This article is part of the series on: History of Bahrain

Ancient Bahrain

Dilmun

Tylos and Mishmahig

Awal

Historical region

Islam in Bahrain

Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami

Qarmatians

Portuguese occupation

Muqrin ibn Zamil

Antonio Correia

Safavid hegemony (1602-1717)

1717 Oman invasion of Bahrain

Al Khalifa and the British Protectorate

1783 Al Khalifa invasion of Bahrain

Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship (1861)

First Oil Well (1932)

20th Century Bahrain

March 1965 Intifada

1981 coup d'état attempt

Uprising 1994-2000

2000s in Bahrain

Forum for the Future

Topical

Military history of Bahrain

Timeline of Bahrain history

Bahrain is a borderless island country in the Persian Gulf. Dilmun (sometimes transliterated Telmun) is a land mentioned by Mesopotamian Civilizations as a trade partner source of raw material copper and Entrepot Bahrain was referred to by the Greeks as Tylos, the centre of pearl trading when Nearchus came to discover it serving under Alexander the Great. Bahrain was referred to by the Greeks as Tylos, the centre of pearl trading when Nearchus came to discover it serving under Alexander the Great. For the acronym meaning "Absent Without Authorized Leave" see AWOL Awal (أوال is the ancient name of Bahrain Bahrain (البحرين al-Baḥrayn) is a historical region in eastern Arabia that was known as the Province of Bahrain (إقليم البحرين Islam is the state religion in Bahrain where the citizens are all Muslims with the majority of the population practicing Shia Islam. Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami ( Arabic: العلاء بن الحضرمي) was an envoy sent by the Muslim prophet Muhammad in the 7th century AD to spread the message The Qarmatians, Arabic Qarāmita قرامطة (also spelled "Carmathians" "Qarmathians" "Karmathians" etc Bahrain is a borderless Island country in the Persian Gulf. Although Bahrain became an independent country in 1971 the history of these islands starts Muqrin ibn Zamil ( مقرن بن زامل, pronounced Migrin ibin Zāmil) the ruler of eastern Arabia, including Al-Hasa, Al-Qatif António Correia was a Portuguese commander who in 1521 conquered Bahrain, beginning eighty years of Portuguese rule in the Gulf state. Bahrain is a borderless Island country in the Persian Gulf. Although Bahrain became an independent country in 1971 the history of these islands starts In 1717 the Sultanate of Oman invaded Bahrain bringing an end to a 115 year rulership by the eroding Safavid dynasty. The Al Khalifa (آل خليفة dynasty is the ruling Sunni family of Bahrain. In 1783 the Al Khalifa clan led an attack on the islands of Bahrain, from their then base of Zubara, successfully capturing it from Nasr Al-Madhkur. As its name suggests it is the first oil well in the Persian Gulf and is located in Bahrain. The March Intifada ( was an uprising that broke out in Bahrain in March 1965 After Ayatollah Khomeini came to power in Iran in 1979 Tehran made clear its intention to spread its Islamic Revolution throughout the Middle East. The 1990s Uprising in Bahrain or 1990s Intifada was an Islamist led uprising that took place in Bahrain between 1994 and 2000 In the 2000s in Bahrain the government instituted political reforms and relaxed economic controls The Forum for the Future in Bahrain on 11-12 November 2005 brought together by suggestion of the President of Spain Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero, the leaders This is a list of island countries. An " Island country " also called a borderless country, is an insular territory over which a nation-state maintains An island country is a Country that is wholly confined to an Island, several islands an Island group or several island groups and has no territory on The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the Akthough Bahrain became an independent country in 1971, the history of these islands starts from ancient times. Bahrain strategic location in the Persian Gulf has brought rule and influence from the Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and finally the Arabs, under whom the island became Muslim. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion

Ancient history

Bahrain has been proposed to be at list part of Dilmun, a land mentioned by Mesopotamian Civilizations as a trade partner, source of raw material, copper, and entrepot of the Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilization trade route. Dilmun (sometimes transliterated Telmun) is a land mentioned by Mesopotamian Civilizations as a trade partner source of raw material copper and Entrepot Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding An entrepôt (from the French " Warehouse " is a Trading post where merchandise can be imported and Exported without Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin However, the exact location of Dilmun is unclear, it might be associated with the islands of Bahrain, Eastern Province, Qatar and nearby Iranian coast in the Persian Gulf^[1]. The Kingdom of Bahrain (in مملكة البحرين,, literally Kingdom of the Two Seas) is an Island country in the Persian Gulf Eastern Province (الشرقية Ash-Sharqīyah) is the largest province of Saudi Arabia, located in the east of the country on the Persian Qatar ( قطر; ˈqɑtˁɑr local pronunciation giṭar officially the State of Qatar (Arabic دولة قطر transliterated For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the One of the early settles discovered in Bahrain suggests that Sennacherib, king of Assyria (707-681 B. C. ) attacked northeast Arabia and captured Bahrain islands. ^[2]

From the 6th to 3rd century B. C. Bahrain was included in Persian Empire by Achaemenians, an Iranian dynasty. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of The Iranian people are a collection of Ethnic groups defined along linguistic lines as speaking Iranian languages. ^[2] Bahrain was referred to by the Greeks as "Tylos", the centre of pearl trading, when Nearchus came to discover it serving under Alexander the Great. Bahrain was referred to by the Greeks as Tylos, the centre of pearl trading when Nearchus came to discover it serving under Alexander the Great. Nearchus (or Nearchos) (c 360 - 300 BC was one of the officers a Navarch, in the army of Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' ^[3]. From the third century B. C. to arrival of Islam in the seventh A. D. , Bahrain was controlled by two other Iranian dynasties of Parthians and Sassanids. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire By about 250 B. C. , Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. Because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons in the southern coast of Persian Gulf. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran ^[4]

Asia in 600 CE, showing the Sassanid Empire before the Arab conquest.

In the third century A. D. , the Sasanids succeeded the Parthians and held area until the rise of Islam four centuries later. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire ^[5] Ardashir, the first ruler of Iranian Sassanians dynasty marched forward Oman and Bahrain and defeat Sanatruq ^[6] (or Satiran^[2]), probably the Parthian governor of Bahrain. Ardeshīr, Ardashīr, or Ardashēr ( is Middle Persian for "whose reign is through ''arda'' (truth" and may refer The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran ^[7] He appointed his son Shapur I as governor of Bahrain. Shapur I was the second Sassanid King of the Second Persian Empire. Shapur constructed a new city there and named it Batan Ardashir after his father. ^[2] At this time, Bahrain incorporated in the southern Sassanid province covering over the Persian Gulfs southern shore plus the archipelago of Bahrain. ^[8] The southern province of Sasanids was subdivided into three districts of Haggar (Now al-Hafuf province, Saudi Arabia), Batan Ardashir(Now al-Qatif province, Saudi Arabia), and Msihmahig ^[2] (In Middle-Persian/Pahlavi means "ewe-fish"^[9]). Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect

