Somalia varies from region to region and consists of an exotic mixture of native Somali, Ethiopian Yemeni Persian Somalia has a free market economy Somalia has meager natural resources (or untapped resources such as Oil) and recent economic reverses has left its people increasingly dependent History Historically Somali society accorded prestige to the warrior (waranle and rewarded military prowess Shax (known as Jar or Mororova in some areas is a Board game played in the Horn of Africa (especially in Somalia) " Somalia Wake Up " or " Soomaaliyeey toosoo " is the National anthem of Somalia and was adopted by the Transitional Federal Government The shilling ( English) shilin ( Somali, also شلن or scellino ( Italian) has been the Currency of Somalia The Holidays in Somalia:Somalia uses two calendar systems the Gregorian calendar primarily but the Islamic calendar for religious holidays Somali ( Af Soomaali, الصوماليه is a member of the East Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family spoken by ethnic Somalis Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Different approaches and methods for the Romanization of Arabic exist Somali ( Af Soomaali, الصوماليه is a member of the East Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family spoken by ethnic Somalis Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Different approaches and methods for the Romanization of Arabic exist The Horn of Africa (alternatively Northeast Africa, and sometimes Somali Peninsula; shortened to HOA) is a Peninsula in East Africa It is bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya on its southwest, the Gulf of Aden with Yemen on its north, the Indian Ocean at its east, and Ethiopia to the west. Djibouti ( جيبوتي Jībūtī, Somali: Jabuuti) officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south The Gulf of Aden (خليج عدن transliterated: Khalyj 'Adan Somali: Khaleejka Cadan) is located in the Arabian Sea between Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page

This article describes its overall history. See Somalia for details of the country as it is today. Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known

Ancient History

Map of Somalia according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

Greek merchants and explorers in the Erythraean (Red) Sea referred to Somalia as two regions, the Berber Coast (the Red Sea Coast of Somalia) and Azania, which actually included the coasts of modern Kenya and Tanzania as well as the Somali East Coast. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ( Periplus Maris Erythraei) is a Greek Periplus, describing navigation and trading opportunities Traders made the journey to Somalia in order to purchase Myrrh and Frankincense, both highly valuable commodities as they were required for many religious ceremonies and in perfumes, in great demand throughout the Roman Empire, Asia, India and China.

Zheng He & Ibn Battuta

Between the 13th and 14th centuries, Somalia was visited by two famous Muslim explorers, Ibn Battuta and Zheng He. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February Zheng He ( Birth name 馬三寶 / 马三宝; Arabic / Persian name حجّي محمود شمس Hajji Mahmud Shams) (1371&ndash1433 was a Hui During his visit to Mogadishu in 1331, Ibn Battuta had this to say about the city and its people:

It is a town endless in its size. Its people have many camels, of which they slaughter hundreds every day, and they have many sheep. Its people are powerful merchants. In it are manufactured the clothes named after the city, which have no rival, and which are transported as far as Egypt and elsewhere.

On his fifth voyage (1417-19), Zheng He visited several city states on the Somali coast including Mogadishu. Zheng He ( Birth name 馬三寶 / 马三宝; Arabic / Persian name حجّي محمود شمس Hajji Mahmud Shams) (1371&ndash1433 was a Hui Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known

The rise of Marehan Sultanates and Dynasty of Adal & the Ethiopian Empire war

Muslim Somalia enjoyed friendly relations with neighboring Christian Ethiopia for centuries. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Despite jihad raging everywhere else in the Muslim world, Muhammad had issued a hadith proscribing Muslims from attacking Ethiopia (so long as Ethiopia was not the aggressor), as it had sheltered some of Islam's first converts from persecution in modern-day Saudi Arabia. Jihad (جهاد ʤɪhæːd an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Parts of northwestern Somalia came under the rule of the Solomonic Ethiopian Kingdom in medieval times, especially during the reign of Amda Seyon I (r. The Solomonic dynasty is the traditional royal house of Ethiopia, claiming descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, who is said Amda Seyon (also Amde Tsiyon and other variants Ge'ez ዐምደ ፡ ጽዮን ʿamda ṣiyōn, Amharic āmde ṣiyōn, "Pillar 1314-1344). In 1403 or 1415 (under Emperor Dawit I or Emperor Yeshaq I, respectively) measures were taken against the Muslim Sultanate of Adal (located in present-day northwestern Somalia, southern Djibouti, and the Somali, Oromia, and Afar regions of Ethiopia, centered around first Zeila then Harar, and populated by both Somalis and Afars), a tributary kingdom that revolted and whose raids were disrupting rule in adjacent areas. Dawit I ( Ge'ez ዳዊት dāwīt, "David" was {{IPA|nəgusä nägäst}} ( 1382 - 6 October 1413) of Yeshaq I or Isaac ( Ge'ez ይሥሓቅ yisḥāḳ, Amh yishāḳ; throne name Gabra Masqal II ገብረ መስቀል The Adal Sultanate ( Somali: Adaal, Ge'ez: አዳል ʾAdāl, Arabic: عدل (c Djibouti ( جيبوتي Jībūtī, Somali: Jabuuti) officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Somali ( Gobolka Soomaalida) is the eastern-most of the nine ethnic divisions ( kililoch) of Ethiopia. Oromia (sometimes spelled Oromiya and spelled Oromiyaa in the Oromo language) is one of the nine ethnic divisions ( kililoch) of Afar is one of the nine ethnic divisions ( Kililoch) of Ethiopia, and is the homeland of the Afar people. Zeila ( Saylac) is a port city on the Gulf of Aden coast and is located in the Awdal region of Somalia near the Djibouti border Harar (var Harrar, Hārer, Harer; Adari) is an eastern city in Ethiopia, and the capital of the modern Harari Somalis ( Soomaaliyeed, الصوماليون are an ethnic group located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali Peninsula. Afar (Afar alphabet Qafár Feera ዐፋር ʿāfār, عفار Amh His campaign was eventually successful, but took much longer than other campaigns at the time due to the tendency of Adal warriors to disappear into the countryside after fighting. In 1403 (or 1415), the Emperor eventually captured King Sa'ad ad-Din II in Zeila and had him executed, with the Walashma ruling family exiled to Yemen. Sa'ad ad-Din II (ruled circa 1400) was a Sultan of Ifat, and the brother of Haqq ad-Din II. Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya The Walashma Chronicle, however, records the date as 1415, which would make the Ethiopian victor Emperor Yeshaq I. After the war, the reigning king had his minstrels compose a song praising his victory, which contains the first written record of the word "Somali". Somalis ( Soomaaliyeed, الصوماليون are an ethnic group located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali Peninsula.

Ahmed Gurey monument in Mogadishu. Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (c 1506 - February 21, 1543) ("the Conqueror" was an Imam and General of Adal Mogadishu ( Somali: Muqdisho, popularly Xamar, Hamar; مقديشو Maqadīshū

The area remained under Ethiopian control for another century or so. However, starting around 1527 under the charismatic leadership of Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (Gurey in Somali, Gragn in Amharic, both meaning "left-handed), Adal revolted and invaded Ethiopia. Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (c 1506 - February 21, 1543) ("the Conqueror" was an Imam and General of Adal Somali ( Af Soomaali, الصوماليه is a member of the East Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family spoken by ethnic Somalis Amharic (አማርኛ amarəñña) is a Semitic language spoken in North Central Ethiopia by the Amhara. Regrouped Muslim armies with Ottoman support and arms marched into Ethiopia employing scorched earth tactics and slaughtered any Ethiopian who refused to convert from Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity to Islam. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (in transliterated Amharic: Yäityop'ya ortodoks täwahedo bétäkrestyan) is an Oriental

^[1] Moreover, hundreds of churches were destroyed during the invasion, and an estimated 80% of the manuscripts in the country were destroyed in the process. Adal's use of firearms, still only rarely used in Ethiopia, allowed the conquest of well over half of Ethiopia, reaching as far north as Tigray. The complete conquest of Ethiopia was averted by the timely arrival of a Portuguese expedition led by Cristovão da Gama, son of the famed navigator Vasco da Gama. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Dom Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira ('vaʃku dɐ 'gɐmɐ ( Sines or Vidigueira, Alentejo, Portugal, ca The Portuguese had been in the area earlier in early 16th centuries (in search of the legendary priest-king Prester John), and although a diplomatic mission from Portugal, led by Rodrigo de Lima, had failed to improve relations between the countries, they responded to the Ethiopian pleas for help and sent a military expedition to their fellow Christians. The legends of Prester John (also Presbyter John) popular in Europe from the 12th through the 17th centuries told of a Christian Patriarch A Portuguese fleet under the command of Estêvão da Gama was sent from India and arrived at Massawa in February 1541. Estêvão Da Gama can mean two different men Estêvão da Gama, father of Vasco da Gama. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Massawa, formerly known as Mitsiwa ( Ge'ez ምጽዋ miṣṣiwa, Arabic مصوع maṣṣawaʿ Here he received an ambassador from the Emperor beseeching him to send help against the Muslims, and in July following a force of 400 musketeers, under the command of Christovão da Gama, younger brother of the admiral, marched into the interior, and being joined by Ethiopian troops they were at first successful against the Muslims but they were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Wofla (28 August 1542), and their commander captured and executed. A musketeer (mousquetaire was an early modern type of Infantry Soldier equipped with a Musket. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Battle of Wofla was fought on August 28, 1542 near Lake Ashenge in Wofla (or Ofla in the modern Ethiopian Region of On February 21, 1543, however, a joint Portuguese-Ethiopian force defeated the Muslim army at the Battle of Wayna Daga, in which Ahmed Gurey was killed and the war won. Events 362 - Athanasius returns to Alexandria. 1245 - Thomas, the first known Bishop of Finland The Battle of Wayna Daga (Amharic for "Grape-cultivating altitude" occurred 21 February 1543 east of Lake Tana.

Ahmed Gurey's widow married his nephew Nur ibn Mujahid, who belonged to the Marehan clan, in return for his promise to avenge Ahmed's death, who succeeded Ahmed Gurey, and continued hostilities against his northern adversaries until he killed the Ethiopian Emperor in his second invasion of Ethiopia, Emir Nur died in 1567; the Ethiopians sacked Zeila in 1660. Nur ibn Mujahid ibn ‘Ali ibn ‘Abdullah al Dhuhi Suha (literally "the morning star" died 1567 was Emir of Harar in the 16th century The Portuguese, meanwhile, tried to conquer Mogadishu but according to Duarta Barbosa never succeeded in taking it. The sultanate of Adal disintegrated into small independent states, many of which were ruled by Somali chiefs. The Adal Sultanate ( Somali: Adaal, Ge'ez: አዳል ʾAdāl, Arabic: عدل (c Zeila became a dependency of Yemen, and was then incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish

Ajuuraan Dynasty

Market in Mogadishu around 1882.

