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History of Iran |
- See Also: Persian Empire
History of Iran and Greater Iran (also referred to as the "Iranian Cultural Continent" by the Encyclopedia Iranica) consists of the area from the Euphrates in the west to the Indus River and Jaxartes in the east and from the Caucasus, Caspian Sea, and Aral Sea in the north to the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in the south. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Greater Iran (in Irān-e Bozorg, or fa ایرانزمین Irān-zamīn; the Encyclopedia Iranica uses the term Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language Encyclopedia about the history culture and The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd Syr Darya (Сырдария Сирдарё Sirdaryoسيردريا also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo) is a River in Central Asia The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. The Aral Sea ( Kazakh: Арал Теңізі Aral Tengizi, Orol dengizi Russian: Аральскοе мοре Tajik / Persian: Daryocha-i The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the The Gulf of Oman or Gulf of Makran ( Arabic: الخليج عمان transliterated: khalīj ʿumān( Urdu / Persian: خليج مکران It includes the modern nations of Iran, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, the eastern part of Turkey, Iraq and the parts of Pakistan west of the Indus. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان taajikestaan officially the Republic of Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and It is one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, covering thousands of years, from the ancient civilization on the Iranian plateau, Mannaeans civilization in Azarbaijan, Shahr-i Sokhta (Burned City) near Zabol in Sistan va Baluchestan, and the ancient Jiroft civilization in Kerman (more than 5000 BCE) followed by the kingdom of Elam (more than 3000 BCE) and the Median, Achaemenid, the Parthian, the Sassanian dynasties and following Empires to the modern Islamic Republic of Iran. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements The Iranian Plateau, also known as the Persian plateau is a Geological formation in Southwest Asia, Southern The Mannaeans (country name usually Mannea; Akkadian: Mannai, possibly Biblical Minni, מנּי were an ancient people of unknown origin This article is about the region in Iran for other uses see Azerbaijan (disambiguation. Shahr-e Sukhte "Burnt City" (شهر سوخته is an archaeological site of a sizable Bronze Age urban settlement associated with the Jiroft culture. Zabol (fa زابل is a city in the province Sistan and Baluchistan, in Iran, on the border with both Afghanistan and Pakistan. The 5th millennium BC saw the spread of Agriculture from the Near East throughout southern and central Europe A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. The 3rd millennium BC spans the Early to Middle Bronze Age. It represents a period of time in which Imperialism, or the desire to conquer grew to prominence The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics.
Once a major empire of superpower proportions [1] [2], Persia has been overrun frequently and has had its territory altered throughout the centuries. A superpower is a State with a leading position in the international system and the ability to Influence events and project power on a worldwide scale Invaded and occupied by Arabs, Turks, Mongols, British and Russians, and others -- and often caught up in the affairs of larger powers -- Persia has always reasserted its national identity and has developed as a distinct political and cultural entity. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Seljuq (also Seljuq Turks, Seldjuks, Seldjuqs, Seljuks; in Turkish Selçuklular; in Ṣaljūqīyān; in The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending A nation is a Human Cultural and Social Community. In as much as most members never meet each other yet feel a common bond it may be considered
Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC. [3][4][5] The Medes unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC. The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. Events By Topic Religion March 23 - Battle of Uhud ( Muhammad retreats against the inhabitants of Mecca [6][6]. Achaemenid Empire(550–330 BC) was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over Middle east, Greece and central Asia. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south They were succeeded by the Seleucid Empire, Parthians and Sassanids which governed Iran for more than 1000 years. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire
The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656) was a turining point in history of Iran, which led to the end of the Sassanid Empire. The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Islamicization in Iran took place during 8th to 10th century and led to the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia. Islamization in post-conquest Iran, a long process by which Islam was gradually adopted by the majority population occurred as a result of the Islamic conquest Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. However, the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new Islamic polity and civilization. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation.
After centuries of foreign occupation and short-lived native dynasties, Iran was once again reunified as an independent state in 1551 by the Safavid dynasty who established Shi'a Islam[7] as the official religion of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in the history of Islam. The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Muslim history began in Arabia with the Muhammad 's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century [8] Iran had been a monarchy ruled by a shah, or emperor, almost without interruption from 1501 until the 1979 Iranian revolution, when Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on 1 April 1979. The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed Islamic Republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Mauritania Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) [9][10]
Prehistory
There are records of numerous ancient civilizations on the Iranian plateau before the arrival of Iranian tribes from Central Asia during the Early Iron Age. The Iranian Plateau, also known as the Persian plateau is a Geological formation in Southwest Asia, Southern Ancient Iranian peoples who settled Greater Iran in the 2nd millennium BC first appear in Assyrian records in the 9th century BC. The earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran were found in the Kashafrud and Ganj Par sites that date back to Lower Paleolithic. Kashafrud Basin is an Archaeological site in Iran, known for the Lower Palaeolithic artifacts collected there these are the oldest-known evidence for human The Lower Paleolithic (or Lower Palaeolithic) is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. Mousterian Stone tools made by Neanderthal man have also been found. [11] There are also 9000 year old human and animal figurines from Teppe Sarab in Kermanshah Province among the many other ancient artifacts. [11] There are more cultural remains of Neanderthal man dating back to the Middle Paleolithic period, which mainly have been found in the Zagros region and fewer in central Iran at sites such as Shanidar, Kobeh, Kunji, Bisetun, Tamtama, Warwasi, Palegawra, and Yafteh Cave. The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Warwasi is a Paleolithic rockshelter site located at north of Kermanshah in western Iran. [12] Evidence for Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic periods are known mainly from the Zagros region in the caves of Kermanshah and Khoramabad. The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe Africa The Epipaleolithic is a term used for the "final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the The Zagros Mountains (جبال زاجروس (رشته كوههاى زاگرس ( Sorani Kurdish: Zagros - زاگرۆس make up Iran 's and Iraq 's Kermanshah or Kermashan ( Kermānshāh; Kurdish: کرماشان Kirmaşan is the capital city of Kermanshah Province, located 525 km Khorramabad ( Luri: Khurrmoaa, also Khorram Abad, Persian:خرم آباد Khorram Abād) is the capital of Lorestan,
In the 6th millennium BC the world developed a fairly sophisticated agricultural society and proto-urban population centres. The south-western part of Iran was part of the Fertile Crescent where most of humanity's first major crops were grown. The Fertile Crescent is a Crescent -shaped region in the Middle East, originally incorporating the Levant and Ancient Mesopotamia, and often 7000 year old jars of wine excavated in the Zagros Mountains[13] (now on display at The University of Pennsylvania) and ruins of 7000 year old settlements such as Sialk are further testament to this. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice The Zagros Mountains (جبال زاجروس (رشته كوههاى زاگرس ( Sorani Kurdish: Zagros - زاگرۆس make up Iran 's and Iraq 's Sialk is a large ancient archeological site near Kashan, Iran, tucked away in the suburbs of the city of Kashan, in central Iran, close to Two main Neolithic Iranian settlements were the Zayandeh Rud civilization, Ganj Dareh. Ganj Dareh is a Neolithic settlement in Iranian Kurdistan, it is located in the east of Kermanshah. One of main civilizations of Prehistoric Iran was the Elam to the east of Mesopotamia, which started from around 5000 BC, and lasted well into the 6th century BC. Stone Age Paleolithic See also Paleolithic, Recent African Origin, Early Homo sapiens, Early human migrations "Paleolithic" Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Early Bronze Age saw the rise of urbanization into organized city states and the invention of writing (the Uruk period) in the Near East. The Uruk period (ca 4000 to 3100 BC existed from the protohistoric Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age period in the history of Mesopotamia, One of Iran's main civilizations of this time was the Jiroft Civilization in southeastern Iran. Recent excavations at the sites have produced the world's earliest inscription which pre-dates Mesopotamian inscriptions. [14]
Around 1000 BC Zoroasterianism started in Iran and throughout the pre-Islamic history of Iran was the main religion of the people of Iran. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Iran's population was declared 70049262 in the 2006 census with nearly one quarter of its people being 15 years of age or younger
Pre-Islamic history
Early history and statehood (900 BC–248 BC)
Modern Iranians are descendants of early Proto-Iranians. Having descended from the Proto-Indo-Iranians, the Proto-Iranians separated from the Indo-Aryans around in the early 2nd millennium BC. The Proto-Iranians are traced to the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia. The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (or BMAC, also known as the Oxus civilization) is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age By the 1st millennium BC, Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Parthians populated the Iranian plateau, while others such as the Scythians, Sarmatians, Cimmerians and Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea. The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. The Bactrians were an Indo-European people originally of Bactria, situated in what is now modern northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and southern Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Iranian Plateau, also known as the Persian plateau is a Geological formation in Southwest Asia, Southern The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες See Cimmeria (Conan or Cimmeria (Poem for the fiction of Robert E The Alans or Alani (occasionally but more rarely termed Alauni or Halani) were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey The Saka and Scythian tribes remained mainly in the south and spread as far west as the Balkans and as far east as Xinjiang. The Sakas ( English form of Old Iranian Sakā, Nominative plural masculine case; Ancient Greek Σάκαι, The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk During the Neo-Assyrian Empire the Persians and the Medes were vassals of Assyria and paid tribute. The Neo-Assyrian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 609 BC In the second half of the 7th century BC, the Median tribes gained their independence and were united by Deioces. The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. Deioces, Déjocès, Deiokes or Diyako (709 BC &ndash 656 BC was a Prince and the first king of the Medes. In 612 BC the Babylonian king Nabopolassar, along with Cyaxares the Mede, finally destroyed Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, and Assyria fell. Cyaxares, Hvakhshathra, or Kayxosrew (𐎢𐎺𐎧𐏁𐎫𐎼 Uvaxštra, Greek Κυαξαρης; r Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa) The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire, and established the first Iranian empire, the largest of its day until Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians leading to the Achaemenian Empire (648–330 BC). layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of
After his father's death in 559 BC, Cyrus the Great became king of Anshan but like his predecessors, Cyrus had to recognize Mede overlordship. The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. In 552 BC Cyrus led his armies against the Medes until the capture of Ecbatana in 549 BC, effectively conquering the Median Empire and also inheriting Assyria. Ecbatana ( Old Persian: Haŋgmatana, written Agbatana in Aeschylus and Herodotus, Agámtanu by Nabonidos Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Cyrus later went on to conquer Lydia and Babylon. Defining Lydia Aside from a legend related by Herodotus, who states that the name Lydia came from king Lydus at the time of the fall of Troy The term Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean refers to Babylonia under the rule of the 11th ("Chaldean" dynasty from the revolt of Nabopolassar Cyrus the Great created the Cyrus Cylinder, considered to be the first declaration of human rights and was the first king whose name has the suffix "Great". The Cyrus cylinder, also known as the Cyrus the Great cylinder, is a document issued by the Persian emperor Cyrus the Great in the form of a clay After Cyrus' death, his son Cambyses ruled for seven years (531-522 BC) and continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, Darius was declared king (ruled 522-486 BC). Darius I the Great (c 549 BC&ndash486 BC 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 Dārayavahuš: "Possessing goodness" Having ascended to power amidst controversy and bloodshed He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Persian rulers.
Darius' first capital was at Susa, and he started the building programme at Persepolis. Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial He built a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, a forerunner of the modern Suez Canal. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation He improved the extensive road system, and it is during his reign that mention is first made of the Royal Road (shown on map), a great highway stretching all the way from Susa to Sardis with posting stations at regular intervals. A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. The Persian Royal Road was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius I of Achaemenid Empire in the 5th Century BC Sardis, also Sardes ( Lydian: Sfard, Greek: Σάρδεις, Persian: Sparda) modern Sart in Major reforms took place under Darius. Coinage, in the form of the daric (gold coin) and the shekel (silver coin) was introduced (coinage had already been invented over a century before in Lydia ca. 660 BCE),[15] and administrative efficiency was increased. The Old Persian language appears in royal inscriptions, written in a specially adapted version of cuneiform. The Old Persian language is one of the two attested Old Iranian languages (besides Avestan) Under Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest empire in human history up until that point, ruling and administrating over most of the then known world. Darius I the Great (c 549 BC&ndash486 BC 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 Dārayavahuš: "Possessing goodness" Having ascended to power amidst controversy and bloodshed [16]Their greatest achievement was the empire itself. The Persian Empire represented the world's first global superpower [17] [18] that was based on a model of tolerance and respect for other cultures and religions. [19] In 499 BC Athens lent support to a revolt in Miletus which resulted in the sacking of Sardis. Sardis, also Sardes ( Lydian: Sfard, Greek: Σάρδεις, Persian: Sparda) modern Sart in This led to an Achaemenid campaign against Greece known as the Greco-Persian Wars which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC. During the Greco-Persian wars Persia made some major advantages and razed Athens in 480 BC, But after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Fighting ended with the peace of Callias in 449 BC. In 404 BC following the death of Darius II Egypt rebelled under Amyrtaeus. Amyrtaeus (or Amenirdisu) of Sais is the only king of the Twenty-eighth dynasty of Egypt and is thought to be related to the royal family of the Later Egyptian Pharaohs successfully resisted Persian attempts to reconquer Egypt until finally in 343 BC Egypt was reconquered by Artaxerxes III. Pharaoh is the title given in modern parlance to the ancient Egyptian kings of all periods This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Artaxerxes III of Persia ( Ca 425 BC &ndash 338 BC ( Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠 transliterated as Artaxšaçrā) was the Great
In 334 BC-331 BC Alexander the Great, also known in the Zoroastrian Arda Wiraz Nâmag as "the accursed Alexander", defeated Darius III in the battles of Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela, swiftly conquering the Persian Empire by 331 BCE. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings The Book of Arda Viraf is a Zoroastrian religious text that describes the dream-journey of a devout Zoroastrian (the 'Viraf' of the story through the next world Darius III ( Artashata) (c 380&ndash330 BC Persian داریوش Dāriūš dɔːriˈuːʃ was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was the first of three major battles fought between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire. The Battle of Issus (or more commonly The Battle at Issus) occurred in southern Anatolia, in November 333 BC. The Battle of Gaugamela (ˌgɔːgəˈmiːlə (Γαυγάμηλα took place in 331 BC between Alexander the Great of Macedonia and Darius III The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Alexander's empire broke up shortly after his death, and Alexander's general, Seleucus I Nicator, tried to take control of Persia, Mesopotamia, and later Syria and Asia Minor. Seleucus I (surnamed for later generations Nicator, Greek: Σέλευκος Νικάτωρ, i The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black His ruling family is known as the Seleucid Dynasty. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i However he was killed in 281 BC by Ptolemy Keraunos before he could conquer Greece and Macedonia. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Greek language, philosophy, and art came with the colonists. During the Seleucid Dynasty throughout Alexander's former empire, Greek became the common tongue of diplomacy and literature. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i Overland trade brought about some fascinating cultural exchanges. Buddhism came in from India, while Zoroastrianism travelled west to influence Judaism. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Incredible statues of the Buddha in classical Greek styles have been found in Persia and Afghanistan, illustrating the mix of cultures that occurred around this time (See Greco-Buddhism). Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Greco-Buddhism, sometimes spelt Graeco-Buddhism, refers to the cultural Syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism, which developed
Parthian Empire (248 BC – 224 AD)
Parthia was led by the Arsacid dynasty, who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, after defeating the Greek Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late 3rd century BC, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 150 BC and 224 AD. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding It was the second native dynasty of ancient Iran (Persia). The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east; and it limited Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia). The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Cappadocia (or Capadocia, Turkish Kapadokya, from Greek: Καππαδοκία / Kappadokía which in turn is from the Persian: Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The Parthian armies included two types of cavalry: the heavily-armed and armoured cataphracts and lightly armed but highly-mobile mounted archers. The Cavalry (from French cavalerie) is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as Soldiers or Warriors who fought mounted on A cataphract was a form of Heavy cavalry used by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and dynasties and later Ancient Greeks and Romans. For the Romans, who relied on heavy infantry, the Parthians were too hard to defeat, as both types of cavalry were much faster and more mobile than foot soldiers. The Infantry is the oldest and most numerous of the Combat Arms in the Armed forces, and consists On the other hand, the Parthians found it difficult to occupy conquered areas as they were unskilled in siege warfare. Because of these weaknesses, neither the Romans nor the Parthians were able to completely annex each other.