Islam

From the time when Islam emerged in the seventh century until the early sixteenth century, the name Bahrain referred to the wider historical region of Bahrain stretching from Basrah to the Strait of Hormuz along the Persian Gulf coast. Bahrain (البحرين al-Baḥrayn) is a historical region in eastern Arabia that was known as the Province of Bahrain (إقليم البحرين Basra ( BGN: AlBasrah also called Basorah Abillah and Uruk or IRAQ The name that British colony has adopted for Basra Navigation Ships moving through the Strait follow a Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS which separates inbound from outbound traffic to reduce the risk of collision The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the This was Iqlīm al-Baḥrayn, i. e. the Province of Bahrain, and the Arab inhabitants of the province were descendants of the Arab tribe Bani Abd al-Qais. This larger Bahrain comprised three regions: Hajar (present day Al-Hasa in Saudi Arabia), Al-Khatt (present day Al-Qatif in Saudi Arabia) and Awal (present day Bahrain). This article refers to the traditional region of Al-Hasa For the current Saudi Arabian administrative unit sometimes called Al-Hasa see Al-Ahsa (governorate. For other uses see Katif. Qatif or Al-Qatif (also spelled Qateef or Al-Qateef; القطيف Al-Qaṭīf For the acronym meaning "Absent Without Authorized Leave" see AWOL Awal (أوال is the ancient name of Bahrain The name Awal remained in use, probably, for eight centuries. Awal was derived from the name of an idol that used to be worshipped before Islam by the inhabitants of the islands. The center of the Awal cult was Muharraq. Muharraq ( (meaning Place of Ashes is Bahrain 's second largest city and served as its capital until 1923

Bahrainis were amongst the first to embrace Islam. Mohammed ruled Bahrain through one of his representatives, Al-Ala'a Al-Hadhrami. Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami ( Arabic: العلاء بن الحضرمي) was an envoy sent by the Muslim prophet Muhammad in the 7th century AD to spread the message Bahraini embraced Islam in 629 (the seventh year of hijra). Events By Place Persian and Byzantine Empires September - Jerusalem is reconquered by the Byzantine Empire from During the time of Umar I the famous companion of the Prophet Abu Hurayrah was the governor of Bahrain. Umar I also appointed Uthman bin Abi Al Aas as governor of the area as well. Al Khamis Mosque, founded in 692, was one of the earliest mosques built in Bahrain, in the era of Umayyad caliph Umar II. The Khamis Mosque ( Arabic: مسجد الخميس; transliterated: Masjid al-Khamys is believed A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (c 682 - February 720 (عمر بن عبد العزيز was an Umayyad Caliph who ruled from 717 to 720

The expansion of Islam did not affect Bahrain's reliance on trade, and its prosperity continued to be dependent on markets in Mesopotamia. After Baghdad emerged as the seat of the caliph in 750 and the main centre of Islamic civilization, Bahrain greatly benefited from the city's increased demand for foreign goods especially from China and South Asia. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah

Bahrain became a principal centre of knowledge for hundreds of years stretching from the early days of Islam in the sixth century to the eighteenth century. Philosophers of Bahrain were highly esteemed, such as the 13th Century mystic, Sheikh Maitham Al Bahrani (died in 1299). Sheikh Maitham bin Ali Al Bahrani ( (d 1280AD (also spelt Maytham Al Bahrani was a leading 13th Century Twelver Shi'a Islamic theologian who lived in Bahrain. (The mosque of Sheikh Maitham together with his tomb can be visited in the outskirts of the capital, Manama, near the district of Mahooz). Manama ( Arabic: المنامة, Transliteration: Al-Manāmah) is the capital and largest city of Bahrain with

The Qarmatian Republic

Main article: Qarmatians

In the end of the third Hijri century, Abu Sa'id al-Hasan al-Janaby led the Revolution of al-Qaramita, a rebellion by a messianic Ismaili sect originating in Kufa in present day Iraq. The Qarmatians, Arabic Qarāmita قرامطة (also spelled "Carmathians" "Qarmathians" "Karmathians" etc The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ The Qarmatians, Arabic Qarāmita قرامطة (also spelled "Carmathians" "Qarmathians" "Karmathians" etc For the Egyptian city see Ismaïlia. The Ismāʿīlī ( Urdu: إسماعیلی Ismāʿīlī, Arabic: الإسماعيليون Kufa ( Arabic, ar الكوفة) is a city in modern Iraq, about 170 km south of Baghdad, and 10 km northeast of Najaf. Al-Janaby took over the city of Hajr, Bahrain's capital at that time, in addition to al-Hasa, which he made the capital of his republic and once in control of the state he sought to create a utopian society. This article refers to the traditional region of Al-Hasa For the current Saudi Arabian administrative unit sometimes called Al-Hasa see Al-Ahsa (governorate. Utopia is a name for an ideal community taken from the title of a book written in 1516 by Sir Thomas More describing a fictional Island in the

The Qarmatians' goal was to build a society based on reason and equality. The state was governed by a council of six with a chief who was a first among equals^[10]. All property within the community was distributed evenly among all initiates. The Qarmatians were organized as an esoteric society but not as a secret one; their activities were public and openly propagated, but new members had to undergo an initiation ceremony involving seven stages. The Qarmatian world view was one where every phenomenon repeated itself in cycles, where every incident was replayed over and over again.

Even before taking over Bahrain, the Qarmatians had instigated what some scholars have termed a ‘century of terrorism’ in Kufa^[11]. From Bahrain they launched raids along the pilgrim routes crossing Arabia: in 906 they ambushed the pilgrim caravan returning from Mecca and massacred 20,000 pilgrims^[12]. Under Abu Tahir Al-Jannabi they came close to capturing Baghdad in 923 and sacked Mecca in 930. Abu Tahir Sulayman Al-Jannabi (906-944 was the ruler of the Qarmatian state in Bahrain and Eastern Arabia who in 930 led the sacking of Mecca. The assault on Islam's holiest sites saw the Qarmatians desecrate the Well of Zamzam with corpses of Hajj pilgrims and take the Black Stone from Mecca to Bahrain^[13]. The Well of Zamzam (or the Zamzam Well, or just Zamzam; Arabic: زمزم) is a well located within the Masjid al Haram in The Black Stone (called الحجر الأسود al-Hajar-ul-Aswad in Arabic) is a Muslim object of reverence which according to Islamic The sack of Mecca followed millenarian excitement among the Qarmatians (as well as in Persia) over the conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in 928. Millenarianism (sometimes spelled millenarism or millennarism) is the belief by a religious social or political group or movement in a coming major transformation Bahrain became the seat of the Qarmatian Mahdi-Caliph from Isfahan who abolished Sharīa law. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. The new Mahdi also changed the qibla of prayer from Mecca to that of fire, a specifically Zoroastrian practice. Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Some scholars take the view that “they may not have been Isamailis at all at the outset, and their conduct and customs gave plausibility to the belief that they were not merely heretics but bitter enemies of Islam. ”^[14].