On the other side of East Africa in the 14th century, the Ajuuran dynasty formed a centralized state in the lower Shabeelle valley, ruling over a territory that stretched as far inland as modern Qalafo and towards the coast almost to Mogadishu. See also Somali clan The Ajuran (also Ajuuraan or Ujuuraan) is a Somali clan. The Shebelle Valley or Shabeelle Valley is a Valley in the Horn of Africa. Said S. Samatar, writing with David Laitin, notes that the Ajuuran sultanate "represents one of the rare occasions in Somali history when a pastoral state achieved large-scale centralization", and notes that it grew larger and more powerful than coastal city-states of Mogadishu, Merka and Baraawe combined. Said Sheikh Samatar is professor of African history at Rutgers University, Newark New Jersey. Merca ( Somali Marka) is a port city in southern Somalia on the Indian Ocean. Barawa or Brava ( Baraawe, المدينة ﺑﺮﺍﻭﻱ is a Port town in the south eastern coast of Somalia. ^[2]

Hobyo, the ancient port of Somalia was the commercial centre of the Ajuuraan Sultanate, all the commercial goods grown or harvested along the Shabelle river were brought to Hobyo to trade, as Hobyo remained the active mercantile pitstop of ancient times. Hobyo (also spelled Obbia and Hobyaa) is an ancient harbor city in the Mudug region of Somalia. The Ajuuraan rulers collected their tribute from the town in the form of sorghum (durra), making the port of Hobyo incredibly profitable for the Ajuuraan sultans.

Trade between Hobyo and the Banaadir coast flourished for some time. So vital was Hobyo to the prosperity of the Ajuuraan Sultanate, that when local sheikhs successfully revolted against the Ajuuraan Sultan and established an independent Imamate of the Hiraab, the power of the Ajuuraan sultans crumbled within a century.

Due to Portuguese predations, internal discord, and encroaching nomads from the north, the Ajuuran sultanate disintegrated at the end of the 17th century. According to Said Samatar, almost a full century passed before a successor state emerged: the Geledi Sultanate, which was based in the town of Afgooye and ruled over the lower Shabeelle region. Afgooye is a Somali town located in Shabeellaha Hoose region Afgooye is 30 kilometres from Mogadishu. Meanwhile, the Sultanate of Oman of south Arabia ousted the Portuguese from the Benaadir coast, and ruled the Benaadir coast with what Samatar describes as a "light hand" until the European Scramble for Africa in the 1880s. Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman ( Arabic: سلطنة عُمان) is an Arab Country in Southwest Asia on the southeast The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa, was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New "As long as the Somali cities paid their yearly tribute (which was by no means extortionate), flew the Omani flag, and accepted Omani overlordship, the Omanis allowed the Somalis to run their internal affairs. The role of the Omani governors in Mogadishu, Merca, and Baraawe was largely a ceremonial one. However, when Omani authority was challenged, the Omanis could be severe. "^[3]

In the 17th century, Somalia fell under the sway of the rapidly expanding Ottoman Empire, who exercised control through hand picked local Somali governors. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish In 1728 the Ottomans evicted the last Portuguese occupation and claimed sovereignty over the whole Horn of Africa. However, their actual exercise of control was fairly modest, as they demanded only a token annual tribute and appointed an Ottoman judge to act as a kind of Supreme Court for interpretations of Islamic law. A supreme court, also called a court of last resort or high court, is in some Jurisdictions the highest judicial body within that jurisdiction's By the 1850s Ottoman power was in decline.

Kingdom of Majeerteenia

Farther east on the Bari coast, two kingdoms emerged that would play a significant political role on the Somali Peninsula prior to colonization. These were the Majeerteen Sultanate of Boqor(king) Osman Mahamuud, and that of his kinsman Sultan Yuusuf Ali Keenadiid of Hobyo (Obbia). The Majeerteen Sultanate originated in the mid eighteenth century, but only came into its own in the nineteenth century with the reign of the resourceful Boqor Osman. Boqor Osman Mahamuud's kingdom benefited from British subsidies (for protecting the British naval crews that were shipwrecked periodically on the Somali coast) and from a liberal trade policy that facilitated a flourishing commerce in livestock, ostrich feathers, and gum arabic. While acknowledging a vague vassalage to the British, the Sultan kept his kingdom free until well after the 1900s.

Boqor Ismaan Mahamuud's sultanate was nearly destroyed in the middle of the nineteenth century by a power struggle between him and his young, ambitious cousin, Keenadiid. Nearly five years of destructive civil war passed before Boqor Ismaan Mahamuud managed to stave off the challenge of the young upstart, who was finally driven into exile in Arabia. A decade later, in the 1870s, Keenadiid returned from Arabia with a score of Hadhrami musketeers and a band of devoted lieutenants. With their help, he carved out the small kingdom of Hobyo after conquering the local clans.

The Boqors descendants live on in the Washington DC metropolitan area. They have altered their surnames to "Samantar" instead of "Samatar".

Warsangeli Sultanate or Sultanate of Northern Somalia

The Warsangeli Sultanate was an imperial power centered around the borders of the North East of British Somaliland and some parts of South East of Italian Somaliland. It was one of the largest Sultanates of all times in Somalia, and, at the height of its power, it included the Sanaag region, parts of North East of Bari region. It was established by a tribe of Warsangeli in North of Somalia and ruled by the descendants of the Gerad Dhidhin.

The Sultan (also known as the Gerad in some parts of Somalia) was the sole regent and government of the Sultanate, at least officially. The dynasty is most often called the Gerad or the House of North East Somaliland Sultan. The sultan enjoyed many titles such as Sovereign of the House of North East of Somaliland Sultanate, Sultan of Sultans of Somaliland. Note that the first rulers never called themselves sultans. The sultan title was established by Sultan Mohamud Ali Shire in 1897.

Sultans

• Gerad Dhidhin (1298–1311)
• Gerad Hamar Gale(1311–1328)
• Gerad Ibrahim (1328–1340)
• Gerad Omer (1340–1355)
• Gerad Mohamud (1355–1375)
• Gerad Ciise (1375–1392)
• Gerad Siciid (1392–1409)
• Gerad Ahmed (1409–1430)
• Gerad Siciid (1430–1450)
• Gerad Mohamud (1450–1479)
• Gerad Ciise (1479–1491)
• Gerad Ali dable (1491–1503)
• Gerad Liban (1503–1525)
• Garad Yuusuf (1525–1555)
• Garad Mohamud (1555–1585)
• Garad Abdale (1585–1612)
• Garad Ali (1612–1655)
• Gerad Mohamud (1655–1675)
• Garad Naleye (1675–1705)
• Garad Mohamed (1705–1750)
• Gerad Ali (1750–1789)
• Gerad Mohamud Ali (1789–1830)
• Gerad Aul (1830-1870)
• Gerad Ali Shire (1870–1897)
• Sultan Mohamud Ali Shire (1897–1960)
• Sultan Abdul Sallam (1960–1997)
• Sultan Saeed Bin Abdulsalam ( 1997 - present )

Scramble for Africa

Starting in 1875 the age of imperialism in Europe transformed Somalia. Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude Britain, France, and Italy all made territorial claims on the peninsula. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom Britain already controlled the port city of Aden in Yemen, just across the Red Sea, and wanted to control its counterpart, Berbera, on the Somali side. Aden (ˈeɪdən Arabic: عدن) is a city in Yemen, 170 kilometers east of Bab-el-Mandeb. Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. History The city was first described in the eighth chapter of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written by a Greek merchant in the first century CE The Red Sea was a crucial shipping lane to British colonies in India, and they wanted to secure these "gatekeeper" ports at all costs. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country

The French were interested in coal deposits further inland and wanted to disrupt British ambitions to construct a north-south transcontinental railroad along Africa's east coast, by blocking an important section.

Italy had just recently been reunited and was an inexperienced colonialist. Italian Unification ( Italian: il Risorgimento, or "The Resurgence" was the political and social movement that unified different states of the Italian They were happy to grab up any African land they didn't have to fight other Europeans for. They took control of the southern part of Somalia, which would become the largest European claim in the country, but the least strategically significant.

In 1884 Egypt, which had declared independence from the waning Ottoman Empire, had ambitions of restoring its ancient power, and set its sights on East Africa. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. However, the Sudanese resisted Egypt's advance and the Mahdist revolution of 1885 ejected the Egyptians from Sudan and shattered Egypt's hope of a neo-Egyptian empire. Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. The Mahdist War was a Colonial war of the late 19th century It was fought between the Mahdist Sudanese and the Egyptian and later British Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. The few advance troops that had made it to Somalia had to be rescued by the British and escorted back to their own side of the fence.

Thereafter, the biggest threat to European colonial ambitions in Somalia came from Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II who had successfully avoided having his own country occupied, and was planning to invade Somalia again. Emperor Menelik II GCB, GCMG, ( Ge'ez ምኒልክ baptized as Sahle Maryam ( August 17, 1844 &ndash December 12 By 1900 he had seized the Ogaden region in western Somalia, which was reconquered by the so-called "Mad Mullah" during the Dervish colonial resistance war[2] and then ceded to Ethiopia by Britain in 1945. Ogaden (pronounced and often spelled Ogadēn ]] is the international name of the Somali Regional State in Ethiopia. Sayyīd Muhammad `Abd Allāh al-Hasan ( Sayid Maxamed Cabdille Xasan or Sayyid Mahammad Abdille Hasan, محمّد NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Even today, long after all the Europeans had given up on their relatively valuable colonial possessions, Ogaden, the most barren of Somali provinces, is still frequently fought over by the two bordering nations.