The Parthian empire lasted five centuries, longer than most Eastern Empires. The end of this long lasted empire came in 224 AD, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by one of the empire's vassals, the Persians of the Sassanian dynasty. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire
Sassanian Empire (224 – 651 AD)
The first Shah of the Sassanian Empire, Ardashir I, started reforming the country both economically and militarily. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanid dynasty, was ruler of Istakhr (206-241 subsequently Persia The empire's territory encompassed all of today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, eastern parts of Turkey, and parts of Syria, Pakistan, Caucasia, Central Asia and Arabia. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) During Khosrau II's rule in 590-628, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine and Lebanon were also annexed to the Empire. Khosrau II or Khosrow II ( Chosroes II or Xosrov II in classical sources sometimes called This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية The Sassanians called their empire Erânshahr (or Iranshahr, "Dominion of the Aryans", i. e. of Iranians). The Iranian people are a collection of Ethnic groups defined along linguistic lines as speaking Iranian languages. [20]
A chapter of Iran's history followed after roughly six hundred years of conflict with the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial During this time, the Sassanian and Romano-Byzantine armies clashed for influence in Mesopotamia, Armenia and the Levant. Under Justinian I, the war came to an uneasy peace with payment of tribute to the Sassanians. However the Sassanians used the deposition of the Byzantine Emperor Maurice as a casus belli to attack the Empire. After many gains, the Sassanians were defeated at Issus, Constantinople and finally Nineveh, resulting in peace. With the conclusion of the Roman-Persian wars, the war-exhausted Persians lost the Battle of al-Qâdisiyah (632) in Hilla to the invading forces of Islam, (present day Iraq). Al-Hillah ( BGN: Al Ḩillah; also spelled Hillah or Hilla) is a city in central Iraq For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The Persian general Rostam Farrokhzad had been criticised for his decision to face the Arabs on their own ground, suggesting that the Persians could have prevailed if they had stayed on the opposite bank of the Euphrates. For the character in the 10th century Persian epic Shahnameh or Epic of Kings, see Rostam. The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת The first day of battle ended with Persian advances and the Arab force appeared as though it would succumb to the much larger Sassanian army. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire In particular, the latter's elephants terrified the Arab cavalry. By the third day of battle, Arab veterans arrived on the scene and reinforced the Arab army. In addition a clever trick whereby the Arab horses were decorated in costume succeeded in frightening the Persian elephants. When an Arab warrior succeeded in slaying the lead elephant, the rest fled into the rear, trampelling numerous Persian fighters. At dawn of the fourth day, a sandstorm broke out blowing sand in the Persian army's faces resulting in total disarray for the Sassanian army and paving way for the Islamic conquest of Persia. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia
The Sassanian era, encompassing the length of the Late Antiquity period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran, and had a major impact on the world. Late Antiquity (c 300-600 is a Periodization used by historians to describe the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in In many ways the Sassanian period witnessed the highest achievement of Persian civilization, and constituted the last great Iranian Empire before the adoption of Islam. To best understand Iran and its people one must first attempt to acquire an understanding of its ancient culture Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably during Sassanian times,[21] their cultural influence extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe,[22] Africa,[23] China and India[24] and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art. [25] This influence carried forward to the Islamic world. The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings The dynasty's unique and aristocratic culture transformed the Islamic conquest and destruction of Iran into a Persian Renaissance. [26] Much of what later became known as Islamic culture, architecture, writing and other contributions to civilization, were taken from the Sassanian Persians into the broader Muslim world. [27]
Caliphate and Sultanate era
Islamic Conquest
Muslims invaded Iran in the time of Umar (637) and conquered it after several great battles. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia Umar (a=عمر بن الخطاب|t=`Umar ibn al-Khattāb c 581-83 CE &ndash 7 November, 644) also known as Umar the Great or Omar the Great Yazdegerd III fled from one district to another until a local miller killed him for his purse at Merv in 651[28]. Yazdgerd III (also spelled Yazdegerd or Yazdiger, Persian: یزدگرد سوم "made by God") was the twenty-ninth and last king of Merv ( Russian: Мерв from Persian: مرو Marv, sometimes transliterated Marw or Mary; cf By 674, Muslims had conquered Greater Khorasan (which included modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern Afghanistan, Transoxania, and Pakistan). Greater Khorasan (خراسان بزرگ (also written Khorasaan, Khurasan and Khurasaan) is a modern term for eastern territories of ancient Persia Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and The Islamic conquest of Persia led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia. The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The majority of Iranians gradually converted to Islam. However, the most of the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were absorbed by the new Islamic polity. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation.
As Bernard Lewis has quoted[29]
"These events have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American Both perceptions are of course valid, depending on one's angle of vision. "
Umayyad dynasty
After the fall of Sasanian dynasty in 651, the Umayyad Arabs adopted many of the Persian customs especially the administrative and the court mannerisms. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Arab provincial governors were undoubtedly either Persianized Arameans or ethnic Persians; certainly Persian remained the language of official business of the caliphate until the adoption of Arabic toward the end of the 7th century,[30] when in 692 minting began at the caliphal capital, Damascus. The Aramaeans (also Arameans) ( Aramaic / Syriac: ܐܪܡܝܐ, Ārāmāye' were a Semitic (West Semitic language group Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. The new Islamic coins evolved from imitations of Sasanian coins (as well as Byzantine), and the Pahlavi script on the coinage was replaced with Arabic alphabet. Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa such as Arabic, Persian, and Urdu.
During the reign of the Ummayad dynasty, the Arab conquerors imposed Arabic as the primary language of the subject peoples throughout their empire. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Hajjāj ibn Yusuf, who was not happy with the prevalence of the Persian language in the divan, ordered the official language of the conquered lands to be replaced by Arabic, sometimes by force. Al-Hajjāj ibn Yūsuf ( Arabic: الحجاج بن يوسف, also known as Hajjāj ibn Yūsuf ath-Thaqafī) born in early June 661 in aţ-Ţā’if Dīvān or dīwān ( Persian دیوان was a high governmental body in a number of Islamic states or its chief official (see Diwan (title [31] In Biruni's From The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries for example it is written:
"When Qutaibah bin Muslim under the command of Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef was sent to Khwarazmia with a military expedition and conquered it for the second time, he swiftly killed whomwever wrote the Khwarazmian native language that knew of the Khwarazmian heritage, history, and culture. Qutaibah bin Muslim (d 715 was an Arab Muslim general who lived during the late 7th/early 8th century Al-Hajjāj ibn Yūsuf ( Arabic: الحجاج بن يوسف, also known as Hajjāj ibn Yūsuf ath-Thaqafī) born in early June 661 in aţ-Ţā’if Khwarezm were a series of States centered on the Amu Darya River delta of the He then killed all their Zoroastrian priests and burned and wasted their books, until gradually the illiterate only remained, who knew nothing of writing, and hence their history was mostly forgotten. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings " [32]
There are a number of historians who see the rule of the Umayyads as setting up the "dhimmah" to increase taxes from the dhimmis to benefit the Arab Muslim community financially and by discouraging conversion. A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish [33] Governors lodged complaints with the caliph when he enacted laws that made conversion easier, depriving the provinces of revenues.
In the 7th century AD, when many non-Arabs such as Persians entered Islam were recognized as Mawali and treated as second class citizens by the ruling Arab elite, until the end of the Umayyad dynasty. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Mawali or mawala ( Arabic, موالي) is a term in Classical Arabic used to address non-Arab Muslims During this era Islam was initially associated with the ethnic identity of the Arab and required formal association with an Arab tribe and the adoption of the client status of mawali. Mawali or mawala ( Arabic, موالي) is a term in Classical Arabic used to address non-Arab Muslims [33] The half-hearted policies of the late Umayyads to tolerate non-Arab Muslims and Shi'as had failed to quell unrest among these minorities. With the death of the Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik in 743, the Islamic world was launched into civil war. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah "Hisham" redirects here For the hadith narrator see Hisham ibn Urwah. Abu Muslim was sent to Khorasan by the Abbasids initially as a propagandist and then to revolt on their behalf. Abu Muslim Abd al-Rahman ibn Muslim al-Khorasani (, c 700 - 755 was an Abbasid general of Persian ( ''Tājīk'') origin born in city of Balkh He took Merv defeating the Umayyad governor there Nasr ibn Sayyar. Merv ( Russian: Мерв from Persian: مرو Marv, sometimes transliterated Marw or Mary; cf He became the de facto Abbasid governor of Khurasan. In 750, Abu Muslim became leader of the Abbasid army and defeated the Umayyads at Battle of the Zab. The Battle of the Zab took place on the banks of the Great Zab river in what is now Iraq on January 25, 750. Abu Muslim stormed Damascus, the capital of the Umayyad caliphate, later that year. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria.