For much of the tenth century the Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf and Middle East, controlling the coast of Oman and collected tribute from the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad as well as from the rival Ismaili Fatimid caliph in Cairo, whom they did not recognize. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah The land they ruled over was extremely wealthy with a huge slave based economy according to academic Yitzhak Nakash:

10th-16th Centuries

The Qarmatians were defeated in battle in 976 by the Abbasids, which encouraged them to look inward to build their utilitarian society, but around 1058, a revolt on the island of Bahrain led by two Sunni members of the Abd al-Qays tribe, Abul-Bahlul al-‘Awwam and Abu’l-Walid Muslim^[16], precipitated the waning of Qarmatian power and eventually the ascendancy to power of the Uyunids, an Arab dynasty belonging to the Abdul Qays tribe. For the 976 telephone prefix see Premium-rate telephone number Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 10 — Abu al-Bahlul al-Awwam ( أبو البهلول العوّام) was a Sunni member of the Abd al-Qays tribe in Bahrain who overthrew Qarmatian The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding ^[17] The Uyunids ruled from 1076 to 1235, when the islands were briefly occupied by the Turkic Salgharid Atabeg of Fars. Supported by the Seljuk rulers of Iraq, the Uyunids relied on the power of the Banu 'Amir tribes such as the Banu Uqayl. Banu 'Amir ibn Sa'sa'ah or Banu 'Amir ( بنو عامر بن صعصعة) were a large and ancient Arab tribal confederation originating from central and Banu Uqayl ( بنو عُـقَـيـْل) are an ancient Arab tribe that played an important role in the history of eastern Arabia and Iraq.

In 1253, the bedouin Sunni dynasty of the Usfurids of Banu Uqayl -– named after its founder, Usfur ibn Rashid -- gained control over eastern Arabia, including the islands of Bahrain. The Bedouin, (from the Arabic (ar بدوي pl badū) are a desert-dwelling Arab Nomadic pastoralist, or previously Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic The Usfurids were a Sunni bedouin dynasty that in 1253 gained control of eastern Arabia including the islands of Bahrain, They were a branch of the Banu Uqayl tribe Banu Uqayl ( بنو عُـقَـيـْل) are an ancient Arab tribe that played an important role in the history of eastern Arabia and Iraq. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) The late middle ages were a time of chronic instability with local disputes allowing various Persian-based Arab Kingdoms based in Qais, Qishm and Hormuz to involve themselves in Bahrain’s affairs^[18]. In 1330, the islands became tributary to the rulers of Hormuz. ^[19]

According to historian Juan Cole it was under Sunni rule that Twelver Shiaism became established in Bahraini, as Shia Bahrainis gradually moved away from the radical, egalitarian Ismaili Qarmatian sect to the more quietist Twelver or Imami branch, a process which the Sunni rulers encouraged. See also Shi'a Islam Twelver Shi'ism ( ar اثنا عشرية Ithnāˤashariyyah) is the largest branch of Shi'a branch of Islam ^[20] But even in the fourteenth century, the North African traveler Ibn Battuta visiting Qatif around 1331, found it inhabited by Arabs whom he described as "extremist Shi`is" (rafidiyya ghulat), which Cole presumes is how a 14th Century Sunni would describe Ismailis. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February Ibn Battuta also noted the great wealth of the area thanks to the pearling industry^[21].

Until the late Middle Ages, "Bahrain" referred to the larger historical region of Bahrain. Bahrain (البحرين al-Baḥrayn) is a historical region in eastern Arabia that was known as the Province of Bahrain (إقليم البحرين Ibn Battuta's 14th century account contains an early use of the term "Bahrain" to refer solely to the Awal islands. However, the exact date at which the term "Bahrain" began to refer solely to the Awal archipelago is unknown. ^[22]

In the mid-15th century, another branch of the Banu Uqayl, led by Zamil ibn Jabir, wrested control of Bahrain, founding the dynasty of the Bedouin Jabrids. Banu Uqayl ( بنو عُـقَـيـْل) are an ancient Arab tribe that played an important role in the history of eastern Arabia and Iraq. The Bedouin, (from the Arabic (ar بدوي pl badū) are a desert-dwelling Arab Nomadic pastoralist, or previously The Jabrids ( الجبريون, الدولة الجبرية, or الجبور) were a Bedouin dynasty that dominated eastern Arabia Based in al-Ahsa, the Jarbids ruled most of eastern Arabia and followed the Sunni Maliki rite, which they actively promoted within their domain. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic The Maliki Madhhab ( Arabic مالكي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam ^[23][24]

Bahrain as a Portuguese dominion

Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early sixteenth century following Vasco da Gama's voyages of exploration saw them battle the Ottomans up the coast of the Persian Gulf. Dom Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira ('vaʃku dɐ 'gɐmɐ ( Sines or Vidigueira, Alentejo, Portugal, ca The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the Reputedly, the first Portuguese traveller to visit Bahrain was Duarte Barbosa in 1485. Duarte Barbosa (died 1521 was a Portuguese writer and trader Living in the 15th and the 16th century his father was Diogo Barbosa.

The Arabian navigator, Ahmad Bin Majid, visited Bahrain in 1489 and gave a contemporary account of the country that the first Portuguese would have seen: "In Awal (Bahrain) there are 360 villages and sweet water can be found in a number of places. Ahmed bin Majid (أحمد بن ماجد was an Arab navigator and cartographer born in 1421 in Julphar which is now known as Ras Al Khaimah. A most wonderful al-Qasasir, where a man can dive into the salt sea with a skin and can fill it with fresh water while he is submerged in the salt water. Around Bahrain are pearl fisheries and a number of islands all of which have pearl fisheries and connected with this trade are 1,000 ships. "

In 1521, a Portuguese force led by commander Antonio Correia invaded Bahrain to take control of the wealth created by its pearl industry. António Correia was a Portuguese commander who in 1521 conquered Bahrain, beginning eighty years of Portuguese rule in the Gulf state. They defeated the Jabrid ruler Muqrin ibn Zamil, who was then beheaded after Correia destroyed his forces near present day Karbabad and took control of the fort "Qala'at Al-Bahrain". The Jabrids ( الجبريون, الدولة الجبرية, or الجبور) were a Bedouin dynasty that dominated eastern Arabia Muqrin ibn Zamil ( مقرن بن زامل, pronounced Migrin ibin Zāmil) the ruler of eastern Arabia, including Al-Hasa, Al-Qatif Qal`at al-Bahrain ( english: is an archaeological site located in Bahrain. The bleeding head of King Muqrin was later depicted on the Coat of Arms of Antonio Correia.

The conquest of Bahrain by the Portuguese and their vassals, the Kingdom of Hormuz, was part of a long and sustained war against the Ottomans for control of the spice trade. The centre of the Portuguese Indian Ocean empire was in Goa, and it was from India that the Portuguese controlled their Gulf territories. Goa ( Konkani: गोंय /ɡɔ̃j/ is India 's smallest state in terms of area and the fourth smallest in terms of population. Heavy taxes and a diversion of the spice trade from its Gulf-Mediterranean route towards the Atlantic undermined Bahrain’s economy in the first half of the sixteenth century, but the restoration of the spice trade and a lessening of Portuguese-Ottoman warfare helped boost Bahrain’s economic position in the second half of the century^[25].