Dervish resistance

The First Somali Capital

Somali resistance to foreign powers began in 1899 under the leadership of religious scholar Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, Ogaden sub-lineage of the Darod tribe and his mother was Dulbahante sub-lineage of the Darod tribe. Scholarly method &mdash or as it is more commonly called scholarship &mdash is the body of principles and practices used by scholars to make their claims about the world as Sayyīd Muhammad `Abd Allāh al-Hasan ( Sayid Maxamed Cabdille Xasan or Sayyid Mahammad Abdille Hasan, محمّد See also Somali clan The Ogaden ( Ogaadeen, أوجادين is one of the Somali clans and the largest Darod subclan See also Somali clan The Darod ( Darood or Daarood, بني داوود is a Somali clan. See also Somali clan The Dhulbahante is a Somali sub clan of the Harti part of the Koombe and of Kablalax, of the See also Somali clan The Darod ( Darood or Daarood, بني داوود is a Somali clan. Their primary targets were their traditional enemies the Ethiopians, and the British who controlled the most lucrative ports and were squeezing tax money from farmers who had to use the ports to ship their livestock to customers in the Middle East and India. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Hasan was a brilliant orator and poet with a very strong following of Islamic fundamentalist dervishes all of which came from the Dulbahante tribe, these relentless and well organized warriors were Hasan's maternal relatives. Fundamentalism refers to a "deep and totalistic commitment" to a belief in and strict adherence to a set of basic principles (often Religious in nature a reaction Darvesh or Dervish ( Arabic and Persian: درویش) as it is known in European languages refers to members of Sufi They waged a bloody guerrilla war. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc This war lasted over two decades until the British Royal Air Force, having honed their skills in World War I, led a devastating bombing campaign against dervish strongholds in 1920, which caused Hasan to flee (he died of pneumonia soon after). World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The dervish struggle was one of the longest and bloodiest anti-Imperial resistance wars in sub-Saharan Africa, and cost the lives of nearly a third of northern Somalia's population: the Dulbahante lost half of their population during this era and there were heavy casualties on the Ethiopian and British sides as well. Sub-Saharan Africa is a geographical term used to describe the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara, or those African countries This was mainly due to the Dulbahante's refusal to sign the Protectorate Treaty and submit to British colonial rule. The Isaaq, the Issa, the Warsangali as well as the Gadabuursi signed the treaty with the British without any loss of life. See also Somali clan The Isaaq (also Isaq, Ishaak) ( Reer Sheikh Isaxaaq, اسحاق is one of the main Somali clans The See also Somali clan The Issa ( Somali Ciise) are a Somali clan, a sub-clan of the Dir. The Warsangali (also Warsengeli or Warsingeli) ("Son of Mohamoud Harti" is a Somali clan of the Harti group part of the Darod See also Somali clan The Gadabursi is a northern Somali clan, a sub-clan of the Dir. The Dulbahante viewed themselves as the sole protector of greater Somalia, and resented the signatory tribes. After the long Anglo-dervish wars the British colonial leaders did not trust the Somalis; therefore, immediately after the Isaaq, the Issa, the Warsangali, and the Gadabuursi signed the treaty, they invoked article 7 of the treaty, sub-section 3(a)(j)(k) of which allowed the British Colonial Authority to enforce segregation rule and a head tax. The Warsangali (also Warsengeli or Warsingeli) ("Son of Mohamoud Harti" is a Somali clan of the Harti group part of the Darod It also subjected the children of the tribes that signed the treaty to CCTP (Children under Colonial Power under sub-section 3k). CCTP dictated separating a percentage of the children from their mothers for special education, although the actual intent was to instill fear into the treaty members to enforce law and order. This caused some of the aforementioned tribal leaders to regret signing the treaty and wish they had resisted as the Dulbahante had done. . As a matter of fact, Protection treaties served only major tribes. Dhulbahante were not considered as a significant clan. Clans that did not sign treaty were also Ayoup and Arap, two clans of Somaliland. See also Somali clan Ayoup or Ayuub is one of the subclans of the Somali Isaaq family Arap may refer to Larisa Arap; for the town in Azerbaijan see Arab Masally. Protection treaties also differed in their Provisions. British Treaty with Warsangeli was totally different than the other. The Warsangali (also Warsengeli or Warsingeli) ("Son of Mohamoud Harti" is a Somali clan of the Harti group part of the Darod In it, Warsangeli was granted full control of their territory besides the recognition of their sultanate, which had been in existence for the last six hundred years.

While the British were bogged down by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan (known to the British as 'The Mad Mullah'), the French made little use of their Somali holdings, content that as long as the British were stymied, their job was done. Sayyīd Muhammad `Abd Allāh al-Hasan ( Sayid Maxamed Cabdille Xasan or Sayyid Mahammad Abdille Hasan, محمّد This attitude may have contributed to why they were more or less left alone by the Dervishes. Darvesh or Dervish ( Arabic and Persian: درویش) as it is known in European languages refers to members of Sufi The Italians, though, were intent on larger projects and established an actual colony to which a significant number of Italian civilians migrated and invested in major agricultural development. By this time Mussolini was in power in Italy. He wanted to improve the world's respect for Italy by expert economic management of Italy's new colonies, upstaging the British and their various embarrassing problems with the Somalis. Somalis ( Soomaaliyeed, الصوماليون are an ethnic group located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali Peninsula.

Due to the constant fighting the British were afraid to invest in any expensive infrastructure projects that might easily be destroyed by guerillas. Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids As a result, when the country was eventually reunited in the 1960s, the north, which had been under British control, lagged far behind the south in terms of economic development, and came to be dominated by the South. The bitterness from this state of affairs would be one of the sparks for the future civil war.

Italian campaigns

Downtown Mogadishu in 1936. Arba Rucun mosque to the center right. A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger

The dawn of fascism in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of La Grande Somalia according to the plan of fascist Italy. With the arrival of Governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi on 15 December 1923 things began to change for that part of Somaliland. Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Italy had access to these parts under the successive protection treaties, but not direct rule. The fascist government had direct rule only over the Benaadir territory.

Given the defeat of the Dervish movement in the early 1920s and the rise of fascism in Europe, on 10 July 1925 Benito Mussolini gave the green light to De Vecchi to start the takeover of the north-eastern sultanates. Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. Year 1925 ( MCMXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Everything was to be changed and the treaties abrogated.

The real principles of colonialism meant possession and domination of the people, and the protection of the country from other greedy powers. Italy's interpretation of the treaties of protection with the north-eastern sultanates was comparable to her view of the Treaty of Wuchale with Ethiopia, and meant absolute control of the whole territory. Treaty of Wuchale (or Treaty of Ucciale; in Italian Trattato di Uccialli) was a treaty signed by King Menelik II of Shewa, later the Emperor NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Never mind that the subsequent tension between Ethiopia and Italy had culminated in 1896 in the battle of Adwa in which the Italians were overwhelmed and defeated. The Battle of Adwa (also known as Adowa or sometimes by the Italian name Adua) was fought on 1 March, 1896 between Ethiopia

Governor De Vecchi's first plan was to disarm the sultanates. But before the plan could be carried out there should be sufficient Italian troops in both sultanates. To make the enforcement of his plan more viable, he began to reconstitute the old Somali police corps, the Corpo Zaptié, as a colonial force.

In preparation for the plan of invasion of the sultanates, the Alula Commissioner, E. Coronaro received orders in April 1924 to carry out a reconnaissance on the territories targeted for invasion. In spite of the forty year Italian relationship with the sultanates, Italy did not have adequate knowledge of the geography. During this time, the Stefanini-Puccioni geological survey was scheduled to take place, so it was a good opportunity for the expedition of Coronaro to join with this.

Coron­aro's survey concluded that the Majeerteen Sultanate depended on sea traffic, therefore, if this were blocked any resistance which could be mounted came after the invasion of the sultanate would be minimal. As the first stage of the invasion plan Governor De Vecchi ordered the two Sultanates to disarm. The reaction of both sultanates was to object, as they felt the policy was in breach of the protectorate agreements. In International law, a protectorate is a autonomous territory that is "protected" by a stronger state or entity hense the protector which engages to protect The pressure engendered by the new developme­nt forced the two rival sultanates to settle their differences over Nugaal possession, and form a united front against their common enemy.

The Sultanate of Hobyo was different from that of Majeerteen in terms of its geography and the pattern of the territory. It was founded by Yusuf Ali in the middle of the nineteenth century in central Somaliland. The jurisdiction of Hobyo stretched from El-Dheere through to Dusa-Mareeb in the south-west, from Galladi to Galkayo in the west, from Jerriiban to Garaad in the north-east, and the Indian Ocean in the east. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface

By 1 October, De Vecchi's plan was to go into action. Events 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela. The operation to invade Hobyo started in October 1925. Columns of the new Zaptié began to move towards the sultanate. H­obyo, El-Buur, Galkayo, and the territory between were completely overrun within a month. Sources Hobyo was transformed from a sultanate into an administrat­ive region. Sultan Yusuf Ali surrendered. Nevertheless, soon suspicions were aroused as Trivulzio, the Hobyo commissioner, reported movement of armed men towards the borders of the sultanate before the takeover and after. Before the Italians could concentrate on the Majeerteen, they were diverted by new setbacks. On 9 November, the Italian fear was realized when a mutiny, led by one of the military chiefs of Sultan Ali Yusuf, Omar Samatar, recaptured El-Buur. Soon the rebellion expanded to the local population. The region went into revolt as El-Dheere also came under the control of Omar Samatar. The Italian forces tried to recapture El-Buur but they were repulsed. On 15 November the Italians retreated to Bud Bud and on the way they were ambushed and suffered heavy casualties. Events 655 - Battle of Winwaed: Penda of Mercia is defeated by Oswiu of Northumbria.

While a third attempt was in the last stages of preparation, the operation commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Splendorelli, was ambushed between Bud Bud and Buula Barde. He and some of his staff were killed. As a consequence of the death of the commander of the operations and the effect of two failed operations intended to overcome the El-Buur mutiny, the spirit of Italian troops began to wane. The Governor took the situation seriously, and to prevent any more failure he requested two battalions from Eritrea to reinforce his troops, and assumed lead of the operations. Meanwhile, the rebellion was gaining sympathy across the country, and as far afield as Western Somaliland.

The fascist government was surprised by the setback in Hobyo. The whole policy of conquest was collapsing under its nose. The El-Buur episode drastically changed the strategy of Italy as it revived memories of the Adwa fiasco when Italy had been defeated by Abyssinia. Furthermore, in the Colonial Ministry in Rome, senior officials distrusted the Governor's ability to deal with the matter. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Rome instructed De Vecchi that he was to receive the reinforcement from Eritrea, but that the commander of the two battalions was to temporarily assume the military command of the operations and De Vecchi was to stay in Mogadishu and confine himself to other colonial matters. Mogadishu ( Somali: Muqdisho, popularly Xamar, Hamar; مقديشو Maqadīshū In the case of any military development, the military commander was to report directly to the Chief of Staff in Rome.

While the situation remained perplexed, De Vecchi moved the deposed sultan to Muqdisho. Fascist Italy was poised to re-conquer the sultanate by whatever means. To manoeuvre the situation within Hobyo, they even contemplated the idea of reinstating Ali Yusuf. However, the idea was dropped after they became pessimistic about the results.

To undermine the resistance, however, and before the Eritrean reinforcement could arrive, De Vecchi began to instill distrust among the local people by buying the loyalty of some of them. In fact, these tactics had better results than had the military campaign, and the resistance began gradually to wear down. Given the anarchy which would follow, the new policy was a success.