Abbasid dynasty and Iranian Semi-independent governments
The Abbasid army consisted primarily of Khorasanians and was led by an Iranian general, Abu Muslim Khorasani. The Tahirid dynasty, (سلسله طاهریان Persian: ( 821 - 873) ruled the northeastern Persian Empire region The Saffarid dynasty ( Persian: سلسله صفاریان ruled a empire in Sistan, which is a historical region now in southeastern Iran and southwestern The Ziyarids, also spelled Zeyarids (زیاریان or آل زیار were an Iranian dynasty that ruled in the Caspian sea provinces of Gorgan The Samanids (819–999 ( Sāmāniyān) were a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan, named after its founder Saman The Buyids (آل بویه Āl-e Buye, Caspian: Bowyiyün also known as Buwaihids or Buyyids, were a Shī‘ah Iranian Abu Muslim Abd al-Rahman ibn Muslim al-Khorasani (, c 700 - 755 was an Abbasid general of Persian ( ''Tājīk'') origin born in city of Balkh Abu Muslim Abd al-Rahman ibn Muslim al-Khorasani (, c 700 - 755 was an Abbasid general of Persian ( ''Tājīk'') origin born in city of Balkh It contained both Iranian and Arab elements, and the Abbasids enjoyed both Iranian and Arab support. The Abbasids, who overthrew the Umayyads in 750. [34]
One of the first changes the Abbasids made after taking power from the Umayyads was to move the empire's capital from Damascus, in Levant, to Iraq. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The latter region was influenced by Persian history and culture, and moving the capital was part of the Persian mawali demand for less Arab influence in the empire. The city of Baghdad was constructed on the Tigris River, in 762, to serve as the new Abbasid capital. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern The Abbasids established the position of vizier like Barmakids in their administration, which was the equivalent of a "vice-caliph," or second-in-command. A Vizier ( - wazīr) (sometimes also spelled Vazir Vizir Vasir Wazir Vesir, or Vezir - grammatical vowel changes are common in many western Asian The Barmakids ( Persian: برمکیان Barmakīyān; Arabic: البرامكة al-barāmika, also called Barmecides Eventually, this change meant that many caliphs under the Abbasids ended up in a much more ceremonial role than ever before, with the vizier in real power. A new Persian bureaucracy began to replace the old Arab aristocracy, and the entire administration reflected these changes, demonstrating that the new dynasty was different in many ways to the Umayyads. [35]
By the 9th century, Abbasid control began to wane as regional leaders sprang up in the far corners of the empire to challenge the central authority of the Abbasid caliphate. [35] The Abbasid caliphs began enlisting Turkic-speaking warriors who had been moving out of Central Asia into Transoxiana as slave warriors as early as the ninth century. Shortly thereafter the real power of the Abbasid caliphs began to wane; eventually they became religious figureheads while the warrior slaves ruled. As the power of the Abbasid caliphs diminished, a series of dynasties rose in various parts of Iran, some with considerable influence and power. Among the most important of these overlapping dynasties were the Tahirids in Khorasan (820-72); the Saffarids in Sistan (867-903); and the Samanids (875-1005), originally at Bokhara. The Tahirid dynasty, (سلسله طاهریان Persian: ( 821 - 873) ruled the northeastern Persian Empire region The Saffarid dynasty ( Persian: سلسله صفاریان ruled a empire in Sistan, which is a historical region now in southeastern Iran and southwestern Modern Sistan ( is a border region in southeastern Iran (see Sistan and Baluchestan Province) and southwestern Afghanistan (see Nimruz Province The Samanids (819–999 ( Sāmāniyān) were a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan, named after its founder Saman Bukhara (Buxoro Бухоро بُخارا Бухара also spelled as Bukhoro and Bokhara, from the Soghdian βuxārak ("lucky The Samanids eventually ruled an area from central Iran to Pakistan. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and [34] By the early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control to the growing Persian faction known as the Buwayhid dynasty(934-1055). The Buyids (آل بویه Āl-e Buye, Caspian: Bowyiyün also known as Buwaihids or Buyyids, were a Shī‘ah Iranian Since much of the Abbasid administration had been Persian anyway, the Buwayhid were quietly able to assume real power in Baghdad. The Buwayhid were defeated in the mid-11th century by the Seljuk Turks, who continued to exert influence over the Abbasids, while publicly pledging allegiance to them. Seljuk ( Arabic: السلاجقة Turkish: Selçuk; also Seldjuk, Seldjuq, Seljuq) was the eponymous hero of the Seljuks The balance of power in Baghdad remained as such - with the Abbasids in power in name only - until the Mongol invasion of 1258 sacked the city and definitively ended the Abbasid dynasty. [35]
During the Abbassid period an enfranchisement was experienced by the mawali and a shift was made in political conception from that of a primarily Arab empire to one of a Muslim empire[36] and c. 930 a requirement was enacted that required all bureaucrats of the empire be Muslim. [33]
Conversion to Islam, Shu'ubiyya movement and Persianization process
- See also: Islamization in Iran and Shu'ubiyya
Islamization was a long process by which Islam was gradually adopted by the majority population of Iran. Shu'ubiyyah ( Arabic: الشعوبية refers to the response by non- Arab Muslims to the privileged status of Arabs within the Ummah. Persianization or Persianisation is a process of cultural and/or linguistic change in which something non-Persian becomes Persian. Islamization in post-conquest Iran, a long process by which Islam was gradually adopted by the majority population occurred as a result of the Islamic conquest Shu'ubiyyah ( Arabic: الشعوبية refers to the response by non- Arab Muslims to the privileged status of Arabs within the Ummah. Islamization (also spelt Islamisation, see Spelling differences) or Islamification means the process of a society's conversion to the religion of Islam For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation.
Richard Bulliet's "conversion curve" indicates that only about 10% of Iran converted to Islam during the relatively Arab-centric Umayyad period. Richard W Bulliet is a professor of history at Columbia University who specializes in the history of Islamic society and institutions the history of Technology Beginning in the Abassid period, with its mix of Persian as well as Arab rulers, the Muslim percentage of the population rose. As Persian muslims consolidated their rule of the country, the Muslim population rose from approx. 40% in the mid 9th century to close to 100% by the end of 11th century. [36] Seyyed Hossein Nasr suggests that the rapid increase in conversion was aided by the Persian nationality of the rulers. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Persian سید حسین نصر) an Iranian [37]
Although Persians adopted the religion of their conquerors, over the centuries they worked to protect and revive their distinctive language and culture, a process known as Persianization. Persianization or Persianisation is a process of cultural and/or linguistic change in which something non-Persian becomes Persian. Arabs and Turks participated in this attempt. [38] [39][40]
In the 9th and 10th centuries, non-Arab subjects of the Ummah created a movement called Shu'ubiyyah in response to the privileged status of Arabs. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Ummah (أمة is an Arabic word meaning Community or Nation. It is commonly used to mean either the collective nation of states, or (in the Shu'ubiyyah ( Arabic: الشعوبية refers to the response by non- Arab Muslims to the privileged status of Arabs within the Ummah. Most of those behind the movement were Persian, but references to Egyptians, Berbers and Aramaeans are attested[41]. This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. The Aramaeans (also Arameans) ( Aramaic / Syriac: ܐܪܡܝܐ, Ārāmāye' were a Semitic (West Semitic language group Citing as its basis Islamic notions of equality of races and nations, the movement was primarily concerned with preserving Persian culture and protecting Persian identity, though within a Muslim context. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The most notable effect of the movement was the survival of the Persian language to the present day.
The Samanid dynasty was the first fully native dynasty to rule Iran since the Muslim conquest, and led the revival of Persian culture. The Samanids (819–999 ( Sāmāniyān) were a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan, named after its founder Saman The first important Persian poet after the arrival of Islam, Rudaki, was born during this era and was praised by Samanid kings. Abdullah Jafar Ibn Mohammad Rudaki, (ابوعبدالله جعفر ابن محمد رودکی entitledآدم الشعرا Ādam ul-Shoara or Adam of Poets also written The Samanids also revived many ancient Persian festivals. Their successor, the Ghaznawids, who were of non-Iranian Turkic origin, also became instrumental in the revival of Persian. The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk. [42]
The culmination of the Persianization movement was the Shahname, the national epic of Iran, written almost entirely in Persian. Persianization or Persianisation is a process of cultural and/or linguistic change in which something non-Persian becomes Persian. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc This voluminous work, reflects Iran's ancient history, its unique cultural values, its pre-islamic Zoroastrian religion, and its sense of nationhood. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings
According to Bernard Lewis[29]:
"Iran was indeed Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna. . . "
Turko-Persian Dynasties
In 962 a Turkish governor of the Samanids, Alptigin, conquered Ghazna (in present-day Afghanistan) and established a dynasty, the Ghaznavids, that lasted to 1186. The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk. The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled The Khwarezmian Empire, more commonly known as the empire of the Khwarezm Shahs ( Khwārezmšhāḥīān, "Kings of Khwarezmia " Alp Tigin ( Alp Tegīn, Turkic for brave prince) was a general of Central Asian Turkic origin from Balkh who had risen Ghazni City ( - Ğaznī; Ghazna and Ghaznīn are the old names for Ghazni The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk. [34] The Ghaznavid empire grew by taking all of the Samanid territories south of the Amu Darya in the last decade of the 10th century, and eventually occupied much of present-day Iran, Afghanistan,Pakistan and northwest India. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Ghaznavids are generally credited with launching Islam into Hindu-dominated India. The invasion of India was undertaken in 1000 by the Ghaznavid ruler, Mahmud, and continued for several years. Mahmud of Ghazni (محمود غزنوی Maḥmūd-e Ghaznawī ( November 2, 971 - April 30, 1030) also known as Yāmīn They were unable to hold power for long, however, particularly after the death of Mahmud in 1030. By 1040 the Seljuks had taken over the Ghaznavid lands in Iran. [35]
The Seljuks, who like the Ghaznavids were Turks, slowly conquered Iran over the course of the 11th century. The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled [34] The dynasty had its origins in the Turcoman tribal confederations of Central Asia and marked the beginning of Turkic power in the Middle East. The Oghuz (variously known as Ghuzz, Guozz, Kuz, Oguz, Oğuz, Okuz, Oufoi, Ouz, Ouzoi, The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. They established a Sunni Muslim dynasty that ruled parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th to 14th centuries. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. They set up an empire known as Great Seljuk Empire that stretched from Anatolia to Pakistan and was the target of the First Crusade. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing Today they are regarded as the cultural ancestors of the Western Turks, the present-day inhabitants of Azerbaijan, Turkey, and Turkmenistan, and they are remembered as great patrons of Persian culture, art, literature, and language[43][40][44]. The Turkish people (Türk Halkı also known as " Turks " ( Türkler) are defined mainly as being speakers of Turkish as a First language Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. To best understand Iran and its people one must first attempt to acquire an understanding of its ancient culture The Iranian cultural region - consisting of the modern nations of Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Their leader, Tughril Beg, turned his warriors against the Ghaznavids in Khorasan. For the Kerait ruler Toghrul protector of Genghis Khan see Wang Khan. He moved south and then west, conquering but not wasting the cities in his path. In 1055 the caliph in Baghdad gave Tughril Beg robes, gifts, and the title King of the East. Under Tughril Beg's successor, Malik Shah (1072–1092), Iran enjoyed a cultural and scientific renaissance, largely attributed to his brilliant Iranian vizier, Nizam al Mulk. Malik Shah may refer to Malik Shah I (d 1092 sultan of Great Seljuk Malik Shah II, grandson of Malik Shah I sultan of Great Seljuk For info about rulers of Hyderabad state, see the page Nizam state of Hyderabad. These leaders established the observatory where Omar Khayyám did much of his experimentation for a new calendar, and they built religious schools in all the major towns. For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین A nizamiyya ( النظامیة, Persian: نظامیه is one of the medieval institutions of higher education established by Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk in the They brought Abu Hamid Ghazali, one of the greatest Islamic theologians, and other eminent scholars to the Seljuk capital at Baghdad and encouraged and supported their work. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died [34]
When Malik Shah I died in 1092, the empire split as his brother and four sons quarrelled over the apportioning of the empire among themselves. In Anatolia, Malik Shah I was succeeded by Kilij Arslan I who founded the Sultanate of Rûm and in Syria by his brother Tutush I. Kilij Arslan (قلج أرسلان Qilij Arslān I Kılıç Arslan was the Seljuq Sultan of Rum from 1092 until his death in 1107 Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I ( أبو سعيد ناج الدولة تتش السلجوقي) (died in 1095 was the Seljuk ruler (probably Sultan or In Persia he was succeeded by his son Mahmud I whose reign was contested by his other three brothers Barkiyaruq in Iraq, Muhammad I in Baghdad and Ahmad Sanjar in Khorasan. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Nasir ad-Din Mahmud I was the sultan of Great Seljuk (1092 - 1094 Abu al-Muzaffar Rukn ud-Dīn Barkyāruq bin Malikšāh ( was the sultan of Great Seljuk from 1094 - 1105. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Ghiyath ad-Din Muhammad Tapar (died 1118 was a son of Seljuk Sultan Malik Shah I. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Mu'iz ud-Dīn Ahmad-e Sanjar (Sultan Sancar (1084/1086 &ndash May 8 1157) was the Sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire from 1118 to 1153 Greater Khorasan (خراسان بزرگ (also written Khorasaan, Khurasan and Khurasaan) is a modern term for eastern territories of ancient Persia As Seljuk power in Iran weakened, other dynasties began to step up in its place, including a resurgent Abbasid caliphate and the Khwarezmshahs. The Khwarezmian Empire, more commonly known as the empire of the Khwarezm Shahs ( Khwārezmšhāḥīān, "Kings of Khwarezmia " The Khwarezmid Empire was a Sunni Muslim dynasty that ruled in Central Asia. Originally vassals of the Seljuks, they took advantage of the decline of the Seljuks to expand into Iran. [45] In 1194 the Khwarezmshah Ala ad-Din Tekish defeated the Seljuk sultan Tugrul III in battle and the Seljuk empire in Iran collapsed. Of the former Seljuk Empire, only the Sultanate of Rüm in Anatolia remained. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black
A serious internal threat to the Seljuks during their reign came from the Ismailis, a secret sect with headquarters at Alamut between Rasht and Tehran. For the Egyptian city see Ismaïlia. The Ismāʿīlī ( Urdu: إسماعیلی Ismāʿīlī, Arabic: الإسماعيليون Alamūt ( Persian الموت "Eagle Peak" often appearing in the folk etymological form قلعه الموت Qal‘atu l-Mūt "the Castle of Death" Rasht ( رشت, Resht) is the capital of Gilan province in northwestern Iran and the largest city along the Caspian sea coast Tehran (or Teheran) ( Persian: تهران Tehrān) is the capital and largest City of Iran, and the administrative center of They controlled the immediate area for more than 150 years and sporadically sent out adherents to strengthen their rule by murdering important officials. Several of the various theories on the etymology of the word assassin derive from these killers. AssassiNation is the sixth album by Krisiun, released in 2006 on Century Media. [34]
Mongol invasions and local governments
The Khwarezmid Empire only lasted for a few decades, until the arrival of the Mongols. Genghis Khan had unified the Mongols, and under him the Mongol Empire quickly expanded in several directions, until by 1218 it bordered Khwarezm. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire At that time, the Khwarezmid Empire was ruled by Ala ad-Din Muhammad (1200-1220). Ala ad-Din Muhammad II (علاءالدين محمد ʿAlā al-Dīn Muḥammad was the ruler of the Khwarezmid Empire from 1200 to 1220 Muhammad, like Genghis, was intent on expanding his lands and had gained the submission of most of Iran. He declared himself shah and demanded formal recognition from the Abbasid caliph an-Nasir. An-Nasir li-Din Allah (1158 &ndash 1225 (الناصر لدين الله was the 34th Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad from 1180 to 1225 When the caliph rejected his claim, Ala ad-Din Muhammad proclaimed one of his nobles caliph and unnsuccessfully tried to depose an-Naisr.