The most enduring legacy of Portuguese rule is the imposing fortress at Qalat Al Bahrain, which is seen as symbolic of the rule by force through which Portugal occupied the islands for eighty years, until they were driven out in 1602 when an uprising led by Rukn ed-Din was sparked by the local Arab governor's order for the execution of the country’s richest traders^[26]. The uprising coincided with regional disputes between the Portuguese and rival European powers. The power vacuum that resulted was almost immediately filled by the Persian ruler, Shah Abbas I, whose general Allahverdi Khan invaded the island and subsumed it within the Safavid Empire^[27]. Shāh ‘Abbās I or Shāh ‘Abbās the Great ( (born January 27, 1571; died January 19, 1629) was Shah of Iran and the most eminent Allahverdi Khan (died June 3, 1613) was an Iranian general and statesman of Georgian origin who although initially a ghulām (royal The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz

Safavid hegemony and the Beglarbegi of Kuhgilu

Under Persian Safavid rule (1602-1717), Bahrain fell under the administrative jurisdiction of the Beglarbegi of Kuhgilu centered at Behbahan in southern Iran. Behbahan (بهبهان is a city in the Khuzestan province, Iran. In fact, the Safavids ruled Bahrain from a distance, seeking to control the islands not by force, but through ideology and the manipulation of local rivalries. Safavid rule was a period of intellectual flowering among the Shia theological elite, with Bahrain’s seminaries producing such theorists as Sheikh Yusuf Al Bahrani. Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several Sheikh Yusuf bin Ahmed Al Bahrani (1695-1772 ( was a Bahraini theologian and a key figure in the intellectual development of Twelver Shi'aism. The Safavid’s used the clergy to buttress their rule, hoping that by firmly implanting Imami Shiaism they could secure the islands of Bahrain, with their centrality to trade routes and pearl wealth^[28].

However, the Safavids’ strategy was in many ways too successful: the power and influence of the religious class meant that they had a great deal of autonomy, and it was the subsequent tension between Safavid state and the clergy that drove Bahrain’s theological vitality. Part of this flourishing was borne of the Bahraini clerics’ adherence to conservative Akhbari Shiaism, while the Safavids encouraged the more state-centric, Usulism. The Akhbārī s ( "Traditionalists" are Twelver Shī‘a Muslims who reject the use of Ijtihad or reasoning in the creation of new laws Usulis ( are the majority Twelver Shi'a Muslim group They differ from their now much smaller rival Akhbari group in favoring the use of Attempts by the Persians to reign in the Bahraini ulema were often counterproductive, and ended up strengthening the clerics against their local land-owning Bahraini rivals who challenged the clerics’ control over the lucrative pearl trade. Cleric-landowner conflict was usually contained within very limited parameters given that the senior ulema were usually the sons of the land-owning class^[29].

While Portuguese rule favoured Sunnis over Shias, according to historian Juan Cole under Iranian influence this situation was reversed, with the Sunnis persecuted^[30].

An Afghan invasion of Iran at the beginning of the eighteenth century resulted in the near collapse of the Safavid state, and the resultant power vacuum saw Oman invade Bahrain in 1717, ending over a hundred years of Persian hegemony. In 1717 the Sultanate of Oman invaded Bahrain bringing an end to a 115 year rulership by the eroding Safavid dynasty. The Omani invasion began a period of political instability that saw a quick succession of outside rulers take power with consequent destruction. According to a contemporary account by theologian, Sheikh Yusuf Al Bahrani, an unsuccessful attempt by the Persians and their Bedouin allies to take back Bahrain from the Kharijite Omanis saw much of the country burnt to the ground^[31]. Kharijites (Arabic Khawārij خوارج literally "Those who Went Out" is a general term embracing various Muslims who while initially supporting the Bahrain was eventually sold back to the Persians by the Omanis, but the weakness of the Safavid empire saw Huwala tribes seize control, who Al Bahrani says "ruined" the country. The Huwala (also spelt howala howila huwalah (Arabic الهولة meaning "Those that have changed or moved" ^[32]. In 1730, the new Shah of Persia, Nadir Shah, sought to re-assert Persian sovereignty in Bahrain, bring the island back under central rule and also challenge Oman in the Persian Gulf, for which he sought help from the British and Dutch, and he eventually recaptured Bahrain in 1736^[33]. Nāder Shāh Afshār ( also known as Nāder Qoli Beg - نادر قلی بیگ or Tahmāsp Qoli Khān - تهماسپ قلی خان) (November In 1753, Bahrain was then occupied by the Arabs of Abu Shahr of the Bushire-based Al Madhkur family^[34] , who ruled Bahrain in the name of Persia and paid allegiance to Karim Khan Zand. Bushehr or Bushire ( Persian:بوشهر pop 165377 (in 2005) is a city on the southwestern coast of Iran, on the Persian Gulf Karim Khan Zand, ( کریم خان زند) (c 1705- 1779 also called Karim Khan the Great (Bozorg was the ruler and De facto Shah of Iran The years of almost constant warfare and instability in the period led to a demographic collapse - German geographer Carsten Niebuhr found in 1763 that Bahrain's 360 towns and villages had through warfare and economic distress been reduced to only 60^[35]. Carsten Niebuhr or Karsten Niebuhr ( March 17, 1733 &ndash April 26, 1815) was a German Mathematician,

The influence of Iran was further undermined at the end of the eighteenth century when the ideological power struggle between the Akhbari-Usuli strands culminated in victory for the Akhbaris in Bahrain^[36].

Al Khalifa and the British treaties

By the 1770s, Bahrain was ruled by the Huwala Madhkur family of Bushire, who in turn paid nominal allegiance to provincial governors in southern Iran. The Huwala (also spelt howala howila huwalah (Arabic الهولة meaning "Those that have changed or moved" Bushehr or Bushire ( Persian:بوشهر pop 165377 (in 2005) is a city on the southwestern coast of Iran, on the Persian Gulf In 1782, war broke out between the Zubara-based Al Bin Ali trading clan of the Bani Utbah tribe and the Madhkurs –Zubara’s emerging position as a flourished as a pearling centre and trading port had brought it to the attention of the two main regional powers, Persia and Oman^[37], while the Al Khalifas’ monopoly of the pearl trade off the coasts of Qatar and Bahrain had provoked the animosity of the Madhkurs’ leader, Sheikh Nasr Al-Madhkur^[38]. Zubarah (also Al Zubarah or Az Zubarah) is a town in the northwest of the Qatar peninsula about 105 km from the Qatari capital of Doha. The Al Bin Ali ( is a Sea Bedouin Arab tribe based in the Persian Gulf states, especially Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, and The Bani Utbah (Arabic بني عتبة‎ banū l-`utbah is a tribe that originated from the region of Hijaz in central Arabia Sheikh Nasr Al-Madhkur (الشيخ نصر المذكور was the eighteenth century local governor of what was described by a contemporary account as an "independent state" in In 1782, Sheikh Nasr Madhkur subsequently put Zubara under siege, but he failed to occupy the town. ^[39].