On the military front, on 26 December 1925 Italian troops finally overran El-Buur, and the forces of Omar Samatar were compelled to retreat to Western Somaliland. Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht. Year 1925 ( MCMXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

By neutralising Hobyo, the fascists could concentrate on the Majeerteen. See also Somali clan The Majeerteen, Majerteen or Macherten (Majerteen ماجرتين Muhammad Harti Amaleh Abdi Muhammad Abdirahman In early October 1924, E. Coronaro, the new Alula commissioner, presented Boqor (king) Osman with an ultimatum to disarm and surrender. Meanwhile, Italian troops began to pour into the sultanate in anticipation of this operation. While landing at Haafuun and Alula, the sultanate's troops opened fire on them. Fierce fighting ensued and to avoid escalating the conflict and to press the fascist government to revoke their policy, Boqor Osman tried to open a dialogue. However, he failed, and again fighting broke out between the two parties. Following this disturbance, on 7 October the Governor instructed Coronaro to order the Sultan to surrender; to intimidate the people he ordered the seizure of all merchant boats in the Alula area. Events 3761 BC - The epoch (origin of the modern Hebrew calendar ( Proleptic Julian calendar) At Haafuun, Arimondi bombarded and destroyed all the boats in the area.

On 13 October Coronaro was to meet Boqor Osman at Baargaal to press for his surrender. Events 54 - Nero ascends to the Roman throne 409 - Vandals and Alans crossed the Pyrenees Under siege already, Boqor Osman was playing for time. However, on 23 October Boqor Osman sent an angry response to the Governor defying his order. Events 4004 BC - Creation of the world begins according to the calculations of Archbishop James Ussher 42 BC - Following this a full scale attack was ordered in November. Baargaal was bombarded and razed to the ground. This region was ethnically compact, and was out of range of direct action by the fascist government of Muqdisho. The attempt of the colonizers to suppress the region erupted into explosive confrontation. The Italians were meeting fierce resistance on many fronts. In December 1925, led by the charismatic leader Hersi Boqor, son of Boqor Osman, the sultanate forces drove the Italians out of Hurdia and Haafuun, two strategic coastal towns on the Indian Ocean. Another contingent attacked and destroyed an Italian communications centre at Cape Guardafui, on the tip of the Horn. In retaliation Bernica and other warships were called on to bombard all main coastal towns of the Majeerteen. After a violent confrontation Italian forces captured Ayl (Eil), which until then had remained in the hands of Hersi Boqor. In response to the unyielding situation, Italy called for reinforcements from their other colonies, notably Eritrea. With their arrival at the closing of 1926, the Italians began to move into the interior where they had not been able to venture since their first seizure of the coastal towns. Their attempt to capture Dharoor Valley was resisted, and ended in failure.

De Vecchi had to reassess his plans as he was being humiliated on many fronts. After one year of exerting full force he could not yet manage to gain a result over the sultanate. In spite of the fact that the Italian navy sealed the sultanate's main coastal entrance, they could not succeed in stopping them from receiving arms and ammunition through it. It was only early 1927 when they finally succeeded in shutting the northern coast of the sultanate, thus cutting arms and ammunition supplies for the Majeerteen. By this time, the balance had tilted to the Italians' side, and in January 1927 they began to attack with a massive force, capturing Iskushuban, at the heart of the Majeerteen. Hersi Boqor unsuccessfully attacked and challenged the Italians at Iskushuban. To demoralise the resistance, ships were ordered to raze and bombard the sultanate's coastal towns and villages. In the interior the Italian troops confiscated livestock. By the end of the 1927 the Italians had nearly taken control of the sultanate. Defeated and Hersi Boqor and his top staff were forced to retreat to Ethiopia in order to rebuild the forces. However, they had an epidemic of cholera which frustrated all attempts to recover his force.

With the elimination of the north-eastern sultanates and the breaking of the Benaadir resistance, from this period henceforth, Italian Somaliland was to become a reality.

By 1935, the British were ready to cut their losses in British Somaliland. British Somaliland was a British Protectorate in the north part of the Horn of Africa. The dervishes refused to accept any negotiations. Even after they had been soundly defeated in 1920, sporadic violence continued for the entire duration of British occupation. To make matters worse, Italy invaded and conquered Ethiopia in 1936, whom the British had been using to help their effort to put down the Somali uprisings. Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Now with Ethiopia unavailable, the British were faced with the option of doing the dirty work themselves, or packing up and looking for friendlier territory.

By this time many thousand Italian immigrants were living in Romanesque villas on extensive plantations in the south. A Roman villa is a Villa that was built or lived in during the Roman republic and the Roman Empire. Conditions for natives were very prosperous under fascist Italian rule, and the southern Somalis never violently resisted. Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology It had become obvious then that Italy had won the horn of Africa, and Britain left upon Mussolini's insistence, with little protest.

Meanwhile the French colony had faded to obsolescence with Britain's dwindling control, and it too was neglected. The Italians then enjoyed sole dominance of the entire East African region including recently occupied Ethiopia. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page

Map of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana)

On May 9 1936, Mussolini proclaimed the creation of the Italian Empire, calling it the "Africa Orientale Italiana" (A. The Italian colonial empire was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the " Scramble for Africa O. I. ) and formed by Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in Many investments in infrastructure were made by the Italians in their Empire, like the Strada Imperiale ("imperial road") between Addis Abeba and Mogadishu. Addis Ababa (sometimes spelled Addis Abeba, the spelling used by the official Ethiopian Mapping Authority Amharic Mogadishu ( Somali: Muqdisho, popularly Xamar, Hamar; مقديشو Maqadīshū

See also:

• Northern Somali sultanates
• Hobyo
• Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan

World War II

Italian hegemony of Somalia was short-lived, because of World War II. In the late Nineteenth century an influential Sultan and Akil (tribal chief emerged and ruled the Northern part of Somalia, an area stretching as far Hobyo (also spelled Obbia and Hobyaa) is an ancient harbor city in the Mudug region of Somalia. Sayyīd Muhammad `Abd Allāh al-Hasan ( Sayid Maxamed Cabdille Xasan or Sayyid Mahammad Abdille Hasan, محمّد Hegemony (hɨˈdʒɛməni (Amer /hɨˈɡɛməni/ (Brit (ἡγεμονία hēgemonía) is a concept that has been used to describe and explain the dominance of one social World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including At the start of the war, Mussolini realized he would have to concentrate his resources primarily on the home front to survive the Allied onslaught.

The Italians conquered the British Somaliland in August 1940, but the British were able to totally reconquer Somalia by 1941. British Somaliland was a British Protectorate in the north part of the Horn of Africa. Italian officers organized an italian guerrilla with Italian colonial troops, that lasted in Somalia from the end of 1941 to spring 1943. The Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia was as an armed struggle fought - from summer 1941 to autumn 1943 - by remnants of Italian troops in Italian East Africa, following the

During the war years, Somalia was directly ruled by a British military administration and martial law was in place, especially in the north where bitter memories of past bloodshed still lingered. Martial law is the system of rules that takes effect when the military takes control of the normal administration of justice

Unfortunately these policies were as ill-advised as they were previously. The irregular bandits and militias of the Somali outback received a windfall in weaponry, thanks to the world wide surge in arms production from the war. Irregular military refers to any non-standard military Being defined by exclusion there is a lot of variance in what comes under the term The Italian settlers and other anti-British elements made sure the rebels got as many guns as they needed to cause trouble. Despite a fresh Somali thorn in their side, the British protectorate lasted until 1949, and actually made some progress in economic development. The British established their capital in the northern city of Hargeisa, and wisely allowed local Muslim judges to try most cases, rather than impose alien British military justice on the populace. History Prehistoric inhabitants The city is home to Neolithic Cave paintings recently discovered named Laas Geel.

The British allowed almost all the Italians to stay, except for a few too risky for their security, and regularly employed them as civil servants and in the educated professions. The fact that 9 out of 10 of the Italians were loyal to Mussolini, and probably actively spying on the Italian Army's behalf during WWII, was tolerated due to Somalia's relative strategic irrelevance to the larger war effort. Indeed, considering that they were technically citizens of an enemy power, the British lent considerable leeway to the Italian residents, even allowing them to form their own political parties in direct competition with British authority.

Post-War period

After the war, the British gradually relaxed military control of Somalia, and attempted to introduce democracy, and numerous native Somalian political parties sprang into existence, the first being the Somali Youth League (SYL) in 1945. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system The Somali Youth League (SYL was the first political party of Somalia. The Potsdam conference was unsure of what to do with Somalia, whether to allow Britain to continue its occupation, to return control to the Italians, who actually had a significant number of people living there, or grant full independence. The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in Potsdam, Germany, from July 16, This question was hotly debated in the Somalian political scene for the next several years. Many wanted outright independence, especially the rural citizens in the west and north. Southerners enjoyed the economic prosperity brought by the Italians, and preferred their leadership. A smaller faction appreciated Britain's honest attempt to maintain order the second time around, and gave their respect.

SYL Monument.

Ogaden granted to Ethiopia

In 1948 a commission led by representatives of the victorious Allied nations wanted to decide the Somali question once and for all. They made one particular decision, granting Ogaden to Ethiopia, which would spark war decades later. Ogaden (pronounced and often spelled Ogadēn ]] is the international name of the Somali Regional State in Ethiopia. After months of vaciliations and eventually turning the debate over to the United Nations, in 1949 it was decided that in recognition of its genuine economic improvements to the country, Italy would retain a nominal trusteeship of Somalia for the next 10 years, after which it would gain full independence. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The SYL, Somalia's first and most powerful party, strongly opposed this decision, preferring immediate independence, and would become a source of unrest in the coming years.

Despite the SYL's misgivings the 1950s were something of a golden age for Somalia. With UN aid money pouring in, and experienced Italian administrators who had come to see Somalia as their home, infrastructural and educational development bloomed. This decade passed relatively without incident and was marked by positive growth in virtually all parts of Somali life. As scheduled, in 1959, Somalia was granted independence, and power transferred smoothly from the Italian administrators to the by then well developed Somali political culture.

Independence

Hawo Tako was a remarkable woman who had played a significant role in Somalia's struggle for independence. Independence is the Self-government of a Nation, Country, or State by its residents and population or some portion thereof generally exercising [1] .

The freshly independent Somalis loved politics, every nomad had a radio to listen to political speeches, and remarkable for an African Muslim country, women were also active participants, with only mild mumblings from the more conservative sectors of society. Despite this promising start, there were significant underlying problems, most notably the north/south economic divide and the Ogaden issue. In hindsight it might have made more sense to create two separate countries from the outset, rather than re-uniting the very distinct halves of Somalia and hoping for the best. Also, long held distrust of Ethiopia and the deeply ingrained belief that Ogaden was rightfully part of Somalia, should have been properly addressed prior to independence. The north and south spoke different languages (English vs Italian respectively) had different currencies, and different cultural priorities. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy.

Starting in the early 1960s, troubling trends began to emerge when the north started to reject referendums that had won a majority of votes, based on an overwhelming southern favoritism. This came to a head in 1961 when northern paramilitary organizations revolted when placed under southerners' command. The north's second largest political party began openly advocating secession. Secession (derived from the Latin term secessio is the act of withdrawing from an organization union or especially a political entity Attempts to mend these divides with the formation of a Pan-Somalian party were ineffectual; one opportunistic party attempted to unite the bickering regions by rallying them against their common enemy Ethiopia and the cause of reconquering Ogaden. Other nationalistic party platforms included the independence of the northern Kenyan holdings of the Italian colony, from Kenya proper. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation These regions were largely inhabited by ethnic Somalis who had become accustomed to Italian rule, and were distressed by the different regime they faced in Kenya.