The Mongol invasion of Iran began in 1219, after two diplomatic missions to Khwarezm sent by Genghis Khan had been massacred. During 1220–21 Bukhara, Samarkand, Herat, Tus, and Neyshabur were razed, and the whole populations were slaughtered. Bukhara (Buxoro Бухоро بُخارا Бухара also spelled as Bukhoro and Bokhara, from the Soghdian βuxārak ("lucky Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. Toos (توس or طوس in Persian) also known as Tous or Tus, is an ancient city in the Iranian province of Razavi Khorasan Nishapur, or Neyshābūr ( is a city in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot The Khwarezm-Shah fled, to die on an island off the Caspian coast. [46] Before his death in 1227, Genghis had reached western Azarbaijan, pillaging and burning cities along the way.
The Mongol invasion was disastrous to the Iranians. Although the Mongol invaders were eventually converted to Islam and accepted the culture of Iran, the Mongol destruction of the Islamic heartland marked a major change of direction for the region. Much of the six centuries of Islamic scholarship, culture, and infrastructure was destroyed as the invaders burned libraries, replaced mosques with Buddhist temples. [47] The Mongols killed many civilians. Just in Merv and Urgench(Gorganj) about 2. Merv ( Russian: Мерв from Persian: مرو Marv, sometimes transliterated Marw or Mary; cf Urgench ( Uzbek: Urganch / Урганч, Persian گرگانج Gorganch is a city (1999 pop 5 million civilians were slaughtered. [48] Destruction of qanat irrigation systems destroyed the pattern of relatively continuous settlement, producing numerous isolated oasis cities in a land where they had previously been rare (see Water, ch. A qanat (from قناة) or kareez (from كاريز) is a Water management system used to provide a reliable supply of water to human settlements 3). A large number of people, particularly males, were killed; between 1220 and 1258, the total population of Iran may have dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass extermination and famine. Murder is the unlawful killing of another human person with Malice aforethought, as defined in Common Law countries A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation [49]
After Genghis' death, Iran was ruled by several Mongol commanders. Khanate or Chanat is a Turkic origined word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. Genghis' grandson, Hulagu Khan, was tasked with expanding the Mongol empire in Iran in 1255. This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as Arriving with an army, he established himself in the region and founded the Ilkhanate, which would rule Iran for the next eighty years. The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in He seized Baghdad in 1258 and put the last Abbasid caliph to death. The westward advance of his forces was stopped by the Mamelukes, however, at the Battle of Ain Jalut in Palestine in 1260. The Bahri dynasty or Bahriyya Mamluks (al-Mamalik al-Bahariyya المماليك البحرية) was a Mamluk Dynasty of mostly Kipchak The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic ar عين جالوت the "Eye of Goliath" or the "Spring of Goliath" took place on 3 September 1260 between Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Hulagu's campagains against the Muslims also enraged Berke, khan of the Golden Horde and a convert to Islam. Berke Khan (Бэрх was the Khan of the Kipchak or Golden Horde who effectively consolidated the power of the Blue Horde and White Hordes This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. Hulagu and Berke fought against each other, demonstrating the weakening unity of the Mongol empire.
The rule of Hulagu's great-grandson, Ghazan Khan (1295-1304) saw the establishment of Islam as the state religion of the Ilkhanate. Mahmud Ghazan or Qazaan the Khan of the Tartars (original Mongol name Ghazan Khan, Ch合贊 b Ghazan and his famous Iranian vizier, Rashid al-Din, brought Iran a partial and brief economic revival. Rashid al-Din Tabib ( also Rashid ad-Din Fadhlullah Hamadani (1247–1318 ( was a Persian physician of Jewish origin Polymathic writer and historian The Mongols lowered taxes for artisans, encouraged agriculture, rebuilt and extended irrigation works, and improved the safety of the trade routes. As a result, commerce increased dramatically. Items from India, China, and Iran passed easily across the Asian steppes, and these contacts culturally enriched Iran. For example, Iranians developed a new style of painting based on a unique fusion of solid, two-dimensional Mesopotamian painting with the feathery, light brush strokes and other motifs characteristic of China. After Ghazan's nephew Abu Said died in 1335, however, the Ilkhanate lapsed into civil war and was divided between several petty dynasties - most prominently the Jalayirids, Muzaffarids, Sarbadars and Kartids. The Jalayirids (آل جلایر were a Mongol dynasty which ruled over Iraq and western Persia after the breakup of the Mongol Khanate of Persia The Muzaffarids (آل مظفر in Persian were a Sunni family that came to power in Iran following the breakup of the Ilkhanate in the 14th century The Sarbadars (from sarbadar, "head on gallows" also known as Sarbedaran) were a mixture of religious dervishes and secular rulers that came to rule over The Kartid Dynasty ( Karts, also known as Kurts) was a Persian dynasty that ruled over a large part of Khorassan during the 13th
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Iran remained divided until the arrival of Timurlane, who is variously described as of Mongol or Turkic origin. The Timurids, self-designated Gurkānī ( were a Persianate Central Asian Sunni Muslim dynasty Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among After establishing a power base in Transoxiana, he invaded Iran in 1381 and conquered it piece by piece. Timerlane's campaigns were known for their brutality; many people were slaughtered and several cities were destroyed. His regime was characterized by its inclusion of Iranians in administrative roles and its promotion of architecture and poetry. His successors, the Timurids, maintained a hold on most of Iran until 1452, when they lost the bulk of it to Black Sheep Turkmen. The Timurids, self-designated Gurkānī ( were a Persianate Central Asian Sunni Muslim dynasty The Kara Koyunlu or Qara Qoyunlu, also called the Black Sheep Turkomans ( Turkmen: Garagoýunly; Azeri: Qaraqoyunlu The Black Sheep Turkmen were conquered by the White Sheep Turkmen under Uzun Hasan in 1468; Uzun Hasan and his successors were the masters of Iran until the rise of the Safavids. The Ak Koyunlu or Aq Qoyunlu, also called the White Sheep Turkomans ( Turkmen: Akgoýunly, Azeri: Ağqoyunlu, Uzun Hassan ( 1423 - January 6, 1478) ( Ottoman Turkish: اوزون حسن, Uzun Həsən where uzun means tall) [50]
Iran and the Islamic culture and civilization
The Islamization of Iran was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming of Persian literature, philosophy, medicine and art became major elements of the newly-forming Muslim civilization. Islamization in post-conquest Iran, a long process by which Islam was gradually adopted by the majority population occurred as a result of the Islamic conquest Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Iranian philosophy or Persian philosophy can be traced back as far as to Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts which originated in ancient Indo-Iranian Science and technology in Iran, formerly known as Persia, have a history like the country itself The Iranian cultural region - consisting of the modern nations of Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and Inheriting a heritage of thousands of years of civilization, and being at the "crossroads of the major cultural highways",[51] contributed to Persia emerging as what culminated into the "Islamic Golden Age". During this period, hundreds of scholars and scientists vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during the Renaissance. Classical (pre-modern Era The following is a non-comprehensive list of Iranian scientists and engineers that lived from antiquity up until the beginning of the modern The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere [52]
The most important scholars of almost all of the Islamic sects and schools of thought were Persian or live in Iran including most notable and reliable Hadith collectors of Shia and Sunni like Shaikh Saduq, Shaikh Kulainy, Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim and Hakim al-Nishaburi, the greatest theologians of Shia and Sunni like Shaykh Tusi, Imam Ghazali, Imam Fakhr al-Razi and Al-Zamakhshari, the greatest physicians, astronomers, logicians, mathematicians, metaphysicians, philosophers and scientists like Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the greatest Shaykh of Sufism like Rumi, Abdul-Qadir Gilani. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Al-Shaykh al-Saduq is the title given to Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn Babawaih al-Qummi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kulayni Al-Razi (died 329 Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, popularly known as Al-Bukhari ( البخاري) or Imam Bukhari (810-870 was a famous Sunni Abul Husayn Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj Qushayri al-Nisapuri ( Arabic: أبو الحسين مسلم بن الحجاج القشيري النيشابوري (lived c Abu Abd-Allah Muhammad ibn Abd-Allah al-Hakim al-Nishaburi (d Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Shaykh Tusi ( شیخ طوسی) full name Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Hassan Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Umar ibn al-Husayn al-Taymi al-Bakri al-Tabaristani Fakhr al-Din al-Razi ( Arabic / Abu al-Qasim Mahmud ibn Umar al-Zamakhshari also called Jar Allah ( Arabic for "God's neighbour" and known widely as al-Zamakhshari (1074 or 1075 A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born A Shaykh of Sufism is a Sufi who is authorized to teach initiate and guide aspiring Dervishes There are several types of such Shaykh Shaikh Sayyid 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani ( Persian / Urdu: عبد القادرگیلانی) (also spelled Abdelkader Abdul Qadir Abdul Khadir - Jilani Jeelani Jilali
Ibn Khaldun narrates in his Muqaddimah [53]:
It is a remarkable fact that, with few exceptions, most Muslim scholars…in the intellectual sciences have been non-Arabs, thus the founders of grammar were Sibawaih and after him, al-Farsi and Az-Zajjaj. Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The Muqaddimah, or the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun ( Arabic: ar مقدّمة ابن خلدون Amazigh: Tazwarit n Ibn Xldun Sibawayh ( Sibuyeh in Persian, سيبويه Sîbawayh in Arabic, سیبویه was a linguist of Persian origin born TemplateInfobox Salaf --> Salman the Persian or Salman al Farisi ( سلمان فارسی Salman e Farsi All of them were of Persian descent they invented rules of (Arabic) grammar. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Great jurists were Persians. Only the Persians engaged in the task of preserving knowledge and writing systematic scholarly works. Thus the truth of the statement of the prophet (Muhammad) becomes apparent, "If learning were suspended in the highest parts of heaven the Persians would attain it"…The intellectual sciences were also the preserve of the Persians, left alone by the Arabs, who did not cultivate them…as was the case with all crafts…This situation continued in the cities as long as the Persians and Persian countries, Iraq, Khorasan and Transoxiana (modern Central Asia), retained their sedentary culture. Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود
Sunnis in Iran
Sunnism was dominant form of Islam in most part of Iran from the beginning until rise of Safavids empire. Toos (توس or طوس in Persian) also known as Tous or Tus, is an ancient city in the Iranian province of Razavi Khorasan For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Hārūn al-Rashīd (and Persian: هارون الرشيد) also spelled Harun ar-Rashid; English: Aaron the Upright, Aaron the Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died According to Mortaza Motahhari the majority of Iranian scholars and masses remained Sunni till the time of the Safawids. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ayatollah Morteza Motahhari (مرتضی مطهری February 3, 1920 [54]
Nizamiyyas were the medieval institutions of Islamic higher education established by Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk in the eleventh century. A nizamiyya ( النظامیة, Persian: نظامیه is one of the medieval institutions of higher education established by Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk in the "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. For info about rulers of Hyderabad state, see the page Nizam state of Hyderabad. Nizamiyyah institutes were the first well organized universities in the Muslim world. A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings The most famous and celebrated of all the nizamiyyah schools was Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad (established 1065), where Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk appointed the distinguished philosopher and theologian, al-Ghazali, as a professor. Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad ( Arabic, المدرسة النظامية)was an early Islamic university, arguably the first ever established in July Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died Other nizamiyyah schools were located in Nishapur, Balkh, Herat and Isfahan. Nishapur, or Neyshābūr ( is a city in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot Balkh ( - Balḫ) also known as Bactra, was once a major world city but was destroyed entirely by the Mongols. area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. Esfahān or Isfahan (historically also rendered as Ispahan or Hispahan, Old Persian: Aspadana, Middle Persian: Spahān
Shiism in Iran
The domination of Sunnis did not mean Shia were rootless in Iran. The Islamic conquest of Persia (637-651 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia. The writers of The Four Books of Shia were Iranian as well as many other great Shia scholars. Distinguish from the Four Books of Chinese Confucianism The Four Books (Arabic الكتب الاربعة Al-Kutub Al-Arbʿah'
Mortaza Motahhari has quoted[54]:
The majority of Iranians turned to Shi'ism from the Safavid period onwards. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ayatollah Morteza Motahhari (مرتضی مطهری February 3, 1920 Of course, it cannot be denied that Iran's environment was more favourable to the flourishing of the Shi'ism as compared to all other parts of the Muslim world. Shi'ism did not penetrate any land to the extent that it gradually could in Iran. With the passage of time, Iranians' readiness to practise Shi'ism grew day by day. Had Shi`ism not been deeply rooted in the Iranian spirit, the Safavids (907-1145/ 1501-1732) would not have succeeded in converting Iranians to the Shi'i creed and making them follow the Prophet's Ahl al-Bayt sheerly by capturing political power.
Shiaism in Iran before Safavids
The domination of the Sunni creed during the first nine Islamic centuries characterizes the religious history of Iran during this period. Imam Reza shrine ( in Mashhad, Iran is a complex which contains mausoleum of Imam Ridha, the eighth There were however some exceptions to this general domination which emerged in the form of the Zaydīs of Tabaristan, the Buwayhid, the rule of Sultan Muhammad Khudabandah (r. Zaidiyya, Zaidism or Zaydism (Arabic الزيدية az-zaydiyya, adjective form Zaidi or Zaydi) is a Shī'a Madhhab The Buyids (آل بویه Āl-e Buye, Caspian: Bowyiyün also known as Buwaihids or Buyyids, were a Shī‘ah Iranian Öljaitü, Oljeitu or Uljeitu, also known as Muhammad Khodabandeh, ( Persian محمد خدابنده - اولجایتو Shawwal 703-Shawwal 716/1304-1316) and the Sarbedaran. The Sarbadars (from sarbadar, "head on gallows" also known as Sarbedaran) were a mixture of religious dervishes and secular rulers that came to rule over Nevertheless, apart from this domination there existed, firstly, throughout these nine centuries, Shia inclinations among many Sunnis of this land and, secondly, original Imami Shiism as well as Zaydī Shiism had prevalence in some parts of Iran. See also Shi'a Islam Twelver Shi'ism ( ar اثنا عشرية Ithnāˤashariyyah) is the largest branch of Shi'a branch of Islam Zaidiyya, Zaidism or Zaydism (Arabic الزيدية az-zaydiyya, adjective form Zaidi or Zaydi) is a Shī'a Madhhab During this period, Shia in Iran were nourished from Kufah, Baghdad and later from Najaf and Hillah. Kufa ( Arabic, ar الكوفة) is a city in modern Iraq, about 170 km south of Baghdad, and 10 km northeast of Najaf. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Najaf ( BGN: An Najaf) is a city in Iraq about 160 km south of Baghdad. Al-Hillah ( BGN: Al Ḩillah; also spelled Hillah or Hilla) is a city in central Iraq [55] Shiism were dominant sect in Tabaristan, Qom, Kashan, Avaj and Sabzevar. Kashan is a city in the province of Isfahan, Iran. It had an estimated population of 272359 in 2005. Sabzevar is a city in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran. In many other areas merged population of Shia and Sunni lived.