The Original Utub whom which Shaikh Isa Bin Tarif, Chief of Al Bin Ali belongs to, conquered and expelled the Persians from Bahrain ^[40] after defeating them in the battle of Zubarah that took place in the year 1782 between the Al Bin Ali from the Bani Utbah Tribe and the Army of Nasr Al madhkoor Ruler of Bahrain and Bushire. Shaikh Isa Bin Tarif ( Al Bin Ali Al Utbi was the chief of the Bahrain -based Utub Al Bin Ali tribe from the beginning of the 19th The Al Bin Ali ( is a Sea Bedouin Arab tribe based in the Persian Gulf states, especially Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, and For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Al Bin Ali ( is a Sea Bedouin Arab tribe based in the Persian Gulf states, especially Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, and The Bani Utbah (Arabic بني عتبة‎ banū l-`utbah is a tribe that originated from the region of Hijaz in central Arabia It is well know that the strategist of this battle was Shaikh Nasr Al Madhkoor, his sword fell into the hands of Salama Bin Saif Al Bin Ali after his army collapsed and his forces were defeated ^[41]. The Al Bin Ali ( is a Sea Bedouin Arab tribe based in the Persian Gulf states, especially Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, and

With the help of Bedouin and Huwala allies, in 1783 the Al Khalifa broke the siege, destroying the Madhkur force and in the process captured Bahrain^[42]. The leader of the clan at the time was Ahmad ibn Mohammed Al Khalifa who is now referred to as Ahmed Al Fateh ("Ahmed the Conqueror"). Ahmed bin Muhammad Al Khalifa ( also known as Ahmed Al Fateh ( "Ahmed the Conqueror" was a leader of the Al Khalifa tribe Ahmed bin Muhammad Al Khalifa ( also known as Ahmed Al Fateh ( "Ahmed the Conqueror" was a leader of the Al Khalifa tribe The Al Khalifa were supported by several other clans in its invasion of Bahrain, including: the Al Mannai, Al Jalahima, Al Bin Ali, Al Bu Romaih, Al Muhannadi, Al Nuaim, Al Buainain, Al Bukuwarah, and Al Thawawida. The Al Mannai ( tribe (plural Al Mananea ( is an Arab Bedouin tribe based primarily in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. The Al Jalahma ( are an Arab clan based primarily in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. The Al Bin Ali ( is a Sea Bedouin Arab tribe based in the Persian Gulf states, especially Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, and The Al Bu Romaih ( tribe is an Arab Bedouin tribe based primarily in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. The Al Muhannadi ( tribe is an Arab Bedouin tribe based primarily in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, especially in Qatar. The Al Nuaim ( tribe is an Arab Bedouin tribe based primarily in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. The Al Buainain ( tribe is an Arab Bedouin tribe based primarily in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, especially in Saudi Arabia, Qatar

For more details on this topic, see 1783 Al Khalifa invasion of Bahrain. In 1783 the Al Khalifa clan led an attack on the islands of Bahrain, from their then base of Zubara, successfully capturing it from Nasr Al-Madhkur.

After the arrival of the Al-Khalifa's to Bahrain, they couldn't secure control and power of Bahrain in the early nineteenth centurie, Bahrain was invaded by both the Omanis and the Al Sauds, and in 1802 it was governed by a twelve year old child, when the Omani ruler Sayyid Sultan installed his son, Salim, as Governor in the Arad Fort^[43]. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Arad Fort ( transliterated: Qal'at 'Arad is a 15th century fort in Arad, Bahrain. In 1820 the Al Khalifa’s rule was buttressed when it entered into a treaty relationship with Britain, which was by then the dominant military power in the Gulf. The Al Khalifa (آل خليفة dynasty is the ruling Sunni family of Bahrain. It was the first of several treaties including the 1861 Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship, which was further revised in 1892 and 1951. Year 1892 ( MDCCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January Between 1869 and 1872 Midhat Pasha brought the islands nominally under the authority of the Ottoman Empire with coordination with the British. Ottoman ships starting appearing in the area as well. This treaty was similar to those entered into by the British Government with the other Persian Gulf principalities. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the It specified that the ruler could not dispose of any of his territory except to the United Kingdom and could not enter into relationships with any foreign government without British consent. In return the British promised to protect Bahrain from all aggression by sea and to lend support in case of land attack. More importantly the British promised to support the rule of the Al Khalifa in Bahrain, securing its unstable position as rulers of the country. According to SOAS academic, Nelida Fuccaro, this treaty relationship with Britain was one aspect of an evolving polity:

Peace and trade brought a new prosperity. Bahrain was no longer dependent upon pearling, and by the mid-19th Century it became the pre-eminent trading centre in the Gulf, overtaking rivals Basra, Kuwait, and finally in the 1870s, Muscat^[45]. At the same time, Bahrain’s socio-economic development began to diverge from the rest of the Gulf: it transformed itself from a tribal trading centre in to a modern state^[46]. This process was spurred by the attraction of large numbers of Persian, Huwala, and Indian merchant families who set up businesses on the island, making it the nexus of a vast web of trade routes across the Gulf, Persia and the Indian sub-continent. A contemporary account of Manama in 1862 found:

Palgrave’s description of Manama’s coffee houses in the mid-19th Century portrays them as cosmopolitan venues in contrast to what he describes as the ‘closely knit and bigoted universe of central Arabia’^[48]. William Gifford Palgrave (1826&ndash1888 was an Arabic scholar born at Westminster, England Palgrave describes a people with an open – even urbane – outlook: "Of religious controversy I have never heard one word. In short, instead of Zelators and fanatics, camel-drivers and Bedouins, we have at Bahrain [Manama] something like ‘men of the world, who know the world like men’ a great relief to the mind; certainly it was so to mine. "^[49]

The great trading families that emerged during this period have been compared to the Borgias and Medicis^[50] and their great wealth - long before the oil wealth the region would later be renown for - gave them extensive power, and among the most prominent were the Persian Al Safar family, who held the position of Native Agents of Britain in 19th Century^[51]. The Al Safar enjoyed an 'exceptionally close'^[52] relationship with the Al Khalifa clan from 1869, although the al-Khalifa never intermarried with them - it has been speculated that this could be related to political reasons (to limit the Safars’ influence with the ruling family) and possibly for religious reasons (because the Safars were Shia).

Bahrain’s trade with India saw the cultural influence of the subcontinent grow dramatically, with styles of dress, cuisine, and education all showing a marked Indian influence. According to Exeter University’s James Olney “In these and countless other ways, eastern Arabia’s ports and people were as much a part of the Indian Ocean world as they were a part of the Arab world. ”^[53]

Bahrain underwent a period of major social reform between 1926 and 1957, under the de facto rule of Charles Belgrave, the British advisor to Shaikh Hamad ibn Isa Al-Khalifa (1872-1942). Charles Dalrymple Belgrave (1894–1969 was a British citizen and adviser to the rulers of Bahrain from 1926 until 1957 Sheikh Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa KCIE, CSI ( 6 February 1872 &ndash 20 February 1942) was the ruler of Bahrain The country's first modern school was established in 1919, with the opening of the Al-Hiddaya Boys School, while the Persian Gulf's first girls school opened in 1928. The American Mission Hospital, established by the Dutch Reform Church, began work in 1903. Dutch Reformed Church (in Dutch: Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk or NHK was one of many branches of churches coming out of the Protestant Reformation in Europe Other reforms include the abolition of slavery, while the pearl diving industry developed at a rapid pace. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another

These reforms were often opposed vigorously by powerful groups within Bahrain including sections within the ruling family, tribal forces, the religious authorities and merchants. In order to counter conservatives, the British removed the Emir, Isa bin Ali Al Khalifa, replacing him with his son in 1923. Shaikh Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa, KCIE, CSI (1848 &ndash 1932 was the Ruler of Bahrain from 1869 until his death Some Sunni tribes such as the al Dossari were forcibly removed from Bahrain and sent to mainland Arabia, while clerical opponents of social reforms were exiled to Saudi and Iran, and the heads of some merchant and notable families were likewise exiled. The al Dawasir ( is an Arabian Bedouin tribe divided into clans and families The Britain’s interest in pushing Bahrain’s development was motivated by concerns about Saudi-Wahabbi and Iranian ambitions.