Clashes with Ethiopia

Somalis' internal disputes were manifested outwards in hostility to Ethiopia and Kenya, which they felt were standing in the way of 'Greater Somalia'. Greater Somalia refers to those regions in the Horn of Africa in which ethnic Somalis are and have historically represented the predominant population This led to a series of individual Somali militiamen conducting hit and run raids across both borders from 1960 to 1964, when open conflict erupted between Ethiopia and Somalia. This lasted a few months until a cease fire was signed in the same year. In the aftermath, Ethiopia and Kenya signed a mutual defense pact to contain Somali aggression.

Although Somalis had received their primary political education under British and post-war Italian tutelage, the virulently anti-Imperialist parties rejected the European's advice whole cloth, and threw their lot in with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES By the middle of the 1960s, the Somalis had formal military relationship with Russia whereby the Soviets provided extensive material and training to the Somali armed forces. They also had an exchange program in which several hundred soldiers from one country went to the others to train or be trained. As a result of their contact with the Soviet military, many Somali officers gained a distinctly Marxist worldview. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. China supplied a lot of non military industrial funding for various projects, and the Italians continued to support their displaced children in Africa, and the relationship between the rapidly communizing Somalia and the Italian government remained cordial. The Somalis however were increasingly becoming jaded of the United States, which had been sending substantial military aid to their hostile neighbor, Ethiopia, and thanks to incessant anti-Western indoctrination at the hands of their new Russian friends. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the

By the late 1960s, the Somali democracy that had gotten off to such an enthusiastic start just ten years prior, was beginning to crumble. In the 1967 election, due to a complicated web of clan loyalties, the winner was not properly recognized and instead a new secret vote was taken by already elected National Assemblymen (senators). The central election issue was whether or not to use military force to bring about the long dreamed of pan-Somalism, which would mean war with Ethiopia and Kenya and possibly Djibouti. In 1968 there seemed to be a brief respite from ominous developments when a telecommunications and trade treaty was worked out with Ethiopia, which was very profitable for both countries, and especially for residents on the border who had been living in a de facto state of emergency since the 1964 cease fire.

1969 was a tumultuous year for Somali politics with even more party defections, collusions, betrayals and collaborations than normal. In a major upset the SYL and its various closely allied supporting parties, which had previously enjoyed a near monopoly of 120 out of 123 seats in the Assembly, saw their power slashed to only 46 seats. This resulted in angry accusations of election fraud from the displaced SYLers, and their remaining members still had the clout to do something about it. Particularly unsettling was that the military was a strong supporter of the SYL, since that party had always been supportive about invading Ethiopia and Kenya, thus giving the military a reason to exist.

Siad Barre's regime

1969 coup d'etat

The stage was set for a coup d'état, but the event that precipitated the coup was unplanned. On 15 October 1969, a bodyguard killed president Shermarke while prime minister Igaal was out of the country. Events 533 - Byzantine General Belisarius makes his formal entry into Carthage, having conquered it from the Year 1969 ( MCMLXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Abdirashid Ali Shermarke ( Cabdirashiid Cali Sharmaarke, عبد الرشيد علي شارماركي ( October 16 1919 - October 15 Mohamed Haji Ibrahim Egal ( Maxamed Xaaji Ibraahim Cigaal, محمد الحاج ابراهيم ايغال (born August 15 1928 in Odweyne, (The assassin, a member of a lineage said to have been badly treated by the president, was subsequently tried and executed by the revolutionary government. ) Igaal returned to Mogadishu to arrange for the selection of a new president by the National Assembly. His choice was, like Shermarke, a member of the Daarood clan-family (Igaal was an Isaaq). Government critics, particularly a group of army officers, saw no hope for improving the country's situation by this means. Critics also saw the process as extremely corrupt with votes for the presidency being actively bid on, the highest offer being 55,000 Somali Shillings (approximately $8,000) per vote by Hagi Musa Bogor. On 21 October 1969, when it became apparent that the assembly would support Igaal's choice, army units, with the cooperation of the police, took over strategic points in Mogadishu and rounded up government officials and other prominent political figures. Events 1512 - Martin Luther joins the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg. Year 1969 ( MCMLXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

Although not regarded as the author of the military takeover, army commander Major General Salad Gabeire Kediye and Mahammad Siad Barre assumed leadership of the officers who deposed the civilian government. The new governing body, the Supreme Revolutionary Council leader Salad Gabeire, installed Siad Barre as its president. The SRC arrested and detained at the presidential palace leading members of the democratic regime, including Igaal. The SRC banned political parties, abolished the National Assembly, and suspended the constitution. The new regime's goals included an end to “tribalism, nepotism, corruption, and misrule”. Existing treaties were to be honored, but national liberation movements and Somali unification were to be supported. The country was renamed the Somali Democratic Republic.

Supreme Revolutionary Council

The SRC also gave priority to rapid economic and social development through "crash programs", efficient and responsive government, and creation of a standard written form of Somali as the country's single official language. The régime pledged continuance of regional détente in its foreign relations without relinquishing Somali claims to disputed territories.

The SRC's domestic program, known as the First Charter of the Revolution, appeared in 1969. Along with Law Number 1, an enabling instrument promulgated on the day of the military takeover, the First Charter provided the institutional and ideological framework of the new regime. Law Number 1 assigned to the SRC all functions previously performed by the president, the National Assembly, and the Council of Ministers, as well as many duties of the courts. The role of the twenty-five-member military junta was that of an executive committee that made decisions and had responsibility to formulate and execute policy. Actions were based on majority vote, but deliberations rarely were published. SRC members met in specialized committees to oversee government operations in given areas. A subordinate fourteen-man secretariat--the Council of the Secretaries of State (CSS)-- functioned as a cabinet and was responsible for day-to-day government operation, although it lacked political power. The CSS consisted largely of civilians, but until 1974 several key ministries were headed by military officers who were concurrently members of the SRC. Existing legislation from the previous democratic government remained in force unless specifically abrogated by the SRC, usually on the grounds that it was "incompatible. . . with the spirit of the Revolution. " In February 1970, the democratic constitution of 1960, suspended at the time of the coup, was repealed by the SRC under powers conferred by Law Number 1.

Although the SRC monopolized executive and legislative authority, Siad Barre filled a number of executive posts: titular head of state, chairman of the CSS (and thereby head of government), commander in chief of the armed forces, and president of the SRC. His titles were of less importance, however, than was his personal authority, to which most SRC members deferred, and his ability to manipulate the clans.

Military and police officers, including some SRC members, headed government agencies and public institutions to supervise economic development, financial management, trade, communications, and public utilities. Military officers replaced civilian district and regional officials. Meanwhile, civil servants attended reorientation courses that combined professional training with political indoctrination, and those found to be incompetent or politically unreliable were fired. A mass dismissal of civil servants in 1974, however, was dictated in part by economic pressures.

The legal system functioned after the coup, subject to modification. In 1970 special tribunals, the National Security Courts (NSC), were set up as the judicial arm of the SRC. Using a military attorney as prosecutor, the courts operated outside the ordinary legal system as watchdogs against activities considered to be counterrevolutionary. The first cases that the courts dealt with involved Shermaarke's assassination and charges of corruption leveled by the SRC against members of the democratic regime. The NSC subsequently heard cases with and without political content. A uniform civil code introduced in 1973 replaced predecessor laws inherited from the Italians and British and also imposed restrictions on the activities of sharia courts. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. The new regime subsequently extended the death penalty and prison sentences to individual offenders, formally eliminating collective responsibility through the payment of diya or blood money.

The SRC also overhauled local government, breaking up the old regions into smaller units as part of a long-range decentralization program intended to destroy the influence of the traditional clan assemblies and, in the government's words, to bring government "closer to the people. " Local councils, composed of military administrators and representatives appointed by the SRC, were established under the Ministry of Interior at the regional, district, and village levels to advise the government on local conditions and to expedite its directives. Other institutional innovations included the organization (under Soviet direction) of the National Security Service (NSS), directed initially at halting the flow of professionals and dissidents out of the country and at counteracting attempts to settle disputes among the clans by traditional means. The newly formed Ministry of Information and National Guidance set up local political education bureaus to carry the government's message to the people and used Somalia's print and broadcast media for the "success of the socialist, revolutionary road. " A censorship board, appointed by the ministry, tailored information to SRC guidelines.

The SRC took its toughest political stance in the campaign to break down the solidarity of the lineage groups. Tribalism was condemned as the most serious impediment to national unity. Siad Barre denounced tribalism in a wider context as a "disease" obstructing development not only in Somalia, but also throughout the Third World. The government meted out prison terms and fines for a broad category of proscribed activities classified as tribalism. Traditional headmen, whom the democratic government had paid a stipend, were replaced by reliable local dignitaries known as "peacekeepers" (nabod doan), appointed by Mogadishu to represent government interests. Community identification rather than lineage affiliation was forcefully advocated at orientation centers set up in every district as the foci of local political and social activity. For example, the SRC decreed that all marriage ceremonies should occur at an orientation center. Siad Barre presided over these ceremonies from time to time and contrasted the benefits of socialism to the evils he associated with tribalism.

To increase production and control over the nomads, the government resettled 140,000 nomadic pastoralists in farming communities and in coastal towns, where the erstwhile herders were encouraged to engage in agriculture and fishing. By dispersing the nomads and severing their ties with the land to which specific clans made collective claim, the government may also have undercut clan solidarity. In many instances, real improvement in the living conditions of resettled nomads was evident, but despite government efforts to eliminate it, clan consciousness as well as a desire to return to the nomadic life persisted. Concurrent SRC attempts to improve the status of Somali women were unpopular in a traditional Muslim society, despite Siad Barre's argument that such reforms were consistent with Islamic principles.

Siad Barre and scientific socialism

Somalia's adherence to socialism became official on the first anniversary of the military coup when Siad Barre proclaimed that Somalia was a socialist state, despite the fact that the country had no history of class conflict in the Marxist sense. Class conflict, also class war or class warfare, is both the friction that accompanies social relationships between members or groups of different Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. For purposes of Marxist analysis, therefore, tribalism was equated with class in a society struggling to liberate itself from distinctions imposed by lineage group affiliation. At the time, Siad Barre explained that the official ideology consisted of three elements: his own conception of community development based on the principle of self-reliance, a form of socialism based on Marxist principles, and Islam. These were subsumed under "scientific socialism," although such a definition was at variance with the Soviet and Chinese models to which reference was frequently made.