The first Zaidi state was established in Daylaman and Tabaristan (northern Iran) in 864 C. Daylam (Sometimes Daylaman, Dailam or Delam) was a province of Persia, now part of Gīlān. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. E. by the Alavids[56]; it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids in 928 C. The Samanids (819–999 ( Sāmāniyān) were a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan, named after its founder Saman E. Roughly forty years later the state was revived in Gilan (north-western Iran) and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 C. E. After which from the 12th-13th centuries, the Zaidis of Daylaman, Gilan and Tabaristan then acknowledge the Zaidi Imams of Yemen or rival Zaidi Imams within Iran. Daylam (Sometimes Daylaman, Dailam or Delam) was a province of Persia, now part of Gīlān. [57]
Twelvers came to Iran from Arab regions in the course of four stages. First, through the Asharis tribe at the end of the first(AH)/seventh(AD) and during the second(AH)/eighth(AD) century. Second through the pupils of Sabzevar, and especially those of Shaykh Mufid, who were from Ray and Sabzawar and resided in those cities. Sabzevar is a city in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Nu'man al-'Ukbari al-Baghdadi known See Rayshahr for the Sassanid center of learning in Fars province Sabzawar is a town of Afghanistan, situated at an elevation of 3550 ft on the left bank of the river Harud 93 mi Third, through the school of Hillah under the leadership of Allama Hilli and his son Fakhr al-Muhaqqiqin. Al-Hillah ( BGN: Al Ḩillah; also spelled Hillah or Hilla) is a city in central Iraq Jamal ad-Din Hasan ibn Yusuf ibn 'Ali ibn Muthahhar al-Hilli (جمال الدين الحسن بن يوسف الحلي ( December 15, 1250 - December 18, Fourth, through the scholars of Jabal Amel residing in that region, or in Iraq, during the 10th(AH)/16th(AH) and 11th(AH)/17th(AH) centuries who later migrated to Iran. Jabal Amel (جبل عامل is a hilly region in Southern Lebanon named after the Banu 'Amilah tribe [58]
On the other hand Ismailis sent Da'i (missioners) during Fatimid caliphate to Iran as well as other Muslim lands. For the Egyptian city see Ismaïlia. The Ismāʿīlī ( Urdu: إسماعیلی Ismāʿīlī, Arabic: الإسماعيليون Da‘wah usually denotes proselytizing of Islam. The Arabic دعوة da‘wah means literally "issuing a summons" When Ismailis divided into two sects, Nizaris established their base in Iran. See also Ismaili The Nizārī s (النزاريون an-Nizāriyyūn) are the largest branch of the Ismā‘īlī (اسماعیلیه and comprise Hassan-i Sabbah conquered fortresses and captured Alamut in 1090 AD. Hassan-i Sabbāh (حسن صباح حسن الصباح Hassan aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ, c Alamūt ( Persian الموت "Eagle Peak" often appearing in the folk etymological form قلعه الموت Qal‘atu l-Mūt "the Castle of Death" Nizaris used this fortress until Mongol raid in 1256 AD.
After the Mongol raid and fall of the Abbasids Sunni hierarchies suffered a lot. Not only did they loose the caliphate but also Sunni was not official madhab for a while. Furthermore many libraries and Madrasahs were destroyed and some of the Sunni scholars migrated to other Islamic lands like Anatolia, India and Egypt. "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. On the other hand Shia whose center wasn't in Iran at that time didn't suffered and for the first time it could invite other Muslims openly. Even several local Shia dynasties like Sarbadars were established during this time. The Sarbadars (from sarbadar, "head on gallows" also known as Sarbedaran) were a mixture of religious dervishes and secular rulers that came to rule over
Sufism played a major role in spread of Shiism in this time. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفیگری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Hossein Nasr has quoted:
After the Mongol invasion Shiims and Sufism once again formed a close association in many ways. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Persian سید حسین نصر) an Iranian Some of the Ismailis whose power had broken by the Mongols, went underground and appeared later within Sufi orders or as new branches of already existing orders. For the Egyptian city see Ismaïlia. The Ismāʿīlī ( Urdu: إسماعیلی Ismāʿīlī, Arabic: الإسماعيليون In Twelve-Imam Shiism also from Seventh(AH)/thirteenths(AD) to the tenth(AH)/sixteenth(AD) century Sufism began to grow within official Shiite circles. See also Shi'a Islam Twelver Shi'ism ( ar اثنا عشرية Ithnāˤashariyyah) is the largest branch of Shi'a branch of Islam [59]
Nasr insists on the role of Sufis orders on spread of Shiism. Tariqah ( ar طريقه; pl طرق; Ṭuruq or Persian: Tarighat, Turkish: Tarikat) means "way"
The extremist sects of the Hurufis and Shasha'a grew directly out of a background that is both Shiite and Sufi. Hurufism ( حروفية hurufiyya, adjective form hurufi) was a mystical kabbalistic Sufi doctrine which spread in areas of western Persia, More important in the long run than these sects were the Sufi orders which spread in Persia at this time and aided in the preparing the ground for the Shiite movement of Safavids. Two of these orders are of particular significance in this question of the relation of Shiism and Sufism:The Nimatullahi order and Nurbakhshi order. The Nimatullahi order (also spelled "Nimatollahi" or "Nematollahi" is a Sufi Order or Tariqa originating in Iran Baha' al-Dawlah ibn Siraj al-Din Shah Qasim ibn Muhammad al-Husayni Nurbakhshi (also sometimes called Nuri rather than Nurbakhshi was a 15-16th century Persian physician [60]
Shiaism in Iran after Safawids
Ismail I initiated a religious policy to recognize Shi'a Islam as the official religion of the Safavid Empire, and the fact that modern Iran remains an officially Shi'ite state is a direct result of Ismail's actions. Naghsh-e Jahan Square ( Persian: ميدان نقش جهان maidaan-e naqsh-e jehaan) is situated at the center of Isfahan city Iran Esfahān or Isfahan (historically also rendered as Ispahan or Hispahan, Old Persian: Aspadana, Middle Persian: Spahān The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz Unfortunately for Ismail, most of his subjects were Sunni. He thus had to enforce official Shi'ism violently, putting to death those who opposed him. Under this pressure, Safavid subjects either converted, or pretended to convert, but it is safe to say that the majority of the population was probably genuinely Shi'ite by the end of the Safavid period in the 18th century, and most Iranians today are Shi'ite, although small Sunni populations do exist in that country. [61] Safavids has done systematic efforts to establish Shiism as the religion of its state.
Immediately following the establishment of Safavid power the migration of scholars began and they were invited to Iran. . . By the side of the immigration of scholars, Shi'i works and writings were also brought to Iran from Arabic-speaking lands, and they performed an important role in the religious development of Iran. . . In fact, since the time of the leadership of Shaykh Mufid and Shaykh Tusi, Iraq had a central academic position for Shi'ism. This central position was transferred to Iran during the Safavid era for two-and-a-half centuries, after which it partly returned to Najaf. Until before the Safavid era Shi'i manuscripts were mainly written in Iraq, and with the establishment of the Safavid rule these manuscripts were transferred to Iran. [58]
This led to a wide gap between Iran and its Sunni neighbors until 20th century. During the early days of the Islamic Revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini endeavored to bridge the gap between Shiites and Sunnis by forbidding criticizing the Caliphs who preceded Ali — an issue that causes much animosity between the two sects. The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a=علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب|t=ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib 13th Rajab, 24 BH – 21st Ramaḍān, 40 AH Also, he declared it permissible for Shiites to pray behind Sunni imams. [62]
The birth of modern Iran
Persia underwent a revival under the Safavid dynasty (1502-1736), the most prominent figure of which was Shah Abbas I. The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz Shāh ‘Abbās I or Shāh ‘Abbās the Great ( (born January 27, 1571; died January 19, 1629) was Shah of Iran and the most eminent Some historians credit the Safavid dynasty for founding the modern nation-state of Iran. Iran's contemporary Shia character, and significant segments of Iran's current borders take their origin from this era (e. g. Treaty of Zuhab). The Treaty of Zohab (or the Treaty of Qasr-e-Shirin) was an accord signed between Safavid Persia and the Ottoman Empire on May 17,
Safavid Empire (1502-1736)
The Safiviyeh came to be led by a fifteen-year old Ismail I. To establish political legitimacy, the Safavid rulers claimed to be descended from Imam Ali and his wife Fatima (the daughter of Prophet Muhammad) through the seventh Imam Musa al-Kazim. ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a=علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب|t=ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib 13th Rajab, 24 BH – 21st Ramaḍān, 40 AH IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics An imam (إمام plural ائمة A'immah, امام is an Islamic leader often the leader of a Mosque and/or community Mūsá ibn Ja‘far ibn Muḥammad al-Kāżim (الإمام موسى الكاظم ( October 28, 746 AD - September 1, 799 / To further legitimize his power, Ismail I also added claims of royal Sassanian heritage after becoming Shah. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Persia underwent a revival under the Safavid dynasty (1502-1736), the most prominent figure of which was Shah Abbas I. The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz Shāh ‘Abbās I or Shāh ‘Abbās the Great ( (born January 27, 1571; died January 19, 1629) was Shah of Iran and the most eminent Some historians credit the Safavid dynasty for founding the modern nation-state of Iran. Iran's contemporary Shia character, and significant segments of Iran's current borders take their origin from this era (e. g. Treaty of Zuhab). The Treaty of Zohab (or the Treaty of Qasr-e-Shirin) was an accord signed between Safavid Persia and the Ottoman Empire on May 17,
Shah Ismail soon conquered and unified Iran under his rule. Soon after, the new Iranian Empire conquered most of the modern day Afghanistan and Iraq.
The greatest of the Safavid monarchs, Shah Abbas I the Great (1587–1629) came to power in 1587 aged 16. Shāh ‘Abbās I or Shāh ‘Abbās the Great ( (born January 27, 1571; died January 19, 1629) was Shah of Iran and the most eminent Abbas I first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing Herat and Mashhad in 1598. area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. Then he turned against the Ottomans recapturing Baghdad, eastern Iraq and the Caucasian provinces by 1622. He also used his new force to dislodge the Portuguese from Bahrain (1602) and the English navy from Hormuz (1622), in the Persian Gulf (a vital link in Portuguese trade with India). The Kingdom of Bahrain (in مملكة البحرين,, literally Kingdom of the Two Seas) is an Island country in the Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the He expanded commercial links with the English East India Company and the Dutch East India Company. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or The Dutch East India Company ( Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC in old-spelling Dutch, literally "United East Indian Thus Abbas I was able to break the dependence on the Qizilbash for military might and therefore was able to centralize control. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major power in the world and started the promotion of tourism in Iran. Under their rule Persian Architecture flowered again and saw many new monuments.
Civil wars and impermanent governments
A faltering Safavid court eventually gave way to the conqueror Nadir Shah who restored order and implemented policies for safekeeping the territorial integrity of Iran. The Afsharids (سلسله افشار were an Iranian dynasty of Turkic descent from Khorasan that ruled the Persian Empire in the 18th century The Zand dynasty ( (سلسله زندیه ruled southern and central Iran ( 1750 &ndash 1794) in the eighteenth century Nāder Shāh Afshār ( also known as Nāder Qoli Beg - نادر قلی بیگ or Tahmāsp Qoli Khān - تهماسپ قلی خان) (November He was one of the last great conquerors of Asia and in a short period conquered Afghanistan and India and giving a huge boost to Iran's economy. The Afsharids were then followed by the Zand dynasty, founded by Karim Khan. The Afsharids (سلسله افشار were an Iranian dynasty of Turkic descent from Khorasan that ruled the Persian Empire in the 18th century The Zand dynasty ( (سلسله زندیه ruled southern and central Iran ( 1750 &ndash 1794) in the eighteenth century Karim Khan Zand, ( کریم خان زند) (c 1705- 1779 also called Karim Khan the Great (Bozorg was the ruler and De facto Shah of Iran Zand dynasty was a period a peace for Iranians specially under the rule of Karim Khan. The Zand dynasty ( (سلسله زندیه ruled southern and central Iran ( 1750 &ndash 1794) in the eighteenth century
Qajar dynasty (1795-1925) and colonial era
By the 17th century, European countries, including Great Britain, Imperial Russia, and France, had already started establishing colonial footholds in the region. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Iran as a result lost sovereignty over many of its provinces to these countries via the Treaty of Turkmenchay, the Treaty of Gulistan, and others. The Treaty of Turkmenchay (Туркманчайский договор Persian: عهدنامه ترکمنچای was a treaty negotiated in Turkmenchay by which The Treaty of Gulistan (Гюлистанский договор Persian: عهدنامه گلستان was a Peace treaty concluded between Imperial Russia
A new era in the History of Persia dawned with the Constitutional Revolution of Iran against the Shah in the late 19th and early 20th century. The Iranian Constitutional Revolution (also known as the Persian Constitutional Revolution or Constitutional Revolution of Iran) took place between 1905 and 1911 The Shah managed to remain in power, granting a limited constitution in 1906 (making the country a constitutional monarchy). A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is The first Majlis (parliament) was convened on October 7, 1906.