Discovery of oil and the Leftist movement

The discovery of oil in 1932 made Bahrain the first location in the Persian Gulf to have oil wells sunk. As its name suggests it is the first oil well in the Persian Gulf and is located in Bahrain. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the Oil production required thousands of workers, attracting peasants as well as enfranchised slaves who had become free men thanks to the end of slavery and debt bondage. As the first oil wells were being drilled, the pearl diving industry, hitherto the main source of income for the country, collapsed because of competition from cultured pearls produced in Japan. A cultured pearl is a Pearl created by a pearl farmer under controlled conditions This provided a further pool of labour needed by the new oil industry. It was the bringing together of all these disperate groups that prompted the emergence of an indigenous working class and the Leftist politics they adopted was to have important repercussions for the development of Bahraini society over the next fifty years. Working class is a term used in academic Sociology and in ordinary conversation to describe depending on context and speaker those employed in specific fields or types

During the Second World War, Bahrain fought on the side of the Allies, declaring war on Germany on September 10, 1939. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers It was a key base for the allies to safeguard oil supplies in the Persian Gulf and was the subject of Italian air raids on its oil refineries on October 20, 1940 from bases in East Africa.

The National Union Committee (NUC), a Leftist Nationalist movement associated with the labor unions, was formed in 1954 calling for the end of British interference and political reforms. Work sites were plagued with frequent strikes and occasional riots (including several fatalities) during this period. Following riots in support of Egypt defending itself against the tripartite invasion during 1956 Suez Crisis, the British decided to put an end to the NUC challenge to their presence in Bahrain. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Suez Crisis, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression, (أزمة السويس - العدوان الثلاثي Crise du canal de Suez מבצע קדש Kadesh The NUC and its offshoots were declared illegal. Its leaders were arrested, tried and imprisoned. Some fled the country while others were forcibly deported.

Strikes and riots continued during the 1960s, now under the leadership of underground cells of the NUC, namely the Communist National Liberation Front and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Bahrain, the Bahraini section of the Arab Nationalist Movement. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based National Liberation Front - Bahrain ( was an underground Marxist-Leninist Communist party in Bahrain. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Bahrain ( was an underground political party in Bahrain associated with the Arab Nationalist Movement. The Arab Nationalist Movement ( Harakat al-Qawmiyyin al-Arab) also known as the Movement of Arab Nationalists and the Harakiyyin, was a Pan-Arab

In March 1965, an uprising broke out, called the March Intifada, against the British presence in Bahrain. The March Intifada ( was an uprising that broke out in Bahrain in March 1965 The spark of the riots was the laying off of hundreds of Bahraini workers at the Bahrain Petroleum Company. Bahrain Petroleum Company (Bapco wholly owned by the Government of Bahrain, is engaged in the oil industry including exploration and prospecting for Oil, drilling Several people died in the sometimes violent clashes between protesters and police.

Independence and the constitutional experiment

After World War II, Bahrain became the centre for British administration of the lower Persian Gulf. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including In 1968, when the British Government announced its decision to end the treaty relationships with the Persian Gulf sheikdoms, Bahrain joined with Qatar and the seven Trucial States (which now form the United Arab Emirates) under British protection in an effort to form a union of Arab emirates. Year 1968 ( MCMLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Qatar ( قطر; ˈqɑtˁɑr local pronunciation giṭar officially the State of Qatar (Arabic دولة قطر transliterated By mid-1971, however, the nine sheikhdoms still had not agreed on the terms of union. Accordingly, Bahrain sought independence as a separate entity and became fully independent on August 15, 1971, as the State of Bahrain.

The emirate emerged just as the price of oil sky rocketted after the 1973 Arab-Israeli war; while Bahrain's own reserves were being depleted the high oil price meant there was massive capitalisation in the Kingdom's neighbours. The Yom Kippur War, Ramadan War or October War (מלחמת יום הכיפורים transliterated: Milkhemet Yom HaKipurim or מלחמת יום The Kingdom was able to exploit this new to attract massive inward investment thanks to another war in the Levant in 1975: the Lebanese civil war. The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990 was a multifaceted Civil war whose antecedents can be traced back to the conflicts and political compromises reached after the end Beirut had long been the financial centre of the Arab world, but the outbreak of hostilities in the country had an immediate impact on the banking industry. Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 Bahrain offered a new location at the centre of the booming Persian Gulf with a large educated indigenous workforce and sound fiscal regulations. Exploiting this opportunity saw a massive growth in the industry in the country, and bolstered the development of the middle class, and thus giving Bahrain a very different class structure to its tribal dominated neighbours.

Although there had long been a large Indian presence in Bahrain, it was at this time that mass migration to the Kingdom began to take off with massive subsequent consequences for the Kingdom's demographics, as large numbers of third world immigrants from countries such as the Philippines, Pakistan, Egypt and Iran were attracted by better salaries than at home. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics.

Based on its new constitution, Bahraini men elected its first National Assembly in 1973 (although Article 43 of the 1973 Constitution states that the Assembly is to be elected by "universal suffrage", the conditional clause "in accordance with the provisions of the electoral law" allowed the regime to prevent women from participating). Bahrain has had two Constitutions in its modern history The first one was promulgated in 1973, and the second one in 2002. The National Assembly is the name of both chambers of the Bahraini Parliament when sitting in joint session as laid out in the Constitution of 2002. Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to Although the Assembly and the then emir Isa ibn Salman al-Khalifa quarreled over a number of issues: foreign policy; the U.S. naval presence, and the budget, the biggest clash came over the State Security Law (SSL). Emir Isa ibn Salman Al Khalifah, GCB, GCMG ( June 3 1933 &ndash March 6 1999) (عيسى بن سلمان آل خليفة The Fifth Fleet of the United States Navy is responsible for naval forces in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Arabian Sea and coast off East The State Security Law of 1974 was a law which was used by the government of Bahrain to crush political unrest from 1974 until 2001 The Assembly refused to ratify the government-sponsored law, which allowed, among other things, the arrest and detention of people for up to three years, (renewable) without a trial. The legislative stalemate over this act created a public crisis, and on August 25, 1975, the emir dissolved the Assembly. The emir then ratified the State Security Law by decree, and suspended those articles in the constitution dealing with the legislative powers of the Assembly. In that same year, the emir established the State Security Court, whose judgments were not subject to appeal.