The theoretical underpinning of the state ideology combined aspects of the Qur'an with the influences of Marx, Lenin, and Mao, but Siad Barre was pragmatic in its application. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran "Socialism is not a religion," he explained; "It is a political principle" to organize government and manage production. Somalia's alignment with communist states, coupled with its proclaimed adherence to scientific socialism, led to frequent accusations that the country had become a Soviet satellite. For all the rhetoric extolling scientific socialism, however, genuine Marxist sympathies were not deep-rooted in Somalia. But the ideology was acknowledged--partly in view of the country's economic and military dependence on the Soviet Union--as the most convenient peg on which to hang a revolution introduced through a military coup that had supplanted a Western-oriented parliamentary democracy.

More important than Marxist ideology to the popular acceptance of the revolutionary regime in the early 1970s were the personal power of Siad Barre and the image he projected. Styled the "Victorious Leader" (Guulwaadde), Siad Barre fostered the growth of a personality cult. Portraits of him in the company of Marx and Lenin festooned the streets on public occasions. The epigrams, exhortations, and advice of the paternalistic leader who had synthesized Marx with Islam and had found a uniquely Somali path to socialist revolution were widely distributed in Siad Barre's little blue-and-white book. Despite the revolutionary regime's intention to stamp out the clan politics, the government was commonly referred to by the code name MOD. This acronym stood for Marehan (Siad Barre's clan), Ogaden (the clan of Siad Barre's mother), and Dulbahante (the clan of Siad Barre son-in-law Colonel Ahmad Sulaymaan Abdullah, who headed the NSS). The Marehan ( Somali: Mareexaan Arabic:مريحان Marehan bin Ahmed bin Abdirahman bin Is'mail bin Ibrahim al Jaberti) are a Somali See also Somali clan The Ogaden ( Ogaadeen, أوجادين is one of the Somali clans and the largest Darod subclan See also Somali clan The Dhulbahante is a Somali sub clan of the Harti part of the Koombe and of Kablalax, of the These were the three clans whose members formed the government's inner circle. In 1975, for example, ten of the twenty members of the SRC were from the Daarood clan-family, of which these three clans were a part, while the Digil and Rahanweyn, sedentary interriverine clan-families, were totally unrepresented. See also Somali clan The Rahanweyn ( Somali Maay: Reewing; traditional Raxanweyn, الراحانوين is a Somali clan, composed See also Somali clan The Rahanweyn ( Somali Maay: Reewing; traditional Raxanweyn, الراحانوين is a Somali clan, composed

The language and literacy issue

Borama script. The Borama script is a writing script for the Somali language.

Osmanya script. The Osmanya script (Somali cismaanya; Osmanya ҋҘ҈ґқҒҕҀ also known as far soomaali or Somali writing is a writing script created to write the

Latin script.

One of the principal objectives of the revolutionary regime was the adoption of a standard orthography of the Somali language. The orthography of a language specifies the correct way of using a specific Writing system to write the language Such a system would enable the government to make Somali the country's official language. Since independence Italian and English had served as the languages of administration and instruction in Somalia's schools. All government documents had been published in the two European languages. Indeed, it had been considered necessary that certain civil service posts of national importance be held by two officials, one proficient in English and the other in Italian. During the Husseen and Igaal governments, when a number of English-speaking northerners were put in prominent positions, English had dominated Italian in official circles and had even begun to replace it as a medium of instruction in southern schools. Arabic—or a heavily arabized Somali—also had been widely used in cultural and commercial areas and in Islamic schools and courts. Religious traditionalists and supporters of Somalia's integration into the Arab world had advocated that Arabic be adopted as the official language, with Somali as a vernacular. A few months after independence, the Somali Language Committee was appointed to investigate the best means of writing Somali. The committee considered nine scripts, including Arabic, Latin, and various indigenous scripts. Its report, issued in 1962, favored the Latin script, which the committee regarded as the best suited to represent the phonemic structure of Somali and flexible enough to be adjusted for the dialects. Facility with a Latin system, moreover, offered obvious advantages to those who sought higher education outside the country. Modern printing equipment would also be more easily and reasonably available for Latin type. Existing Somali grammars prepared by foreign scholars, although outdated for modern teaching methods, would give some initial advantage in the preparation of teaching materials. Disagreement had been so intense among opposing factions, however, that no action was taken to adopt a standard script, although successive governments continued to reiterate their intention to resolve the issue.

On coming to power, the SRC made clear that it viewed the official use of foreign languages, of which only a relatively small fraction of the population had an adequate working knowledge, as a threat to national unity, contributing to the stratification of society on the basis of language. In 1971 the SRC revived the Somali Language Committee and instructed it to prepare textbooks for schools and adult education programs, a national grammar, and a new Somali dictionary. However, no decision was made at the time concerning the use of a particular script, and each member of the committee worked in the one with which he was familiar. The understanding was that, upon adoption of a standard script, all materials would be immediately transcribed.

On the third anniversary of the 1969 coup, the SRC announced that a Latin script had been adopted as the standard script to be used throughout Somalia beginning January 1, 1973. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. As a prerequisite for continued government service, all officials were given three months (later extended to six months) to learn the new script and to become proficient in it. During 1973 educational material written in the standard orthography was introduced in elementary schools and by 1975 was also being used in secondary and higher education.

Somalia's literacy rate was estimated at only 5 percent in 1972. After adopting the new script, the SRC launched a "cultural revolution" aimed at making the entire population literate in two years. The first part of the massive literacy campaign was carried out in a series of three-month sessions in urban and rural sedentary areas and reportedly resulted in several hundred thousand people learning to read and write. As many as 8,000 teachers were recruited, mostly among government employees and members of the armed forces, to conduct the program.

The campaign in settled areas was followed by preparations for a major effort among the nomads that got underway in August 1974. The program in the countryside was carried out by more than 20,000 teachers, half of whom were secondary school students whose classes were suspended for the duration of the school year. The rural program also compelled a privileged class of urban youth to share the hardships of the nomadic pastoralists. Although affected by the onset of a severe drought, the program appeared to have achieved substantial results in the field in a short period of time. Nevertheless, the UN estimate of Somalia's literacy rate in 1990 was only 24 percent.

Creation of the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party

SRC poster

SRC poster

One of the SRC's first acts was to prohibit the existence of any political association. Src may refer to Src (gene, a family of proto-oncogenic tyrosine kinases a common abbreviation for Source code See Src may refer to Src (gene, a family of proto-oncogenic tyrosine kinases a common abbreviation for Source code See Under Soviet pressure to create a communist party structure to replace Somalia's military regime, Siad Barre had announced as early as 1971 the SRC's intention to establish a one-party state. The SRC already had begun organizing what was described as a "vanguard of the revolution" composed of members of a socialist elite drawn from the military and the civilian sectors. The National Public Relations Office (retitled the National Political Office in 1973) was formed to propagate scientific socialism with the support of the Ministry of Information and National Guidance through orientation centers that had been built around the country, generally as local selfhelp projects.

The SRC convened a congress of the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) in June 1976 and voted to establish the Supreme Council as the new party's central committee. Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (in Somali: Xisbiga Hantiwadaagga Kacaanka Soomaaliyeed, XHKS) was the governing Political party in The council included the nineteen officers who composed the SRC, in addition to civilian advisers, heads of ministries, and other public figures. Civilians accounted for a majority of the Supreme Council's seventy-three members. On July 1, 1976, the SRC dissolved itself, formally vesting power over the government in the SRSP under the direction of the Supreme Council.

In theory the SRSP's creation marked the end of military rule, but in practice real power over the party and the government remained with the small group of military officers who had been most influential in the SRC. Decision-making power resided with the new party's politburo, a select committee of the Supreme Council that was composed of five former SRC members, including Siad Barre and his son-in-law, NSS chief Abdullah. Siad Barre was also secretary general of the SRSP, as well as chairman of the Council of Ministers, which had replaced the CSS in 1981. Military influence in the new government increased with the assignment of former SRC members to additional ministerial posts. The MOD circle also had wide representation on the Supreme Council and in other party organs. Upon the establishment of the SRSP, the National Political Office was abolished; local party leadership assumed its functions.

Ogaden War

Main article: Ogaden War

In 1977 the Somali president, Siad Barre, was able to muster 35,000 regulars and 15,000 fighters of the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF). The Ogaden War was a conventional conflict between Somalia and Ethiopia in 1977 and 1978 over the Ogaden region of Ethiopia According to the Random House Dictionary, the term warrior has two meanings His forces began infiltrating into the Ogaden in May-June 1977, and overt warfare began in July. By September 1977 Mogadishu controlled 100 percent of the Ogaden and had followed retreating Ethiopian forces into non-Somali regions of Harerge, Bale, and Sidamo.

poster showing Ogaden as part of Greater Somalia

After watching Ethiopian events in 1975-76, the Soviet Union concluded that the revolution would lead to the establishment of an authentic Marxist-Leninist state and that, for geopolitical purposes, it was wise to transfer Soviet interests to Ethiopia. Ogaden (pronounced and often spelled Ogadēn ]] is the international name of the Somali Regional State in Ethiopia. Greater Somalia refers to those regions in the Horn of Africa in which ethnic Somalis are and have historically represented the predominant population To this end, Moscow secretly promised the Derg military aid on condition that it renounce the alliance with the United States. The Derg or Dergue was a communist military junta that came to power in Ethiopia following the ousting of Haile Selassie I. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Mengistu Haile Mariam, believing that the Soviet Union's revolutionary history of national reconstruction was in keeping with Ethiopia's political goals, closed down the U. Mengistu Haile Mariam (መንግስቱ ኃይለ ማርያም məngɨstu hi lə maryam (born 1937 a repression campaign against the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party and S. military mission and the communications centre in April 1977. In September, Moscow suspended all military aid to Somalia, and began openly deliver weapons to Addis Ababa, and reassigned military advisers from Somalia to Ethiopia. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known Addis Ababa (sometimes spelled Addis Abeba, the spelling used by the official Ethiopian Mapping Authority Amharic This Soviet volte-face also gained Ethiopia important support from North Korea, which trained a People's Militia, and from Cuba and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, which provided infantry, pilots, and armoured units. North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya The Infantry is the oldest and most numerous of the Combat Arms in the Armed forces, and consists Somalia renounced the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union expelled all Soviet advisers, broke diplomatic relations with Cuba, and ejected all Soviet personnel from Somalia

By March 1978, Ethiopia and its allies regained control over the Ogaden. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Siad Barre proved unable to return the Ogaden to Somali rule, and the people grew restive; in northern Somalia, rebels destroyed administrative centres and took over major towns. Mohamed Siad Barre (Maxamed Siyaad Barre محمّد سياد بري) (b Both Ethiopia and Somalia had followed ruinous socialist policies of economic development, and they were unable to surmount droughts and famines that afflicted the Horn during the 1980s. In 1988 Siyaad and Mengistu agreed to withdraw their armies from possible confrontation in the Ogaden.

