Glucose
IUPAC name	6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane -2,3,4,5-tetrol OR (2R,3R,4S,5R,6R)-6 -(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydro -2H-pyran-2,3,4,5-tetraol
Other names	Dextrose
Identifiers
Abbreviations	Glc
CAS number	50-99-7 (D-glucose) 921-60-8 (L-glucose)
SMILES	C(C1C(C(C(C(O1)O)O)O)O)O
Properties
Molecular formula	C6H12O6
Molar mass	180. IUPAC Nomenclature is a system of naming Chemical compounds and of describing the science of Chemistry in general CAS registry numbers are unique numerical identifiers for Chemical compounds Polymers biological sequences mixtures and Alloys They are also referred to A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the Atoms that constitute a particular Chemical compound, and how the relationship between those atoms changes Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Molar mass, symbol M, is the Mass of one mole of a substance ( Chemical element or Chemical compound) 16 g mol−1
Density	1. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different 54 g cm−3
Melting point	α-D-glucose: 146°C β-D-glucose: 150°C
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa) Infobox disclaimer and references

Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid. In Chemistry, the standard state of a material is its state at 1 bar (100 Kilopascals exactly Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single sacchar: sugar are the most basic unit of Carbohydrates They consist of one sugar and Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles The living cell uses it as a source of energy and metabolic intermediate. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and starts cellular respiration in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from The prokaryotes (proʊˈkærioʊts singular prokaryote /proʊˈkæriət/ are a group of Organisms that lack a Cell nucleus (= karyon or any other Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex The name comes from the Greek word glykys (γλυκύς), meaning "sweet", plus the suffix "-ose" which denotes a sugar. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose.

Two stereoisomers of the aldohexose sugars are known as glucose, only one of which (D-glucose) is biologically active. Stereoisomers are isomeric molecules that have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms (constitution but which differ in the three dimensional orientations An aldohexose is a Hexose with an Aldehyde group on one end The aldohexoses have four Chiral centres for This form (D-glucose) is often referred to as dextrose monohydrate, or, especially in the food industry, simply dextrose (from dextrorotatory glucose^[1]). The food industry is the complex global collective of diverse Businesses that together supply much of the Food energy consumed by the World population. Dextrorotation and levorotation (also spelled laevorotation) refer respectively to the properties of rotating plane Polarized light clockwise (for dextrorotation This article deals with the D-form of glucose. The mirror-image of the molecule, L-glucose, cannot be metabolized by cells in the biochemical process known as glycolysis. See also Gluconeogenesis, which carries out a process wherein glucose is synthesized rather than catabolized

Structure

Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) contains six carbon atoms, one of which is part of an aldehyde group, and is therefore referred to as an aldohexose. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny An aldehyde is an organic compound containing a terminal Carbonyl group. In Organic chemistry, a hexose is a Monosaccharide with six Carbon atoms having the Chemical formula C6H12O6 In solution, the glucose molecule can exist in an open-chain (acyclic) form and a ring (cyclic) form (in equilibrium). The cyclic form is the result of a covalent bond between the aldehyde C atom and the C-5 hydroxyl group to form a six-membered cyclic hemiacetal. Hydroxyl in Chemistry stands for a molecule consisting of an Oxygen atom and a Hydrogen atom connected by a Covalent bond. Hemiacetals and hemiketals are compounds of the general formula R1R2C(OHOR3 where R3 is not a hydrogen At pH 7 the cyclic form is predominant. pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. In the solid phase, glucose assumes the cyclic form. Because the ring contains five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom, which resembles the structure of pyran, the cyclic form of glucose is also referred to as glucopyranose. In Chemistry, a pyran is a six membered Heterocyclic ring consisting of five Carbon atoms and one Oxygen atom and containing two Double In this ring, each carbon is linked to a hydroxyl side group with the exception of the fifth atom, which links to a sixth carbon atom outside the ring, forming a CH₂OH group. Glucose is commonly available in the form of a white substance or as a solid crystal. It can also be dissolved in water as an aqueous solution.