Iranian Revolution and social and political change

The tide of political Islam that swept the Middle East in the 1970s culminating in the Iranian Revolution in 1979 was to have profound implications for Bahrain's social and political development. Islamism ( Islam + ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed

There were a number of factors that had caused Bahrain to be more liberal than its neighbours, but all of these were challenged by the zeitgeist of religious fundamentalism. Bahrain's pluralist traditions were to a large extent a result of the complex confessional and demographic make up of the state, which required Shias, Sunnis, Persians (i. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic e Huwala and Ajams) and a plethora of minority faiths to live and work together; this tolerance had been buttressed by the prominence of Arab nationalism and Marxism as the main modes of dissent, both of which were socially progressive and downplayed religious affiliations; while the country's traditional dependence on trade further encouraged openness. The Huwala (also spelt howala howila huwalah (Arabic الهولة meaning "Those that have changed or moved" The Ajam ( are a community of Bahraini Persians in Bahrain. They have traditionally been merchants living in a specific quarters of Manama and Muharraq Arab nationalism ( Arabic: القومية العربية is a Nationalist ideology which rose to prominence amongst Arabs from the early 20th century onwards Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

Even before Iran's Revolution in 1979, there was a noticeable conservative trend growing, with the traditional abaya being donned by women in preference to the then popular mini-skirt. The abaya ( Arabic عباءة plural abayat عباءات is an Overgarment worn by some women in parts of the Islamic world. The miniskirt (often hyphenated as mini-skirt) is a Skirt with But it was the political earthquake represented by the Shah's fall that changed the dynamics of Bahrain's politics. Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages Ayatollah Khomeini's Iran immediately saw their co-religionists in Bahrain, who had grown more conscious of their own religious identity during this period, as prime agents to export the revolution. Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 The failure of the Left to offer a political or philosophical challenge to the Islamists allowed them quickly to dominate the avenues of dissent. Islamism ( Islam + ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only

In 1981, an Iranian front organisation, the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain attempted a coup d'etat with the plan involving the assassination of Bahrain's leadership and an Islamist uprsing. The Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain was an Iran-based Shia resistance group that advocated theocratic rule in Bahrain against the Sunni ruling Al After Ayatollah Khomeini came to power in Iran in 1979 Tehran made clear its intention to spread its Islamic Revolution throughout the Middle East. The aim was to install a clerical leadership with Iraqi cleric Hādī al-Mudarrisī as supreme leader, but the coup was detected after a tip off from a friendly intelligence source. Ayatollah Sayed Hadi Almodarresi or al-Modarresi ( Arabic: هادي المدرسي; transliterated: Hādī al-Mudarrisī

The failed coup along with the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War led to the formation of the Gulf Cooperation Council which Bahrain joined with Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf ( CCASG; مجلس التعاون لدول الخليج العربية also known as the Gulf Cooperation Council The State of Kuwait ( دولة الكويت IPA [dawlatt̪ alkuwajt̪]) is a sovereign Arab Emirate on the coast of the Persian Gulf, enclosed Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman ( Arabic: سلطنة عُمان) is an Arab Country in Southwest Asia on the southeast Qatar ( قطر; ˈqɑtˁɑr local pronunciation giṭar officially the State of Qatar (Arabic دولة قطر transliterated The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi The sense of regional uncertainty was further heightened when Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Kuwait followed by the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti ( Arabic: ar صدام حسين عبد المجيد التكريتي --> April 28 1937 &ndash December 30 For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics.

Years of political stasis combined with the collapse of the price of oil, saw growing frustration at the lack of democracy explode into an uprising in 1994. While previous advocacy of reforms had been secular in character, the uprising was specifically Islamist beginning with the stoning of female competitors in a marathon race for wearing 'inappropriate' clothing. Until 1998, Bahrain was hit by riots and bomb attacks, while the police responded with heavy handed tactics. In all over forty people were killed. (For more details see Adel Darwish in the Middle East Review of International Affairs). Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA is a quarterly journal on Middle East issues edited by Barry Rubin and published by the Global Research

1970s to 1980s

The prelude and aftermath of the Iranian Revolution in 1979 encouraged Shia Islamist dissent across the Middle East. The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed Ayatollah Khomeini's Iran immediately saw their co-religionists in Bahrain, who had grown more conscious of their own religious identity during this period, as prime agents to export the revolution. Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 The failure of the Left to offer a political or philosophical challenge to the Islamists allowed them quickly to dominate the avenues of dissent. Islamism ( Islam + ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only

In 1981, an Iranian front organisation, the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain attempted a coup d'etat with the plan involving the assassination of Bahrain's leadership and an Islamist uprsing. The Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain was an Iran-based Shia resistance group that advocated theocratic rule in Bahrain against the Sunni ruling Al After Ayatollah Khomeini came to power in Iran in 1979 Tehran made clear its intention to spread its Islamic Revolution throughout the Middle East. The aim was to install a clerical leadership with Iraqi cleric Hādī al-Mudarrisī as supreme leader, but the coup was detected after a tip off from a friendly intelligence source. Ayatollah Sayed Hadi Almodarresi or al-Modarresi ( Arabic: هادي المدرسي; transliterated: Hādī al-Mudarrisī

1990s

Main article: 1990s Uprising in Bahrain

The Islamic Front was later to carry out a series of bomb attacks in the Kingdom during the 1990s as part of an Islamist uprising against the government. The 1990s Uprising in Bahrain or 1990s Intifada was an Islamist led uprising that took place in Bahrain between 1994 and 2000 The Front bombed the Diplomat Hotel on 1 November 1996, with the group telling the Associated Press "We put a bomb in the Diplomat hotel 20 minutes ago. . . after the feast. . . tell the government that we will destroy everyplace. "[3]

However, it would be a mistake to consider the Islamist violence to be purely foreign instigated: due to perceived discrimination against the majority Shia population of Bahrain by the Al Khalifa rulers, there was a strong sense of grievance. The Al Khalifa (آل خليفة dynasty is the ruling Sunni family of Bahrain.

In the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, and encouraged by electoral and parliamentary developments in Kuwait, Bahraini opponents of the government sensed an opportunity to raise again the issue of elections and their own parliament. The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 The State of Kuwait ( دولة الكويت IPA [dawlatt̪ alkuwajt̪]) is a sovereign Arab Emirate on the coast of the Persian Gulf, enclosed In 1992, following informal discussions, a group consisting mainly of clerics and businessmen led by Islamist leader Abdul Amir Al Jamri, drew up a petition that was then signed by more than 300 prominent individuals, known as the "elite petition". Sheikh Abdul Amir al-Jamri (عبدالأمير الجمري (b The signatories were fairly evenly split between Shia and Sunni, and between Islamists and secular nationalists. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Islamism ( Islam + ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation It asked for restoration of the National Assembly and the constitution of 1975, and participation by the population in decision making. The National Assembly is the name of both chambers of the Bahraini Parliament when sitting in joint session as laid out in the Constitution of 2002. After listening to their demands, the emir responded that the government planned to establish a consultative council (appointed directly by the emir), which would be the appropriate institution to serve the population, and that there could be no further discussion on the subject.

The failure of this petition led to the second petition, the so-called general or popular petition of 1994. This mass petition was reportedly signed by some 22,000 people. To pre-empt the delivery of the petition to the emir, the regime arrested several of the leading Shia clerics who were organising the petition, including Ali Salman, after they were accused of inciting their stoning of women competitors in a marathon race. Ali Salman ( علي سلمان) is the president of the Al-Wefaq political society in Bahrain.

The uprising was specifically Islamist in character, beginning with the stoning of the leading team in the Bahrain Marathon Relay race after they ran along a road alongside a conservative village. Women's participation in the race had been cited as immoral by conservative clerics in the run up to the race, and a large group were amassed on one of the race hand over stages demonstrating, when one of the SAAD Track Club team passed the demonstrators, the runner was attacked and knocked to the ground. The uprising was characterised by riots, stonings and bomb attacks, which targeted the government, the middle classes, third world immigrants and liberals.