Somalia, 1980-90

Repression

Faced with shrinking popularity and an armed and organized domestic resistance, Siad Barre unleashed a reign of terror against the Majeerteen, the Hawiye, and the Isaaq, carried out by the Red Berets (Duub Cas), a special unit recruited from the president's Marehan clansmen. Mohamed Siad Barre (Maxamed Siyaad Barre محمّد سياد بري) (b See also Somali clan The Majeerteen, Majerteen or Macherten (Majerteen ماجرتين Muhammad Harti Amaleh Abdi Muhammad Abdirahman See also Somali clan The Hawiye ( Hawiiye, هاويي is a Somali clan whose members live in central and southern Somalia, in the See also Somali clan The Isaaq (also Isaq, Ishaak) ( Reer Sheikh Isaxaaq, اسحاق is one of the main Somali clans The The Marehan ( Somali: Mareexaan Arabic:مريحان Marehan bin Ahmed bin Abdirahman bin Is'mail bin Ibrahim al Jaberti) are a Somali Thus, by the beginning of 1986, Siad Barre's grip on power seemed secure, despite the host of problems facing the regime. The president received a severe blow from an unexpected quarter, however. On the evening of May 23, he was severely injured in an automobile accident. Events 1430 - Siege of Compiègne: Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians while leading an army to relieve Compiègne Astonishingly, although at the time he was in his early seventies and suffered from chronic diabetes, Siad Barre recovered sufficiently to resume the reins of government following a month's recuperation. Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc But the accident unleashed a power struggle among senior army commandants, elements of the president's Marehan clan, and related factions, whose infighting practically brought the country to a standstill. Broadly, two groups contended for power: a constitutional faction and a clan faction. The constitutional faction was led by the senior vice president, Brigadier General Mahammad Ali Samantar; the second vice president, Major General Husseen Kulmiye; and generals Ahmad Sulaymaan Abdullah and Ahmad Mahamuud Faarah. The four, together with president Siad Barre, constituted the politburo of the SRSP.

Opposed to the constitutional group were elements from the president's Marehan clan, especially members of his immediate family, including his brother, Abdirahmaan Jaama Barre; the president's son, Colonel Masleh Siad, and the formidable Mama Khadiija, Siad Barre's senior wife. By some accounts, Mama Khadiija ran her own intelligence network, had well-placed political contacts, and oversaw a large group who had prospered under her patronage.

In November 1986, the dreaded Red Berets unleashed a campaign of terror and intimidation on a frightened citizenry. Meanwhile, the ministries atrophied and the army's officer corps was purged of competent career officers on suspicion of insufficient loyalty to the president. In addition, ministers and bureaucrats plundered what was left of the national treasury after it had been repeatedly skimmed by the top family.

The same month, the SRSP held its third congress. The Central Committee was reshuffled and the president was nominated as the only candidate for another seven-year term. Thus, with a weak opposition divided along clan lines, which he skillfully exploited, Siad Barre seemed invulnerable well into 1988. Mohamed Siad Barre (Maxamed Siyaad Barre محمّد سياد بري) (b The regime might have lingered indefinitely but for the wholesale disaffection engendered by the genocidal policies carried out against important lineages of Somali kinship groupings. These actions were waged first against the Majeerteen clan (of the Darod clan-family), then against the Isaaq clans of the north, and finally against the Hawiye, who occupied the strategic central area of the country, which included the capital. See also Somali clan The Darod ( Darood or Daarood, بني داوود is a Somali clan. The disaffection of the Hawiye and their subsequent organized armed resistance eventually caused the regime's downfall.

Somali Civil War

Main article: Somali Civil War

Flag of Somaliland

US Army helicopter shortly before Battle of Mogadishu, 1993

In May of 1991, the northern portion of the country declared its independence as Somaliland; although de facto independent and relatively stable compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognized by any foreign government. The Somali Civil War is an armed conflict in Somalia that started in 1988 The United States Army is a military organization whose primary mission is to "provide necessary forces and capabilities. The Battle of Mogadishu (also referred to as the Battle of the Black Sea) or UN Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on December 3, 1992, which approved a coalition of United Nations peacekeepers led by the United States to form UNITAF, tasked with ensuring humanitarian aid being distributed and peace being established in Somalia. UNSC Resolution 794 created UNITAF in Somalia. It was adopted by the United Nations Security Council on 3 December 1992. Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Unified Task Force (UNITAF was a United States led United Nations sanctioned multinational force which operated in the Republic of Somalia from 9 The UN humanitarian troops landed in 1993 and started a two-year effort (primarily in the south) to alleviate famine conditions.

Many Somalis opposed the foreign presence. In October, several gun battles in Mogadishu between local gunmen and peacekeepers resulted in the death of 24 Pakistanis and 19 US soldiers (total US deaths were 31). Mogadishu ( Somali: Muqdisho, popularly Xamar, Hamar; مقديشو Maqadīshū Most of the Americans were killed in the Battle of Mogadishu. The Battle of Mogadishu (also referred to as the Battle of the Black Sea) or The incident later became the basis for the book and movie Black Hawk Down. Black Hawk Down is a 2001 Academy Award -winning War film directed by Ridley Scott, based on the book Black Hawk Down a The UN withdrew on March 3, 1995, having suffered more significant casualties. Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Order in Somalia still has not been restored.

Yet again another secession from Somalia took place in the northeastern region. The self-proclaimed state took the name Puntland after declaring "temporary" independence in 1998, with the intention that it would participate in any Somali reconciliation to form a new central government. Puntland is a region in northeastern Somalia, centered on Garowe ( Nugaal region whose leaders declared it to be an autonomous state in 1998

A third secession occurred in 1998 with the declaration of the state of Jubaland. Jubaland (Jubbaland or Juba Valley (Dooxada Jubba formerly Trans-Juba (Oltre Giuba is the southwesternmost part of Somalia, on the far side of The territory of Jubaland is now encompassed by the state of Southwestern Somalia and its status is unclear.

A fourth self-proclaimed entity led by the Rahanweyn Resistance Army (RRA) was set up in 1999, along the lines of the Puntland. The Rahanweyn Resistance Army (RRA also known as the Reewin Resistance Army is an autonomist militant group operating in the two southwestern regions of Somalia, That "temporary" secession was reasserted in 2002. This led to the autonomy of Southwestern Somalia. Southwestern Somalia ( Koonfur-Galbeed Soomaaliya) was an ostensibly autonomous self-proclaimed state in Somalia founded by Hasan Muhammad Nur The RRA had originally set up an autonomous administration over the Bay and Bakool regions of south and central Somalia in 1999.

Recent history

Main article: Anarchy in Somalia

Abdiqasim Salad Hassan former president of Somalia. Somalia, from 1991 to present is cited as a real-world example of a Stateless society and legal system Abdiqasim Salad Hassan ( Cabdiqaasim Salaad Xasan, عبدي قاسم صلاد حسن born in 1941 is a prominent Somali politician

The various Somali militias have developed into security agencies for hire. A security agency is an organization which conducts intelligence activities for the internal Security of a Nation, State or Organization Due to that development security has much improved and an economic rebound occurred. It can be said that Somalia is now partly in a state of anarcho-capitalism where all services are provided by private ventures. Anarcho-capitalism (also known as Free-market anarchism) is an individualist anarchist Political philosophy that advocates the elimination According to CIA factbook Somalia telecommunication firms provide wireless services in most major cities and offer the lowest international call rates on the continent. Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of electrical conductors or " Wires quot

In 2000, Abdiqasim Salad Hassan was selected to lead the Transitional National Government (TNG). Abdiqasim Salad Hassan ( Cabdiqaasim Salaad Xasan, عبدي قاسم صلاد حسن born in 1941 is a prominent Somali politician The Transitional National Government of Somalia was established in April –May 2000 at the Somalia National Peace Conference (SNPC held in Djibouti

After Abdiqasim Salad Hassan, Abdinur Darman was elected in Mogadishu on June 5th 2003 but On October 10, 2004 Somali parliament members elected Abdullahi Yusuf, president of Puntland, to be the next president, leading the successor to the TNG, named the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " TalkParliament#Screen-size. -->A  parliament is a Legislature, especially in those Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed ( Cabdullaahi Yuusuf Axmed, عبدالله يوسف أحمد (born December 15 1934) is a veteran Somali Politician Puntland is a region in northeastern Somalia, centered on Garowe ( Nugaal region whose leaders declared it to be an autonomous state in 1998 The Transitional Federal Government (TFG of the Somali Republic ( Dowladda federaalka kumeelgaarka) is the present internationally recognized government of Somalia Because of the chaotic situation in Mogadishu, a decision was made to hold the election in the relatively atypical venue of a sports centre in Nairobi, Kenya. The other institutions adopted at this time were the Transitional Federal Charter and the selection of a 275-member Transitional Federal Parliament. The Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic, or TFC is the principle organizing document of the Somali Republic, written and approved in February The Transitional Federal Parliament of the Somali Republic ( Golaha Shacabka Federaalka Kumeelgaarka ee Jamhuuriyada Soomaaliya; often Baarlamaanka Federaalka Soomaaliya

Indian Ocean tsunami

On December 26, 2004, one of the deadliest natural disasters in modern history, the Indian Ocean earthquake, struck off the western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " A natural disaster is the consequence of a Natural hazard (eg The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea Earthquake that occurred at 005853 UTC on December 26 2004 with an Epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra (also spelled Sumatera) is the sixth largest island in the world (approximately 470000 km² and is the largest island entirely in Indonesia (two The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. The earthquake and subsequent tsunamis reportedly killed over 220,000 people around the rim of the Indian Ocean. An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth 's crust that creates Seismic waves Earthquakes are recorded with a Seismometer A tsunami ((tsuːˈnɑːmi is a series of waves created when The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface Somalia's east coast was affected. The effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Somalia was devastating 298 people were reportedly killed and many more injured but relief workers dispute this figure as overstated. ^[4]

Islamist advance and Ethiopian intervention (2006)

For more details on Second Battle of Mogadishu, see War in Somalia (2006–present). The War in Somalia is an ongoing armed conflict involving largely Ethiopian and Somali Transitional Federal Government (TFG forces versus the Somali

Starting in May 2006 with the Second Battle of Mogadishu, civil war wracked Somalia as the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) fought with warlords, including the Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism (ARPCT), pirates, other separatists of Jubaland and Puntland, the internationally-backed Transitional Federal Government (TFG) and Ethiopian troops to bring unity, security and Sharia law to Somalia. The Second Battle of Mogadishu was a Battle fought for control of Mogadishu, the capital city of Somalia. The Islamic Courts Union ( ICU, Somali: Midowga Maxkamadaha Islaamiga Arabic: اتحاد المحاكم الإسلامية Ittihād al-mahākim The Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism ( ARPCT) ( Isbaheysiga Ladagaalanka Argagaxisadda) was a Somali alliance created by various Jubaland (Jubbaland or Juba Valley (Dooxada Jubba formerly Trans-Juba (Oltre Giuba is the southwesternmost part of Somalia, on the far side of Puntland is a region in northeastern Somalia, centered on Garowe ( Nugaal region whose leaders declared it to be an autonomous state in 1998 The Transitional Federal Government (TFG of the Somali Republic ( Dowladda federaalka kumeelgaarka) is the present internationally recognized government of Somalia Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. On June 5, 2006 forces associated with the Islamic Court Union claimed to have taken control of Mogadishu. Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.