Isomers

Aldohexose sugars have 4 chiral centers giving 2⁴ = 16 stereoisomers. An aldohexose is a Hexose with an Aldehyde group on one end The aldohexoses have four Chiral centres for The term chiral (pronounced /ˈkaɪɹ(əl̩/ is used to describe an object that is non- superimposable on its mirror image Stereoisomers are isomeric molecules that have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms (constitution but which differ in the three dimensional orientations These are split into two groups, L and D, with 8 sugars in each. Glucose is one of these sugars, and L-glucose and D-glucose are two of the stereoisomers. Only 7 of these are found in living organisms, of which D-glucose (Glu), D-galactose (Gal), and D-mannose (Man) are the most important. Galactose (Gal (also called brain sugar) is a type of Sugar which is less sweet than Glucose. Mannose is a Sugar Monomer of the Hexose series of Carbohydrates Metabolism Mannose enters the carbohydrate Metabolism These eight isomers (including glucose itself) are related as diastereoisomers and belong to the D series. Erythro redirects here For the fictional planet see Erythro (Asimov. Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single sacchar: sugar are the most basic unit of Carbohydrates They consist of one sugar and

An additional asymmetric center at C-1 (called the anomeric carbon atom) is created when glucose cyclizes and two ring structures called anomers are formed as α-glucose and β-glucose. In Sugar Chemistry, an anomer is a special type of Epimer. It is a Stereoisomer ( Diastereomer, more exactly of a Saccharide These anomers differ structurally by the relative positioning of the hydroxyl group linked to C-1, and the group at C-6 which is termed the reference carbon. When D-glucose is drawn as a Haworth projection or in the standard chair conformation, the designation α means that the hydroxyl group attached to C-1 is positioned trans to the -CH₂OH group at C-5, while β means it is cis. A Haworth projection is a common way of representing the cyclic structure of Monosaccharides with a simple three-dimensional perspective Another popular method of distinguishing α from β is by observing whether the C-1 hydroxyl is below or above the plane of the ring; but this method is an inaccurate definition, and may fail if the glucose ring is drawn upside down or in an alternative chair conformation. The α and β forms interconvert over a timescale of hours in aqueous solution, to a final stable ratio of α:β 36:64, in a process called mutarotation. Mutarotation is the term given to the change in the Specific rotation of a cyclic Monosaccharide as it reaches an equilibrium between its &alpha and &beta Anomeric ^[2]

The Fischer projection of the chain form of D-glucose	The chain form of D-glucose	α-D- glucopyranose	β-D- glucopyranose
Chain form: ball-and-stick model	Chain form: space-filling model	α-D- glucopyranose	β-D- glucopyranose

Rotamers

Within the cyclic form of glucose, rotation may occur around the O6-C6-C5-O5 torsion angle, termed the ω-angle, to form three rotamer conformations as shown in the diagram below. The Fischer projection, devised by Hermann Emil Fischer in 1891 is a Two-dimensional representation of a Ball-and-stick models and Space-filling models (also known as Calotte models) are 3D or spatial Molecular models which serve to display the structure Space-filling models (also known as calotte models or CPK models by Corey, Pauling and Koltun like Ball-and-stick models belong Referring to the orientations of the ω-angle and the O6-C6-C5-C4 angle the three stable staggered rotamer conformations are termed gauche-gauche (gg), gauche-trans (gt) and trans-gauche (tg). For methyl α-D-glucopyranose at equilibrium the ratio of molecules in each rotamer conformation is reported as 57:38:5 gg:gt:tg. ^[3] This tendency for the ω-angle to prefer to adopt a gauche conformation is attributed to the gauche effect. Main article Alkane stereochemistry The term "gauche" refers to conformational isomers (conformers where two vicinal

Rotamer conformations of α-D-glucopyranose

Properties and energy content

The Gibbs free energy of formation of solid glucose is -909 kJ/mol and the enthalpy of formation is -1273 kJ/mol. In Thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy ( IUPAC recommended name Gibbs energy or Gibbs function) is a Thermodynamic potential which The mole (symbol mol) is a unit of Amount of substance: it is an SI base unit, and almost the only unit to be used to measure this The standard enthalpy of formation or "standard heat of formation" of a compound is the change of Enthalpy that accompanies the formation of 1 mole of a The heat of combustion (with liquid water in the product) is about 2803 kJ/mol, or 3. The heat of combustion (ΔHc0 is the Energy released as Heat when a compound undergoes complete Combustion with Oxygen 72 kcal per gram. The ΔG (change of Gibbs free energy) for this combustion is about -2880 kJ/mol.