The discovery of oil in 1908 by the British in Khuzestan spawned intense renewed interest in Persia by the British Empire (see William Knox D'Arcy and Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, now BP). Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Khūzestān (خوزستان is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. The entrepreneur William Knox D'Arcy ( October 11, 1849 - May 1, 1917) was one of the principal founders of the oil and Petrochemical The Anglo-Persian Oil Company ( APOC) was founded in 1908 following the discovery of a large oil field in Masjed Soleiman, Iran. BP plc, previously known as British Petroleum, is the third largest global Energy company, a multinational oil company (" Oil major Control of Persia remained contested between the United Kingdom and Russia, in what became known as The Great Game, and codified in the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, which divided Persia into spheres of influence, regardless of her national sovereignty. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending For the film see The Great Game (film The Great Game was a term used for the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire The Anglo-Russian Entente or the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 was an accord signed on 31 August 1907 in St
Finally, the Constitutionalist movement of Gilan and the central power vacuum caused by the instability of the Qajar government resulted in the rise of Reza Shah Pahlavi and the Pahlavi dynasty in 1921. The Jangal (Jungle movement, in Gilan, was a rebellion against the monarchist rule of the Qajar central government of Iran. The Qajar dynasty (also known as Ghajar or Kadjar ( ( - or دودمان قاجار) is a common term to describe Iran (then known as Persia) under For the Afghan serial killer see Reza Khan (Taliban.
During World War I the country was occupied by British and Russian forces but was essentially neutral. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All In 1919, Britain attempted to establish a protectorate in Iran, aided by the Soviet Union's withdrawal in 1921. In International law, a protectorate is a autonomous territory that is "protected" by a stronger state or entity hense the protector which engages to protect In that year a military coup established Reza Khan, a Persian officer of the Persian Cossack Brigade, as dictator and then hereditary Shah of the new Pahlavi dynasty (1925). Reza Khan may refer to Reza Shah (1877 - 1944 Shah of Iran Reza Khan (Taliban, Taliban agent accused of murder in Afghanistan Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages
Pahlavi dynasty (1925-1979)
Reza Shah Pahlavi ruled for almost 16 years, at the beginning mostly secretly aided by the British, installed the new Pahlavi dynasty, thwarted the British attempt at control, and pushed to have the country developed. For the Afghan serial killer see Reza Khan (Taliban. Under his reign, Persia (Iran) began to modernize and to secularize politics, and the central government reasserted its authority over the tribes and provinces.
World War II
During World War II, Iran was a vital oil-supply source and link in the Allied supply line for lend-lease supplies to the Soviet Union. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Lend-Lease (Public Law 77-11 was the name of the program under which the United States of America supplied the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, The then-Shah's tacit pro-German sympathies led to British and Indian forces from Iraq and Soviet forces from the north occupying Iran in August 1941. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran was the invasion of Iran by British and Commonwealth forces and the Soviet Union, codenamed Operation Countenance In September, the British forced Reza to abdicate in favour of his pro-British son Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, who ruled until 1979.
At the Tehran Conference of 1943, the Tehran Declaration guaranteed the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran. The Tehran Conference ( Codenamed EUREKA) was the meeting of Joseph Stalin, Franklin D The Tehran Declaration was a declaration that was released after the Tehran Conference that lasted from November 29-December 1 1943 However, when the war actually ended, Soviet troops stationed in northwestern Iran not only refused to withdraw but backed revolts that established short-lived, pro-Soviet separatist national states in the northern regions of Azerbaijan and Kurdistan, the Azerbaijan People's Government and the Republic of Kurdistan respectively, in late 1945, both effectively Soviet puppet regimes. Iranian Kurdistan ( Kurdish: کوردستانی ئران Kurdistanî Iran) or Kurdistana Rojhilat (Eastern Kurdistan or Rojhilatê This article is about the short-lived USSR created regional government for similar uses see Azerbaijan (disambiguation. The Republic of Mahabad ( Kurdish: Komarî Mehabad, Persian: جمهوری مهاباد) officially known as Republic of Kurdistan and established
Soviet troops did not withdraw from Iran proper until May 1946 after receiving a promise of oil concessions. The Soviet republics in the north were soon overthrown and the oil concessions were revoked.
United States and the Shah
Initially there were hopes that post-occupation Iran could become a constitutional monarchy. A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is The new, young Shah Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi initially took a very hands-off role in government, and allowed parliament to hold a lot of power. TalkParliament#Screen-size. -->A parliament is a Legislature, especially in those Some elections were held in the first shaky years, although they remained mired in corruption. Parliament became chronically unstable, and from the 1947 to 1951 period Iran saw the rise and fall of six different prime ministers.
In 1951 Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq received the vote required from the parliament to nationalize the British-owned oil industry, in a situation known as the Abadan Crisis. Mohammad Mosaddeq ( (, pronounced mosæddeq}} also Mosaddegh or Mossadegh) ( May 19 1882 – 5 March 1967) was a major The Abadan Crisis occurred from 1951 to 1954 after Iran Nationalized the Iranian assets of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC and expelled Western companies Despite British pressure, including an economic blockade, the nationalization continued. Mossadegh was briefly removed from power in 1952 but was quickly re-appointed by the shah, due to an overwhelming majority in parliament supporting him, and he, in turn, forced the Shah into a brief exile in August 1953. A military coup headed by his former minister of the Interior and retired army general Fazlollah Zahedi, with the active support of the intelligence services of the British (MI6) and US (CIA) governments - including mass propaganda leaflet dropping (slogans such as; "Up with Communism, Down with Ala" and "Down with Islam, up with Communism" – designed specifically to turn the population against Mossadegh, as well as the agents of CIA and MI6 (dressed as Mossadegh supporters) spurting machine guns into crowds (known as Operation Ajax), forced Mossadegh from office on August 19. Mohammad Fazlollah Zahedi (1897-1963 was an Iranian General, Prime Minister, and Politician. The 1953 Iranian Coup d'état deposed the government of Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq and his cabinet, it was effected by Gen Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Mossadegh was arrested and tried for treason by an un-official military tribunal, (Mossadegh was imprisoned and his foreign minister, Hossein Fatemi, executed) while Zahedi succeeded him as prime minister, and suppressed opposition to the Shah, specifically the National Front and Communist Tudeh Party.
In return for the US support the Shah agreed, in 1954, to allow an international consortium of British (40% of shares), American (40%), French (6%), and Dutch (14%) companies to run the Iranian oil facilities for the next 25 years. The international consortium agreed to a fifty-fifty split of profits with Iran but would not allow Iran to audit their accounts to confirm the consortium was reporting profits properly, nor would they allow Iran to have members on their board of directors. There was a return to stability in the late 1950s and the 1960s. In 1957 martial law was ended after 16 years and Iran became closer to the West, joining the Baghdad Pact and receiving military and economic aid from the US. The Central Treaty Organization (also referred to as CENTO, original name was Middle East Treaty Organization or METO, also known as the Baghdad The Iranian government began a broad program of reforms to modernize the country, notably changing the quasi-feudal land system.
However the reforms did not greatly improve economic conditions and the liberal pro-Western policies alienated certain Islamic religious and political groups. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. From the mid-1960s the political situation was becoming increasingly unstable, with organisations such as Mujaheddin-e-Khalq (MEK) emerging. The People's Mujahedin of Iran ( PMOI, also MEK, MKO) ( Persian: سازمان مجاهدين خلق ايران sāzmān-e mojāhedin-e khalq-e In 1961, Iran initiated a series of economic, social, and administrative reforms that became known as the Shah's White Revolution. The core of this program was land reform. Modernization and economic growth proceeded at an unprecedented rate, fueled by Iran's vast petroleum reserves, the third-largest in the world.
The Premier Hassan Ali Mansur was assassinated in 1965 and the internal security service, SAVAK, became more violently active. SAVAK ( Persian: ساواک short for سازمان اطلاعات و امنیت کشور Sazeman-e Ettela'at va Amniyat-e Keshvar, National Intelligence and Security It is estimated that 13,000-13,500 people were killed by the SAVAK during this period of time, and thousands more were arrested and tortured. The Islamic clergy, headed by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (who had been exiled in 1964), were becoming increasingly vociferous. Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989
International relations with Iraq fell into a steep decline, mainly due to a dispute over the Shatt al-Arab waterway which a 1937 agreement gave to Iraq. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Following a number of clashes in April, 1969, Iran abrogated the 1937 accord and demanded a renegotiation. Iran greatly increased its defense budget and by the early 1970s was the region's strongest military power. In November, 1971 Iranian forces seized control of three islands at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, in response Iraq expelling thousands of Iranian nationals. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the
In mid-1973, the Shah returned the oil industry to national control. Following the Arab-Israeli War of October 1973, Iran did not join the Arab oil embargo against the West and Israel. The Yom Kippur War, Ramadan War or October War (מלחמת יום הכיפורים transliterated: Milkhemet Yom HaKipurim or מלחמת יום Instead it used the situation to raise oil prices, using the money gained for modernization and to increase defense spending.
In the early 1970s, the Mujaheddin-e-Khalq organisation assassinated Tehran-based US military personnel and US civilians involved in military contracts, seeking to weaken the regime and remove foreign influence. The People's Mujahedin of Iran ( PMOI, also MEK, MKO) ( Persian: سازمان مجاهدين خلق ايران sāzmān-e mojāhedin-e khalq-e
A border dispute between Iraq and Iran was resolved with the signing of the Algiers Accord on March 6, 1975. The 1975 Algiers Agreement (commonly known as the Algiers Accord) was a Treaty that was meant to settle disputes over the lands between Iraq and Iran Events 1079 - Omar Khayyám completes the Iranian calendar. 1454 - Thirteen Years' War: Delegates of Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Prelude to the Islamic Revolution
Several events in the 1970s set the stage for the 1979 revolution:
In October 1971, the 2,500th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire was held at the site of Persepolis. Ali Shariati ( علی شريعتی) ( November 23, 1933 &ndash 1977 was an Iranian sociologist and Revolutionary, well The 2500 year celebration of Iran’s monarchy ( Persian جشنهای ۲۵۰۰ سالۀ شاهنشاهی ایران consisted Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial Only foreign dignitaries were invited to the three-day party whose extravagances included over one ton of caviar, and preparation by some two hundred chefs flown in from Paris. Caviar is the processed, Salted Roe of certain species of Fish, most notably the Sturgeon ( black caviar) and the Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Cost was officially $40 million but estimated to be more in the range of $100–120 million. [63] Meanwhile, the provinces of Baluchistan and Sistan, and even Fars where the celebrations were held, were suffering from drought. "As the foreigners reveled on drink forbidden by Islam, Iranians were not only excluded from the festivities, some were starving. "[64]
By late 1974 the oil boom had begun to produce not "the Great Civilization" promised by the Shah, but an "alarming" increase in inflation and waste and an "accelerating gap" between the rich and poor, the city and the country. [65] Nationalistic Iranians were angered by the tens of thousand of skilled foreign workers who came to Iran, many of them to help operate the already unpopular and expensive American high-tech military equipment that the Shah had spent hundreds of millions of dollars on.