The transitional government in Baidoa tried to secure the help of African Union peacekeeping troops to help pacify Somalia so that a government can survive and hold power with some stability (see IGASOM). The African Union (abbreviated AU in English, and UA in its other working languages is a Confederation consisting of 53  African The African Union Mission to Somalia (AMISOM is an active regional peacekeeping mission operated by the African Union with the approval of the United Nations. This proposal has been controversial, because of bringing foreign troops in the country since 1995 when the United Nations troops left Somalia (see UNOSOM II). UNOSOM II (United Nations Operation in Somalia was the second phase of the United Nations intervention in Somalia.

Some of the countries contributing troops are also not popular locally, Ethiopia especially. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The warlords in Mogadishu united to fight any foreign troops, joined by the speaker of the parliament, causing a fault line in the government. Some of the warlords are aligned with Islamic miltant groups, and the US government accuses the involvement of al-Qaeda amongst the ICU leaders. Al-Qaeda, alternatively spelled al-Qaida, al-Qa`ida or al-Qa`idah, ( Arabic:; ar-Latn ''al-qāʿidah'' Translation: The Instability, warlord control, piracy and economic chaos remain significant issues in many parts of the country. ^[5]

On December 20, 2006, active fighting broke out between the ICU and Ethiopia in the Battle of Baidoa. Events 69 - Vespasian, formerly a general under Nero, enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The Battle of Baidoa began on December 20, 2006 when the Somali Transitional Federal Government 's forces (TFG allied with Ethiopian forces stationed The ICU considered the conflict a jihad. Jihad (جهاد ʤɪhæːd an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. Ethiopia was allied with the TFG and Puntland in its counterattacks against the ICU. The ICU troops and technicals proved no match to Ethiopia's tanks and aircraft and on 26 December, the ICU was forced to retreat to Mogadishu. A technical is a type of Improvised fighting vehicle, typically a civilian or military non-combat vehicle modified to Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht. They abandoned Mogadishu on 28 December 2006 and retreated to Jilib, where they were again defeated in the Battle of Jilib on the night of 31 December 2006. The Fall of Mogadishu occurred on December 28, 2006, when the militaries of Somalia 's Transitional Federal Government Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of Jilib (other names Gilib, Gelib, Jillib, Jillio) is a town in Somalia, with an estimated population of approximately 45000 The Battle of Jilib was a battle in the 2006 Somali War fought by the Islamic Courts Union (ICU and affiliated militias against Ethiopian and Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. A mutiny within the ICU caused their forces to disintegrate, and abandon both Jilib and Kismayo. They fled towards the Kenyan border^[6], where they were trapped between the advancing Ethiopian and TFG armies, Kenyan border patrols, and a US naval blockade. They were then engaged in the Battle of Ras Kamboni. The Battle of Ras Kamboni was a battle in the 2006-2007 Somali War fought by the Islamic Courts Union (ICU and affiliated militias against Ethiopian

Timelines

Ancient

• c. 2350 BC: Egyptians establish trade with the Land of Punt^[7]
• 1st century AD: Ports on the Somali coast are active in commerce trading with Greek, and later Roman merchants. ^[1]

Muslim era

• 700 - 1000 AD: the Port cities in Somalia trade with Arab traders and convert to Islam
• 1300 - 1400 AD: the prosperous Somali city states are visited by Ibn Battuta and Zheng he
• 1500 - 1660: the Rise and Fall of Adal Sultanate. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February Zheng He ( Birth name 馬三寶 / 马三宝; Arabic / Persian name حجّي محمود شمس Hajji Mahmud Shams) (1371&ndash1433 was a Hui The Adal Sultanate ( Somali: Adaal, Ge'ez: አዳል ʾAdāl, Arabic: عدل (c
• 1528 - 1535: Jihad against Ethiopia led by Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, also called Ahmed Gurey or Ahmed Gran (the Left-handed)^[1]
• 1400 - 1700: the Rise and Fall of the Ajuuraan Dynasty
• 1800 - 1900: Geledi Sultanate/Hobyo Sultanate

Colonial era

• 20 July 1887 : British Somaliland protectorate (in the north) subordinated to Aden to 1905. Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (c 1506 - February 21, 1543) ("the Conqueror" was an Imam and General of Adal See also Somali clan The Ajuran (also Ajuuraan or Ujuuraan) is a Somali clan. British Somaliland was a British Protectorate in the north part of the Horn of Africa. Aden (ˈeɪdən Arabic: عدن) is a city in Yemen, 170 kilometers east of Bab-el-Mandeb.
• 3 August 1889: Benadir Coast Italian Protectorate (in the northeast), (unoccupied until May 1893).
• 1900: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan spearheads a somali war against foreigners
• 16 March 1905: Italian Somalia (Italian Somaliland) colony (in the northeast and in the south). Sayyīd Muhammad `Abd Allāh al-Hasan ( Sayid Maxamed Cabdille Xasan or Sayyid Mahammad Abdille Hasan, محمّد Italian Somalia (also known as Italian Somaliland) was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia) from the 1880s until 1942 in the territory
• July 1910: Italian Somaliland a crown colony. This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation.
• 1920: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan (called "the Mad Mullah" by the British) dies and the longest and bloodiest colonial resistance war in Africa ends. Sayyīd Muhammad `Abd Allāh al-Hasan ( Sayid Maxamed Cabdille Xasan or Sayyid Mahammad Abdille Hasan, محمّد
• 15 January 1935: Italian Somalia part of Italian East Africa with Italian Eritrea (and from 1936 Ethiopia). Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page
• 1 June 1936: Part of Italian East Africa (province of Somalia, formed by the merger of the colony and the Ethiopian region of Ogaden; see Ethiopia). NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page

World War II

• 18 August 1940: Italian occupation of British Somaliland.
• February 1941: British administration of Italian Somalia.

Independence and Cold War

• 1 April 1950: Italian Somalia becomes United Nations trust territory under Italian administration.
• 26 June 1960: Independence of British Somaliland as the State of Somaliland.
• 1 July 1960: Unification of Somaliland with Italian Somalia to form the Somali Republic.
• 1960 - 1967: Presidency of Aden Abdullah Osman Daar
• 1967 - 1969: Presidency of Abdirashid Ali Shermarke; assassinated by a police officer. Aden Abdulle Osman Daar ( Aaden Cabdulle Cismaan Daar (Aaden Cadde, عدن عبد الله عثمان دار (1908 &ndash June 8, 2007) was a Abdirashid Ali Shermarke ( Cabdirashiid Cali Sharmaarke, عبد الرشيد علي شارماركي ( October 16 1919 - October 15
• 21 October 1969: Somali Democratic Republic
• 1969 - 1991: Mohamed Siad Barre rises to power in a coup d'etat after the assassination of Abdirashid Ali Shermarke. Mohamed Siad Barre (Maxamed Siyaad Barre محمّد سياد بري) (b Remains head of state of Somalia until forced from power by General Mohamed Farrah Aidid. General Mohamed Farrah Aidid (محمد فرح عيديدمحمد فرح عيديد December 15 1934 – August 2 1996 was a controversial Somali leader often described Barre dies in exile of a heart attack in 1995.
• 23 July 1977 - 15 March 1978: Ogaden War

• 1982: 1982 Ethiopian-Somali Border War

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b c} Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times Chapter 8: Somali Hero - Ahmad Gurey (1506-43) CivicsWeb
2. ^ David D. The Ogaden War was a conventional conflict between Somalia and Ethiopia in 1977 and 1978 over the Ogaden region of Ethiopia Laitin and Said Samatar, Somalia: Nation in search of a state (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), p. 16.
3. ^ Laitin and Samatar, Somalia, p. 18.
4. ^ "Tsunami toll approaches 300 000" (February 24 2005). www. news24. com.  
5. ^ Sites, Kevin (September 29 2005). "Land of the Gun: Warlords are once again on the verge of a major clash. But this showdown pits the interim president against members of his own Cabinet. Amid such animosity, can anything save Somalia?". hotzone. yahoo. com.  
6. ^ "Somali PM: Last Islamic stronghold captured", MSNBC, Associated Press, 2007-01-01. MSNBC is a 24-hour cable television news channel based in the United States and available in Canada. The Associated Press ( AP) is an American News agency. The AP is a Cooperative owned by its contributing Newspapers radio Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Retrieved on 2007-01-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 366 - The Alamanni cross the frozen Rhine River in large numbers invading the Roman Empire.  
7. ^ Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times Chapter 4: Punt Land : Ancient Somali Contacts with Egypt CivicsWeb

See also

• British Somaliland
• Italian Somaliland
• Territory of Afars and Issas, French Somaliland
• Ogaden War
• Battle of Mogadishu (1993)
• Second Battle of Mogadishu
• Somali Civil War (2006-present)
• Somalia
• Somaliland
• Puntland
• Southwestern Somalia
• Jubaland

References

• Samatar (ed. British Somaliland was a British Protectorate in the north part of the Horn of Africa. Italian Somalia (also known as Italian Somaliland) was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia) from the 1880s until 1942 in the territory Djibouti ( جيبوتي Jībūtī, Somali: Jabuuti) officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the The Ogaden War was a conventional conflict between Somalia and Ethiopia in 1977 and 1978 over the Ogaden region of Ethiopia The Battle of Mogadishu (also referred to as the Battle of the Black Sea) or The Second Battle of Mogadishu was a Battle fought for control of Mogadishu, the capital city of Somalia. The Advance of the Islamic Courts Union is the period in the Somali Civil War that began on May 2006 with the Islamic Courts Union 's (ICU conquest of Mogadishu Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known Puntland is a region in northeastern Somalia, centered on Garowe ( Nugaal region whose leaders declared it to be an autonomous state in 1998 Southwestern Somalia ( Koonfur-Galbeed Soomaaliya) was an ostensibly autonomous self-proclaimed state in Somalia founded by Hasan Muhammad Nur Jubaland (Jubbaland or Juba Valley (Dooxada Jubba formerly Trans-Juba (Oltre Giuba is the southwesternmost part of Somalia, on the far side of ), Said S. (November 9 2005). "Somalia Country Studies". Federal Research Division of Library of Congress.  
• Aidid, Mohammed Farah; Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela (2001). Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times. Civic Webs Virtual Library. Retrieved on 2006-12-20. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 69 - Vespasian, formerly a general under Nero, enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor.
• Aidid, Mohammed Farah; Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela (1993). Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times. India: Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD. ISBN 0-7069-8004-2.