Upon heating, glucose, like any carbohydrate, will undergo pyrolysis (carbonization) yieldng steam and a char consisting mostly of carbon. Pyrolysis is the Chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of Oxygen or any other reagents except possibly Steam Carbonization or Carbonisation is the term for the conversion of an Organic substance into Carbon or a carbon-containing residue through Pyrolysis Uses A Steam engine uses the expansion of steam in order to drive a Piston or Turbine to perform Mechanical work. This reaction is exothermic, releasing about 0. In Thermodynamics, the word exothermic "outside heating" describes a process or reaction that releases Energy usually in the form of Heat, but 237 kcal per gram.

Production

Natural

1. Glucose is one of the products of photosynthesis in plants and some prokaryotes. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. The prokaryotes (proʊˈkærioʊts singular prokaryote /proʊˈkæriət/ are a group of Organisms that lack a Cell nucleus (= karyon or any other
2. In animals and fungi, glucose is the result of the breakdown of glycogen, a process known as glycogenolysis. Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells Glycogenolysis (also known as "Glycogenlysis" is the Catabolism of Glycogen by removal of a Glucose monomer through cleavage with inorganic In plants the breakdown substrate is starch. Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide
3. In animals, glucose is synthesized in the liver and kidneys from non-carbohydrate intermediates, such as pyruvate and glycerol, by a process known as gluconeogenesis. The liver is a vital organ in the human body and is present in Vertebrates and some other animals The kidneys are complicated organs that have numerous biological roles Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H is an alpha-keto acid. The Carboxylate Anion of pyruvic acid is known as pyruvate. Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such

Commercial

Glucose is produced commercially via the enzymatic hydrolysis of starch. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Hydrolysis is a Chemical reaction during which one or more water molecules are split into hydrogen and hydroxide ions which may go on to participate in further reactions Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Many crops can be used as the source of starch. Maize, rice, wheat, potato, cassava, arrowroot, and sago are all used in various parts of the world. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae The cassava, yuca, manioc, or mandioca ( Manihot esculenta) is a woody Shrub of the Euphorbiaceae (spurge family native Arrowroot, or obedience plant ( Maranta arundinacea) is a large perennial Herb of genus Maranta found in Rainforest Sago is a Starch extracted from the Pith inside stems of the sago palm Metroxylon sagu In the United States, cornstarch (from maize) is used almost exclusively. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Cornstarch, or cornflour, is the Starch of the Maize grain commonly known as Corn.

This enzymatic process has several stages. In the gelatinization stage, a slurry of starch is heated to 105 °C, and the enzyme, α-amylase, is added. α-Amylase is the major form of Amylase found in humans and other mammals In the liquefaction stage, the mixture is held at 95 °C for 2 hours. In the last stage, known as "saccharification", the partially hydrolyzed starch is completely hydrolyzed to glucose using the glucoamylase enzyme from the fungus Aspergillus niger. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Aspergillus niger is a Fungus and one of the most common species of the genus Aspergillus. Typical reaction conditions are pH 4. pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. 0–4. 5, 60 °C, and a carbohydrate concentration of 30–35% by weight. Under these conditions, starch can be converted to glucose at 96–97% glucose, "glucose syrup" over 1–4 days. Corn syrup is a Syrup, made using Cornstarch as a feedstock and composed mainly of Glucose. ^[4] In some variations on this process, the liquefaction stage is carried out at 130 °C or even hotter. This heat treatment improves the solubility of starch in water, yielding a more concentrated syrup, but deactivates the enzyme, and fresh enzyme must be added to the mixture after each heating. Higher glucose yields can be obtained using more dilute solutions, but this approach requires larger reactors and processing a greater volume of water, and is not generally economical. ultimately, the resulting glucose solution is then purified by filtration and concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator. Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases by interposing a medium to fluid flow through which the fluid A multiple-effect evaporator, as defined in Chemical engineering, is an apparatus for efficiently using the heat from Steam to evaporate water Solid D-glucose is then produced by repeated crystallizations. Crystallization is the (natural or artificial process of formation of solid Crystals precipitating from a homogeneous --> identical Solution