The next year the Rastakhiz party was created. Rastakhiz ( Resurrection) party (also Hizb-i Rastakhiz) was founded on March 2, 1975 by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran It became not only the only party Iranians could belong to, but one the "whole adult population" was required to belong and pay dues to. [66] Attempts by this party to take a populist stand with "anti-profiteering" campaigns fining and jailing merchants, proved not only economically harmful but also politically counterproductive. Inflation was replaced by a black market and declining business activity. Merchants were angered and alienated. [67]
In 1976, the Shah's government angered pious Iranian Muslims by changing the first year of the Iranian solar calendar from the Islamic hijri to the ascension to the throne by Cyrus the Great. "Iran jumped overnight from the Muslim year 1355 to the royalist year 2535. "[68] The same year the Shah declared economic austerity measures to dampen inflation and waste. The resulting unemployment disproportionately affected the thousands of recent poor and unskilled migrants to the cities. Culturally and religiously conservative and already disposed to view the Shah's secularism and Westernization as "alien and wicked",[69] many of these same people went on to form the core of revolution's demonstrators and "martyrs". [70]
In 1977 a new American President, Jimmy Carter, was inaugurated. James Earl "Jimmy" Carter Jr (born October 1 1924 was the thirty-ninth President of the United States, serving from 1977 to 1981 and the recipient of the 2002 In hopes of making post-Vietnam American power and foreign policy more benevolent, he created a special Office of Human Rights which sent the Shah a "polite reminder" of the importance of political rights and freedom. The Shah responded by granting amnesty to 357 political prisoners in February, and allowing Red Cross to visit prisons, beginning what is said to be 'a trend of liberalization by the Shah'. Through the late spring, summer and autumn liberal opposition formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the regime. [71] Later that year a dissent group (the Writers' Association) gathered without the customary police break-up and arrests, starting a new era of political action by the Shah's opponents. [72]
That year also saw the death of the very popular and influential modernist Islamist leader Ali Shariati, allegedly at the hands of SAVAK, removing a potential revolutionary rival to Khomeini. Ali Shariati ( علی شريعتی) ( November 23, 1933 &ndash 1977 was an Iranian sociologist and Revolutionary, well Finally, in October Khomeini's son Mostafa died. Though the cause appeared to be a heart attack, anti-Shah groups blamed SAVAK poisoning and proclaimed him a 'martyr. ' A subsequent memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back in the spotlight and began the process of building Khomeini into the leading opponent of the Shah. [73][74]
Islamic Revolution
The Iranian Revolution also known as the Islamic Revolution[75] was the revolution that transformed Iran from a monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic. A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround" is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages Islamic Republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Mauritania Ayatollah ( Persian: آيتالله, âyato-llâh, from Arabic: آية الله, āyatu 'llāh, meaning 'the sign of Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 [10] Its time span can be said to have begun in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations,[76] and concluded with the approval of the new theocratic Constitution — whereby Ayatollah Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country — in December 1979. Theocracy is a form of government in which a god or deity is recognized as the supreme civil ruler The post of Supreme Leader ( Persian: رهبر انقلاب Rahbare Enqelab, lit In between, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi left the country for exile in January 1979 after strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, and on February 1, 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran to a greeting of several million Iranians. [77] The final collapse of the Pahlavi dynasty occurred shortly after on February 11 when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Events 660 BC - Traditional founding date of Japan by Emperor Jimmu. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on April 1, 1979 when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so. Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) [78]
The ideology of revolutionary government was populist, nationalist and most of all Shi'a Islamic. Its unique constitution is based on the concept of velayat-e faqih the idea that Muslims, in fact everyone, requires "guardianship," in the form of rule or supervision by the leading Islamic jurist or jurists -- such as Khomeini himself. Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih ( ولاية الفقيه) (also known as Hokumat-e Islami or Islamic Government A Faqih (plural Fuqaha') (فقيه pl فقهاء is an expert in Fiqh, or Islamic Jurisprudence. [79] Khomeini became Iran's supreme leader until his death in 1989. The post of Supreme Leader ( Persian: رهبر انقلاب Rahbare Enqelab, lit
Industry was nationalized, law Islamized and Western influences banned. Nationalization, also spelled nationalisation, is the act of taking an industry or assets into the Public ownership of a national government Many westernized Iranians emigrated to Europe and North America. As Islamist power was consolidated there were clashes with non-Islamist revolutionary groups. Marxist and parties and Iranian armed forces after referendum of April 1, 1979 which continued for almost four years in various provinces. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar)
The Islamic Republic
- Further information: Iran hostage crisis, United States-Iran relations, Iran-Israel relations, and Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
Ayatollah Khomeini era
An early event in the history of the Islamic republic that had a long term impact was the Iran hostage crisis. One of the most dramatic changes in government in Iran's history was seen with the 1979 Iranian Revolution where Shah ( king) Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown The Iran hostage crisis ( Persian: تصرف سفارت آمریکا was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the United States where 52 The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, also Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ( NPT or NNPT) is a Treaty to limit the spread The Iran hostage crisis ( Persian: تصرف سفارت آمریکا was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the United States where 52 Following the admitting of the former Shah of Iran into the United States for cancer treatment, on November 4, 1979, Iranian students seized US embassy personnel, labeling the embassy a "den of spies. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) The Iran hostage crisis ( Persian: تصرف سفارت آمریکا was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the United States where 52 "[80] While in the US this was considered a violation of the long-standing principle of international law that diplomats are immune from arrest (diplomatic immunity), the student militants accused embassy personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953. Diplomatic immunity is a form of legal immunity and a policy held between governments which ensures that Diplomats are given safe passage and are considered not Mohammad Mosaddeq ( (, pronounced mosæddeq}} also Mosaddegh or Mossadegh) ( May 19 1882 – 5 March 1967) was a major Khomeini, who had not initiated or authorized the embassy takeover, nonetheless supported it after hearing of its success. Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 The students demanded the handover of the Shah in exchange for the hostages, and following the Shah's death in the summer of 1980, that the hostages be put on trial for espionage. Fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days until January 1981 when a settlement was agreed upon. There are other agreements forged in Algiers See Algiers Agreement The Algiers Accords of January 19, 1981, were brokered [81] In Iran, the crisis is thought to have strengthened the prestige of the Ayatollah Khomeini and consolidated the hold of anti-Americanism and Iranian radicals who supported the hostage taking. Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 Relations between Iran and the United States became deeply antagonistic during and after the crisis with American legal action, or sanctions, economically separated Iran from America. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the [82]
During the crisis, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein attempted to take advantage of the disorder of the Revolution, the weakness of the Iranian military and the revolution's antagonism with Western governments. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti ( Arabic: ar صدام حسين عبد المجيد التكريتي --> April 28 1937 &ndash December 30 The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. He also sought to expand Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the Of chief importance to Iraq was Khuzestan which not only boasted a substantial Arab population, but rich oil fields as well. Khūzestān (خوزستان is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding On the unilateral behalf of the United Arab Emirates, the islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs became objectives as well. This is a geographical article For the Palestinian leader see Said al-Muragha, for the Sahaba, see Abu-Musa al-Asha'ari. Greater Tunb and Lesser Tunb ( Tonb-e Bozorg and Tonb-e Kuchak; Arabic: ar طنب الكبرى وطنب الصغرى, Tunb With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On September 22, 1980 the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran-Iraq War. Events 66 - Emperor Nero creates the Legion I Italica. 1236 - The Lithuanians Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise.
Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.
Tens of thousands of Iranian civilians and military personnel were killed when Iraq used chemical weapons in its warfare. A civilian under International humanitarian law is a person who is not a member of his or her Country 's Armed forces. A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. Iraq was financially backed by Egypt, the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact states, the United States (beginning in 1983), France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Brazil, and the People's Republic of China (which also sold weapons to Iran). Imports of conventional arms by Iraq 1973-1990 by source Values are shown in millions of US dollars at constant (1990 estimated values This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Warsaw Pact (see Nomenclature) was an organization of Communist states in Central and Eastern Europe. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES
There were more than 100,000 Iranian victims[84] of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian human wave attacks; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war. [85][86][87][88]
Ayatollah Khamenei era
Following Khomeini's death on June 3, 1989, the Assembly of Experts — an elected body of senior clerics — chose the outgoing president of the republic, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, to be his successor as national religious leader in what proved to be a smooth transition. Ali Sayad Shirazi ( Persian: علی صياد شیرازی) was chief-of-staff of the Iranian forces during Iran's 8-year war with Iraq The Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran (نيروهای مسلح جمهوری اسلامی ايران include the IRIA (ارتش جمهوری اسلامی The People's Mujahedin of Iran ( PMOI, also MEK, MKO) ( Persian: سازمان مجاهدين خلق ايران sāzmān-e mojāhedin-e khalq-e Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, proclaims himself Roman Emperor, entering The Assembly of Experts (also Assembly of Experts of the Leadership) of Iran ( Persian: مجلس خبرگان رهبری Majles-e-Khobregan or (fa علی حسینی خامنهای born 17 July 1939 also known as Ali Khamenei, is an Iranian Azeri politician and cleric
During the Persian Gulf War in 1991 the country remained neutral, restricting its action to the condemnation of the U. For other uses of Neutral and Neutrality see Neutral A neutral country takes no side in a War between other parties S. and allowing fleeing Iraqi aircraft and refugees into the country.
President Rafsanjani was re-elected in 1993 with a less resounding majority; some Western observers attributed the reduced voter turnout to disenchantment with the deteriorating economy. The Assembly of Experts (also Assembly of Experts of the Leadership) of Iran ( Persian: مجلس خبرگان رهبری Majles-e-Khobregan or The Expediency Discernment Council of the System ( is an administrative assembly appointed by the Supreme Leader and was created upon the revision to the Constitution Ayatollah Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani ( Persian:اکبر هاشمی رفسنجانی Akbar Hāshemī Rafsanjānī) Hashemi Bahramani Rafsanjani was succeeded in 1997 by the moderate Mohammad Khatami. Seyyed Mohammad Khātamī ( سید محمد خاتمی, pronounced xɑːtæmiː}} (born September 29, 1943, in Ardakan, Yazd His presidency was soon marked by tensions between the reform-minded government and an increasingly conservative and vocal clergy. This rift reached a climax in July 1999 with massive anti-government protests erupted in the streets of Tehran. Tehran (or Teheran) ( Persian: تهران Tehrān) is the capital and largest City of Iran, and the administrative center of The disturbances lasted over a week before police and pro-government vigilantes dispersed the crowds.
Khatami was re-elected in June 2001 but his efforts were repeatedly blocked by the religious Guardian Council. The Guardian Council of the Constitution (شورای نگهبان قانون اساسی or Guardian Council and also Council of Guardians is an appointed and Conservative elements within Iran's government moved to undermine the reformist movement, banning liberal newspapers and disqualifying candidates for parliamentary elections. This clampdown on dissent, combined with the failure of Khatami to reform the government, led to growing political apathy among Iran's youth.
In June 2003, anti-government protests by several thousand students took place in Tehran. [89][90] Several human rights protests also occurred in 2006. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled
In Iranian presidential election, 2005 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad,the mayor of Tehran, became the sixth president of Iran, after winning 62 percent of the vote in the run-off poll, nearly twice that of former president Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani. The Iranian presidential election of 2005, the ninth presidential election in Iranian history took place in two rounds first on June 17, 2005, the Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (محمود احمدینژاد; born October 28, 1956) is the sixth and current President of the Islamic Republic of Iran Ayatollah Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani ( Persian:اکبر هاشمی رفسنجانی Akbar Hāshemī Rafsanjānī) Hashemi Bahramani [91] During the authorization ceremony he kissed Khamenei's hand in demonstration of his loyalty to him. [92][93]
Chatham House think-tank told in August 2006 that Iran views Iraq as its own backyard and has now superseded the US as the most influential power there; this affords it a key role in Iraq's future. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (محمود احمدینژاد; born October 28, 1956) is the sixth and current President of the Islamic Republic of Iran The President of Iran is the highest elected official in the Islamic Republic of Iran, second only to the Supreme Leader. Chatham House, formally known as the Royal Institute of International Affairs, is a Non-profit, Non-governmental organization based in London An unlikely conclusion considering that the US is currently the occupying power Iraq. It also said that Tehran had an unparalleled ability to affect stability and security across most of the country. Analysts have pointed out in September 2006 that Iran's increasing influence in post-war Iraq since the empowerment of its Shi'a majority. This influence, analysts say, is particularly strong in the mainly Shia south, where a top Shia leader in the week of September 3, 2006 renewed demands for an autonomous Shia region. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. [94]
During 2005 and 2006, there were claims that the United States and Israel were planning to attack Iran, including the threat of attack with nuclear weapons by the United States, for many different claimed reasons, including Iran's civilian nuclear energy program which the United States and some other states fear could lead to a nuclear weapons program, crude oil and other strategic reasons (including the Iranian Oil Bourse), electoral reasons in the USA and in Iran. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The nuclear program of Iran was launched in the 1950s with the help of the United States as part of the Atoms for Peace program Iran is not known to possess Weapons of mass destruction, and has signed treaties repudiating possession of them including the Biological Weapons The Iranian Oil Bourse Iran Petroleum Exchange or Oil Bourse in Kish During 2007, Iran asked its petroleum customers to pay in non-dollar currencies P.R. China and Russia oppose military action of any sort and oppose economic sanctions. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Economic sanctions are domestic penalties applied by one country (or group of countries on another for a variety of reasons Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwa forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons. Ayatollah ( Persian: آيتالله, âyato-llâh, from Arabic: آية الله, āyatu 'llāh, meaning 'the sign of (fa علی حسینی خامنهای born 17 July 1939 also known as Ali Khamenei, is an Iranian Azeri politician and cleric A fatwā (فتوى plural fatāwā فتاوى in the Islamic faith is a religious opinion on Islamic law issued by an A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. The fatwa was cited in an official statement by the Iranian government at an August 2005 meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna. The International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA) is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. [95][96]
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Notes
- ^ http://anthropology.net/user/kambiz_kamrani/blog/2006/12/05/engineering_an_empire_the_persians
- ^ Persia and the Greeks.(Persian Fire: The First World Empire
- ^ Xinhua, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007
- ^ Iran Daily, "Panorama", 3 Mar 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007
- ^ Iranian.ws, "Archaeologists: Modern civilization began in Iran based on new evidence", 12 Aug 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007
- ^ a b http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371723 Encyclopædia Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Article: Media
- ^ R. M. Savory, Safavids, Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd edition
- ^ "The Islamic World to 1600", The Applied History Research Group, The University of Calgary, 1998, retrieved 1 Oct 2007
- ^ Iran Islamic Republic, Encyclopaedia Britannica retrieved 23 January 2008
- ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica23 January 2008
- ^ a b http://www.pbase.com/k_amj/tehran_museum retrieved 27 Mar 2008
- ^ J. The Encyclopaedia of Islam ( EI) is the standard Encyclopaedia of the Academic discipline of Islamic studies. D. Vigne, J. Peters and D. Helmer, First Steps of Animal Domestication, Proceedings of the 9th Conference of the International Council of Archaeozoology, Durham, August 2002, ISBN 1842171216
- ^ Research
- ^ http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=6126 retrieved 27 Mar 2008
- ^ FORGOTTEN EMPIRE the world of Ancient Persia | The Persian Empire | Darius I
- ^ Hooker, Richard (1996). The Persians. Retrieved on 2006-08-20. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 636 - Battle of Yarmouk: Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid take control of Syria and Palestine
- ^ http://anthropology.net/user/kambiz_kamrani/blog/2006/12/05/engineering_an_empire_the_persians
- ^ Persia and the Greeks.(Persian Fire: The First World Empire
- ^ Benevolent Persian Empire
- ^ Garthwaite, Gene R. , The Persians, p. 2
- ^ J. B. Bury, p. 109.
- ^ Durant.
- ^ Transoxiana 04: Sassanians in Africa
- ^ Sarfaraz, pp. 329-330.
- ^ Iransaga: The art of Sassanians
- ^ Durant.
- ^ Zarinkoob, p. 305.