The uprising was led by London based Islamist group, the Bahrain Freedom Movement. According to Egyptian liberal journalist Adel Darwish: "Interviews with BFM leaders leave little doubt about the totalitarian nature of their type of Islamic fundamentalist ideology. Their final aim is to declare an Iranian-style Islamic republic. "[4]

The political impasse continued over the next few years during which time the regime dealt with its opponents using severe repression. Bomb attacks and police brutality marked this period in which over forty people were killed in violence between the two sides. Although the violence was never entirely stopped by the security measures it was contained and continued as low level intermitten disturbances.

2000s

Main article: 2000s in Bahrain

In 1999 Shaykh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa became Amir after the death of his father, Shaykh Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, and carried out some social and political reforms. In the 2000s in Bahrain the government instituted political reforms and relaxed economic controls Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, KCMG (حمد بن عيسى آل خليفة (born December 28, 1949 in Riffa, Bahrain) Emir Isa ibn Salman Al Khalifah, GCB, GCMG ( June 3 1933 &ndash March 6 1999) (عيسى بن سلمان آل خليفة King Hamad tried to end the political repression that had defined the 1990s by scrapping security laws, releasing all political prisoners, instituting elections, giving women the vote and promising a return to constitutional rule. The move brought an end to political violence, but did not initially bring about a reconciliation between the government and most of the opposition groups.

Following the political liberalization Bahrain negotiated a Free Trade Agreement with the United States in 2004. See also List of free trade agreements This is article is on free international trade The country participated in military action against the Taliban in 2001 with its ships patrolling the Arabian Sea searching for vessels, but opposed the invasion of Iraq. The War in Afghanistan, which began on October 7 2001 as the U The Taliban ( طالبان, also anglicised as Taleban; translation "students" is a Sunni Islamist, predominately The 2003 invasion of Iraq, from March 20 to May 1 2003 was spearheaded by the United States, backed by British forces and smaller contingents from Australia Relations improved with neighbouring Qatar after the border dispute over the Hawar Islands was resolved by the International Court of Justice in The Hague in 2001. Qatar ( قطر; ˈqɑtˁɑr local pronunciation giṭar officially the State of Qatar (Arabic دولة قطر transliterated The Hawar Islands ( Arabic: جزر حوار transliterated: Juzur Ḩawār are a group of Islands situated off the west coast of Qatar in the See also International Commission of Jurists The International Court of Justice (known colloquially as the World Court or ICJ; Cour The two are now building the Qatar-Bahrain Friendship Bridge to link the countries across the Persian Gulf, which will be the longest fixed link bridge in the world when completed. The Qatar–Bahrain Friendship Bridge is a long-discussed bridge that is to be built between the two Gulf states of Qatar and Bahrain. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the

See also

• Dilmun
• Bahrain (historical region)
• History of the Jews in Bahrain
• List of rulers of Bahrain
• History of the Middle East
• Rahmah bin Jabir al-Jalahimah
• Bahrain National Museum
• Bandargate scandal

Further reading

• Mahdi Abdalla Al-Tajir (1987). Dilmun (sometimes transliterated Telmun) is a land mentioned by Mesopotamian Civilizations as a trade partner source of raw material copper and Entrepot Bahrain (البحرين al-Baḥrayn) is a historical region in eastern Arabia that was known as the Province of Bahrain (إقليم البحرين History of the Jews in Bahrain. Bahraini Jews constitute one of the world's smallest Jewish communities The Al Khalifa (آل خليفة dynasty is the ruling Sunni family of Bahrain. See also Timeline of Middle Eastern history This article is a general overview of the history of the Middle East. Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalahimah ( Arabic: رحمة بن جابر بن عتبة الجلهمي أو الجلاهمة c The Bahrain National Museum (also referred as National Museum of Bahrain) is the largest and one of the most oldest Museums in Bahrain. The Bandargate scandal refers to an alleged political conspiracy by the certain government officials in Bahrain to foment Bahrain, 1920-1945: Britain, the Shaikh, and the Administration. ISBN 0-7099-5122-1
• Talal Toufic Farah (1986). Protection and Politics in Bahrain, 1869-1915 ISBN 0-8156-6074-X
• Emile A Nakhleh (1976). Bahrain: Political development in a modernizing society. ISBN 0-669-00454-5
• Andrew Wheatcroft (1995). The Life and Times of Shaikh Salman Bin Hamad Al-Khalifa : Ruler of Bahrain 1942-1961. ISBN 0-7103-0495-1
• Fuad Ishaq Khuri (1980). Tribe and state in Bahrain: The transformation of social and political authority in an Arab state. ISBN 0-226-43473-7
• Fred H. Lawson (1989). Bahrain: The Modernization of Autocracy. ISBN 0-8133-0123-8
• Mohammed Ghanim Al-Rumaihi (1975). Bahrain: A study on social and political changes since the First World War. University of Kuwait.
• Fakhro, Munira A. 1997. “The Uprising in Bahrain: An Assessment. ” In The Persian Gulf at the Millennium: Essays in Politics, Economy, Security, and Religion, eds. Gary G. Sick and Lawrence G. Potter: 167-88. New York: St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 0-312-17567-1
• Abdulla, Khalid M. 1999. “The State in Oil Rentier Economies: The Case of Bahrain. ” In Change and Development in the Gulf, ed. Abbas Abdelkarim: 51-78. New York: St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 0-312-21658-0
• Curtis E. Larsen. 1984. Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226469069

References

• Kechichian, J. William Gifford Palgrave (1826&ndash1888 was an Arabic scholar born at Westminster, England Jonathan Raban (b 14th June 1942 Hempton, Norfolk UK is a British Travel writer and Novelist. Arabia Through the Looking Glass is Jonathan Raban 's first Travel book, published in 1979 describing his travels in the Middle East the Arab countries A. (2002). "Bahrain". Encyclopaedia Iranica. New York: Mazda Pub.  
• This article contains material from the CIA World Factbook which, as a U. The World Factbook ( ISSN; also known as the CIA World Factbook) is an annual publication of the Central Intelligence Agency of the S. government publication, is in the public domain. The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone
• This article contains material from the US Department of State's Background Notes which, as a US government publication, is in the public domain. The Background Notes series is a collection of works by the United States Department of State. The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone

External links

• Timeline: Bahrain, BBC
• Bahrain: The last 100 years Life before and after the discovery of oil
• History of Bahrain on an Islamist opposition website
• Rahmah of the Gulf, Jon Mandaville, Saudi Aramco World, May 1975
• Qarmatians in Bahrain, Ismaili Net
• Background Note: Bahrain
• History of Bahrain
• Generational change and elite-driven reforms in the Kingdom of Bahrain. (Sir William Luce Fellowship Paper No. 7) Dr. Steven Wright (2006) Middle East and Islamic Studies, University of Durham, (PDF Format)
• Voice of Bahrain (London-based Islamist group website)
• Khalaf, Abdulhadi (1998). Durham University is a University in Durham, England. It was founded as the University of Durham (which remains its official and legal name Contentious politics in Bahrain: From ethnic to national and vice versa.