Glucose

Glucose tablets

Function

We can speculate on the reasons why glucose, and not another monosaccharide such as fructose (Fru), is so widely used in evolution, the ecosystem, and metabolism. Fructose (also levulose or laevulose) is a simple reducing Sugar ( Monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three Glucose can form from formaldehyde under abiotic conditions, so it may well have been available to primitive biochemical systems. Formaldehyde is a Chemical compound with the formula H2CO It is the simplest Aldehyde —an organic compound containing a terminal Carbonyl In Biology, abiotic components are non-living Chemical and Physical factors in the environment. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Probably more important to advanced life is the low tendency of glucose, by comparison to other hexose sugars, to non-specifically react with the amino groups of proteins. Amines are Organic compounds and Functional groups that contain a basic Nitrogen Atom with a Lone pair. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl This reaction (glycation) reduces or destroys the function of many enzymes. Glycation (sometimes called non-enzymatic Glycosylation) is the result of a sugar molecule such as Fructose or Glucose, bonding to a Protein Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins The low rate of glycation is due to glucose's preference for the less reactive cyclic isomer. This article is about the chemical concept For "isomerism" of atomic nuclei see Nuclear isomer. Nevertheless, many of the long-term complications of diabetes (e. Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc g. , blindness, kidney failure, and peripheral neuropathy) are probably due to the glycation of proteins or lipids. Blindness is the condition of lacking Visual perception due to Physiological or Neurological factors Renal failure or kidney Peripheral neuropathy is the term for damage to Nerves of the Peripheral nervous system, which may be caused either by diseases of the Nerve or from the In contrast, enzyme-regulated addition of glucose to proteins by glycosylation is often essential to their function. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Glycosylation is the enzymatic process that links Saccharides to produce glycans, either free or attached to Proteins and Lipids This enzymatic

As an energy source

Glucose is a ubiquitous fuel in biology. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles It is used as an energy source in most organisms, from bacteria to humans. Use of glucose may be by either aerobic or anaerobic respiration (fermentation). Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from See also Fermentation (biochemistry Anaerobic respiration (anaerobiosis refers to the Oxidation of molecules in the absence of Oxygen to produce Fermentation is the process of deriving energy from the oxidation of organic compounds such as carbohydrates using an endogenous electron acceptor which is Carbohydrates are the human body's key source of energy, through aerobic respiration, providing approximately 3. 75 kilocalories (16 kilojoules) of food energy per gram. This article is about the unit of energy For its use in Nutrition and Food labelling regulations, see the article on Food energy. The joule (written in lower case ˈdʒuːl or /ˈdʒaʊl/ (symbol J) is the SI unit of Energy measuring heat, Electricity Food energy is the amount of Energy in food that is available through Digestion. For other uses of the words gram or gramme see Gram (disambiguation. ^[5] Breakdown of carbohydrates (e. g. starch) yields mono- and disaccharides, most of which is glucose. Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Through glycolysis and later in the reactions of the Citric acid cycle (TCAC), glucose is oxidized to eventually form CO₂ and water, yielding energy, mostly in the form of ATP. See also Gluconeogenesis, which carries out a process wherein glucose is synthesized rather than catabolized The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely the Szent-Györgyi–Krebs cycle Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy The insulin reaction, and other mechanisms, regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood. A high fasting blood sugar level is an indication of prediabetic and diabetic conditions.