- ^ Iran. Encyclopædia Britannica. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc
- ^ a b Lewis, Bernard. Iran in history. Tel Aviv University. Tel Aviv University (TAU אוניברסיטת תל־אביב את"א is Israel 's largest on-site University, located in Tel Aviv. Retrieved on 2007-04-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ Hawting G. , The First Dynasty of Islam. The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750, (London) 1986, pp. 63-64
- ^ Cambridge History of Iran, by Richard Nelson Frye, Abdolhosein Zarrinkoub, et al. Richard Nelson Frye (born c 1920 is an American scholar of Iranian and Central Asian Studies, and Aga Khan Professor Emeritus Abdolhossein Zarinkoob (in عبدالحسين زرينکوب also spelled Zarrinkoub) was a prominent scholar of Iranian literature history of literature Persian Section on The Arab Conquest of Iran and . Vol 4, 1975. London. p. 46
- ^ Biruni. الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية, p. 35,36,48 وقتی قتبیه بن مسلم سردار حجاج، بار دوم بخوارزم رفت و آن را باز گشود هرکس را که خط خوارزمی می نوشت و از تاریخ و علوم و اخبار گذشته آگاهی داشت از دم تیغ بی دریغ درگذاشت و موبدان و هیربدان قوم را یکسر هلاک نمود و کتابهاشان همه بسوزانید و تباه کرد تا آنکه رفته رفته مردم امی ماندند و از خط و کتابت بی بهره گشتند و اخبار آنها اکثر فراموش شد و از میان رفت
- ^ a b c Fred Astren pg. 33-35
- ^ a b c d e f Islamic Conquest
- ^ a b c d Applied History Research Group, University of Calagary, "[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/ The Islamic World to 1600", Last accessed August 26, 2006
- ^ a b Tobin 113-115
- ^ Nasr, Hoseyn; Islam and the pliqht of modern man
- ^ Richard Frye, The Heritage of Persia, p. 243.
- ^ Rayhanat al- adab, (3rd ed. ), vol. 1, p. 181.
- ^ a b Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Seljuq", Online Edition, (LINK)
- ^ Enderwitz, S. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc "Shu'ubiyya". Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. IX (1997), pp. 513-14.
- ^ Samanid Dynasty
- ^ O. Özgündenli, "Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK)
- ^ M. Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language Encyclopedia about the history culture and Ravandi, "The Seljuq court at Konya and the Persianisation of Anatolian Cities", in Mesogeios (Mediterranean Studies), vol. 25-6 (2005), pp. 157-69
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ <a href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32173/Iran"> Mongol invasion of Iran</a>
- ^ [1]The Il-khanate]
- ^ [2]
- ^ Battuta's Travels: Part Three - Persia and Iraq
- ^ This section incorporates test from the public domain Library of Congress Country Studies [3]
- ^ Caheb C. The Country Studies are works published by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress ( USA) freely available for use by researchers , Cambridge History of Iran, Tribes, Cities and Social Organization, vol. 4, p305–328
- ^ Kühnel E. , in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesell, Vol. CVI (1956)
- ^ Translated by F. Rosenthal (III, pp. 311-15, 271-4 [Arabic]; R. N. Frye (p. 91)
- ^ a b Islam and Iran: A Historical Study of Mutual Services
- ^ Four Centuries of Influence of Iraqi Shiism on Pre-Safavid Iran
- ^ Article by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi, A short History of the Yemenite Shi‘ites (2005) Referencing: Iranian Influence on Moslem Literature
- ^ Article by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi, A short History of the Yemenite Shi‘ites (2005) Referencing: Encyclopedia Iranica
- ^ a b A Study of the Migration of Shi'i Works from Arab Regions to Iran at the Early Safavid Era
- ^ Nasr, 1972 :115
- ^ Nasr, 1972 :116
- ^ Shah Ismail I, 1501-26
- ^ Frequently Asked Questions on Iran
- ^ Hiro, Dilip. Iran Under the Ayatollahs. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1985. p. 57.
- ^ Wright, Last (2000), p. 220.
- ^ Graham, Iran (1980) p. 94.
- ^ Moin, Khomeini (2000), p. 174.
- ^ Graham, Iran (1980), p. 96.
- ^ Abrahamian, Iran (1982), p. 444.
- ^ Moin, Khomeini (2000), p. 163.
- ^ Graham, Iran (1980), p. 226.
- ^ Abrahamian, Iran (1982), pp. 501–3.
- ^ Moin, Khomeini (2000), pp. 183–4.
- ^ Moin, Khomeini (2000), pp. 184–5.
- ^ Taheri, Spirit (1985), pp. 182–3.
- ^ Islamic Revolution, Iran Chamber.
- ^ The Iranian Revolution.
- ^ Ruhollah Khomeini, Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ^ Iran Islamic Republic, Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ^ Dabashi, Theology of Discontent (1993), p. 419, 443
- ^ PBS, American Experience, Jimmy Carter, "444 Days: America Reacts", retrieved 1 Oct 2007
- ^ Guests of the Ayatollah: The Iran Hostage Crisis: The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam, Mark Bowden, p. 127, 200
- ^ History Of US Sanctions Against IranMiddle East Economic Survey, 26-August-2002
- ^ National Security Archive: http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82
- ^ Center for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran. The National Security Archive is a 501(c(3 non-governmental non-profit research and archival institution located within The George Washington University in (مرکز مطالعات و تحقیقات جنگ)
- ^ Iran, 'Public Enemy Number One'
- ^ Federation of American Scientists :: Introduction to Chemical Weapons
- ^ Iraqi General: US Helped Us as We Used Chemical Weapons - by Aaron Glantz
- ^ NTI Chemical profile of Iran
- ^ Iranians protest against clerics
- ^ Uprising in Iran
- ^ Iran hardliner becomes president. BBC (August 3, 2005). Events 8 - Roman Empire General Tiberius defeats Dalmatians on the river Bathinus. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2006-12-06. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1060 - Béla I of Hungary is crowned king of Hungary 1240 - Mongol invasion of Rus: Kiev
- ^ Behind Ahmadinejad, a Powerful Cleric. New York Times (September 9, 2006). Events 1000 - Battle of Svolder, Viking Age. 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2006-12-06. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1060 - Béla I of Hungary is crowned king of Hungary 1240 - Mongol invasion of Rus: Kiev
- ^ [4]
- ^ "Iraq prime minister to visit Iran", Al Jazeera, September 9 2006. For the English-language channel see Al Jazeera English Al Jazeera (الجزيرة al-jazīrah,, meaning "The Island" Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Iran issues anti-nuke fatwa
- ^ Iran, holder of peaceful nuclear fuel cycle technology
References
- Books and journals
- Nasr, Hossein (1972). Sufi Essays. Suny press. ISBN 978-0-87395-389-4.
- This article contains material from the Library of Congress Country Studies, which are United States government publications in the public domain. The Country Studies are works published by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress ( USA) freely available for use by researchers The federal government of the United States is the central United States Governmental body established by the United States Constitution. The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone
Further reading
- Iran Between Two Revolutions, Ervand Abrahamian, 1982, ISBN 0-691-10134-5
- Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey, M. Ismail Marcinkowski, 2003, ISBN 9971-77-488-7
- Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan. Vol. I. , Isabella Bird, 1988, Reprint: Virago Press, London
- All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror, Stephen Kinzer, 2003, ISBN 0-471-26517-9
- Kapuściński, Ryszard (1982). Ryszard Kapuściński ( IPA: kapuɕ'ʨiɲski; March 4 1932 - January 23, 2007) was a popular Polish Journalist Shah of Shahs. Shah of Shahs, published in 1982, is Polish Journalist Ryszard Kapuściński 's analysis of the decline and fall of Mohammad Vinage. Vintage Books was founded in 1954 by Alfred A Knopf as a trade Paperback home for its authors ISBN 0-679-73801-0
- Google News: Iran
- Elliot, Sir H. M. , Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians The Muhammadan Period is a book with eight volumes written by H (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List)
History related articles on Iran
Pre-Islam
- Palaeolithic Era in Iran
- Jiroft Civilization
- Elamite Empire
- Aratta
- Aratti theory
- Aryan
- Andronovo Culture
- Indo-Iranians
- Iran naming dispute
- List of kings of Persia
- Parthia
- Persian Empire
Post-Islam
- Islamicization in Iran
- Islamic Conquest of Iran
- Barmakids
- Persian Empire
- Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907
- Treaty of Gulistan
- Treaty of Akhal
- The Great Game
- Treaty of Turkmenchay
Pahlavi and contemporary
- Constitutionalist movement of Gilan
- List of Prime Ministers of Iran
- Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
- Persian Constitutional Revolution
- Persian Corridor
- White Revolution
- Human rights in Iran
- Iran-Iraq War
- U.S. support for Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war
- U.S. support for Iran during the Iran-Iraq war
- 1988 Massacre of Iranian Prisoners
- Ahvaz Bombings
General
- History of science in Persia
- Military history of Iran
- List of Iranian National Heroes
- Prime Minister of Iran
- Persianization
- Persian mythology
- Iranian continent
- Iranian Kurdistan
- Iranian peoples
- Iranology
- Anti-Persianism
- Anti-Iranianism
- Islamic Cultural Revolution
- University of Chicago's Persian heritage crisis
- Islam in Iran
- Islamicization in Iran
External links
- Iran an article by Encyclopedia Iranica
- Iran an article by Encyclopedia Britannica online by Janet Afary
- Ancient Iran an article by Encyclopedia Britannica online by Adrian David Hugh Bivar and Mark J. Events Lower Paleolithic Period c 800000-200000 BCE Prehistoric hominins lived in the Iranian plateau specifically in Baqbaqo Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Aratta is a land that appears in Sumerian Myths surrounding Enmerkar Aryan is an English word derived from the Sanskrit " Ārya " meaning "noble" or "honorable" Indo-Iranian originspng|thumb|300px|Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC) Indo-Iranian peoples consist of the Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Dardic and Nuristani peoples that is speakers of Indo-Iranian languages Iran has been the subject of a naming dispute in common Western usage The following is a comprehensive list of kings of Persia, which includes all of the empires ruling over geographical Iran Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Islamization in post-conquest Iran, a long process by which Islam was gradually adopted by the majority population occurred as a result of the Islamic conquest The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia The Barmakids ( Persian: برمکیان Barmakīyān; Arabic: البرامكة al-barāmika, also called Barmecides The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Anglo-Russian Entente or the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 was an accord signed on 31 August 1907 in St The Treaty of Gulistan (Гюлистанский договор Persian: عهدنامه گلستان was a Peace treaty concluded between Imperial Russia The Treaty of Akhal was a treaty signed by Persia and Imperial Russia on September 21, 1881. For the film see The Great Game (film The Great Game was a term used for the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire The Treaty of Turkmenchay (Туркманчайский договор Persian: عهدنامه ترکمنچای was a treaty negotiated in Turkmenchay by which The Jangal (Jungle movement, in Gilan, was a rebellion against the monarchist rule of the Qajar central government of Iran. This is a list of Prime Ministers of Iran ( see Prime Minister of Iran) Heads of Government of Iran (1669-1989 Grand Viziers (Chief Ministers The Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran was the invasion of Iran by British and Commonwealth forces and the Soviet Union, codenamed Operation Countenance The Iranian Constitutional Revolution (also known as the Persian Constitutional Revolution or Constitutional Revolution of Iran) took place between 1905 and 1911 The Persian Corridor is the name for a supply route through Iran into Soviet Azerbaijan by which British aid and American Lend-Lease supplies were transferred The White Revolution (انقلاب سفید Enghelāb-e Sefid) was a far-reaching series of reforms launched in 1963 by the last Shah of Iran Iran is home to the earliest known charter of Human rights — the Achaemenid dynasty established unprecedented principles of human rights in the 6th century 1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners (۱۳۶۷ اعدام زندانیان سیاسی در تابستان refers to the systematic execution of thousands of political prisoners The Ahvaz bombings were a series of bomb explosions that took place mostly in Ahvaz, Iran. Science and technology in Iran, formerly known as Persia, have a history like the country itself With thousands of years of recorded history, and due to an unchanging geographic (and subsequently geopolitical condition, Iran (previously known as Persia Prime Minister of Iran was a political post in Iran had existed during several different periods of time starting with the Qajar era (when the country was internationally known Persianization or Persianisation is a process of cultural and/or linguistic change in which something non-Persian becomes Persian. By Persian Mythology is meant the myths and sacred narratives of the culturally and linguistically related group of ancient peoples who inhabited the Iranian Plateau Greater Iran (in Irān-e Bozorg, or fa ایرانزمین Irān-zamīn; the Encyclopedia Iranica uses the term Iranian Kurdistan ( Kurdish: کوردستانی ئران Kurdistanî Iran) or Kurdistana Rojhilat (Eastern Kurdistan or Rojhilatê The Iranian people are a collection of Ethnic groups defined along linguistic lines as speaking Iranian languages. Iranian Studies ( ايران شناسیis an interdisciplinary field dealing with the study of the Iranian cultural region (or the Iranian "cultural continent" Anti-Persian sentiment (فارسیستیزی also فارسستیزی refers to feelings of hostility hatred or prejudice towards Persian speakers and their cultural symbols Anti-Iranian sentiment (ایرانی ستیزی also ایران ستیزی refers to feelings of hostility hatred or prejudice towards Iran, its citizens or Iranian The Cultural Revolution (1980-1987 (in Persian انقلاب فرهنگي was a period following the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran where the academia of Iran was Chicago's Persian heritage crisis (تاراج سرمايه باستانی ايران در شيکاگو in Persian) refers to a threat to seize invaluable Persian The Islamic conquest of Persia (637-651 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia. Islamization in post-conquest Iran, a long process by which Islam was gradually adopted by the majority population occurred as a result of the Islamic conquest Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language Encyclopedia about the history culture and Dresden
- Iran chamber
- WWW-VL History Index: IRAN
- A brief history of Iran
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