Glucose is a primary source of energy for the brain, and hence its availability influences psychological processes. When glucose is low, psychological processes requiring mental effort (e. g. , self-control) are impaired. Self control is perceived in a few ways One of which is philosophical and might be described as the exertion of one's own will on one's personal self - their behaviors actions ^[6][7][8]

Glucose in glycolysis

α-D-Glucose Hexokinase α-D-Glucose-6-phosphate   ATP ADP

Compound C00031 at KEGG Pathway Database. Variation across species Hexokinases have been found in every organism checked ranging from bacteria, Yeast, and Plants to humans and other Vertebrates Glucose 6-phosphate (also known as Robison ester) is Glucose sugar Phosphorylated on carbon 6 Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy Adenosine diphosphate, abbreviated ADP, is a Nucleotide. It is an Ester of Pyrophosphoric acid with the Nucleoside Adenosine KEGG ( Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) is a collection of Online databases dealing with Genomes Enzymatic pathways and biological chemicals Enzyme 2.7.1.1 at KEGG Pathway Database. KEGG ( Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) is a collection of Online databases dealing with Genomes Enzymatic pathways and biological chemicals Compound C00668 at KEGG Pathway Database. KEGG ( Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) is a collection of Online databases dealing with Genomes Enzymatic pathways and biological chemicals Reaction R01786 at KEGG Pathway Database. KEGG ( Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) is a collection of Online databases dealing with Genomes Enzymatic pathways and biological chemicals

Use of glucose as an energy source in cells is via aerobic or anaerobic respiration. Both of these start with the early steps of the glycolysis metabolic pathway. See also Gluconeogenesis, which carries out a process wherein glucose is synthesized rather than catabolized In Biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. The first step of this is the phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase to prepare it for later breakdown to provide energy. Phosphorylation is the addition of a Phosphate (PO4 group to a Protein molecule or a small molecule Variation across species Hexokinases have been found in every organism checked ranging from bacteria, Yeast, and Plants to humans and other Vertebrates

The major reason for the immediate phosphorylation of glucose by a hexokinase is to prevent diffusion out of the cell. Variation across species Hexokinases have been found in every organism checked ranging from bacteria, Yeast, and Plants to humans and other Vertebrates The phosphorylation adds a charged phosphate group so the glucose 6-phosphate cannot easily cross the cell membrane. A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. Glucose 6-phosphate (also known as Robison ester) is Glucose sugar Phosphorylated on carbon 6 The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma, or "phospholipid bilayer" is a Selectively permeable Lipid bilayer Irreversible first steps of a metabolic pathway are common for regulatory purposes.

As a precursor

Glucose is critical in the production of proteins and in lipid metabolism. In Chemistry, a precursor is a compound that participates in the Chemical reaction that produces another compound Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble Also, in plants and most animals, it is a precursor for vitamin C (ascorbic acid) production. In Chemistry, a precursor is a compound that participates in the Chemical reaction that produces another compound Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian It is modified for use in these processes by the glycolysis pathway.

Glucose is used as a precursor for the synthesis of several important substances. Starch, cellulose, and glycogen ("animal starch") are common glucose polymers (polysaccharides). Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds Polysaccharides are relatively complex Carbohydrates They are Polymers made up of many Monosaccharides joined together by Glycosidic bonds Lactose, the predominant sugar in milk, is a glucose-galactose disaccharide. Lactose (also referred to as milk sugar) is a Sugar which is found most notably in Milk. Galactose (Gal (also called brain sugar) is a type of Sugar which is less sweet than Glucose. In sucrose, another important disaccharide, glucose is joined to fructose. Solubility of Pure SucroseTemperature(Cg A disaccharide is a Sugar (a Carbohydrate) composed of two Monosaccharides 'Disaccharide' is one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates ( These synthesis processes also rely on the phosphorylation of glucose through the first step of glycolysis.

Sources and absorption

All major dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block, as in starch and glycogen, or together with another monosaccharide, as in sucrose and lactose. Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells In the lumen of the duodenum and small intestine, the oligo- and polysaccharides are broken down to monosaccharides by the pancreatic and intestinal glycosidases. Glucose is then transported across the apical membrane of the enterocytes by SLC5A1, and later across their basal membrane by SLC2A2. Enterocytes, or intestinal absorptive cells, are Simple columnar Epithelial cells found in the Small intestines and Colon. Solute carrier family 5 (sodium/glucose cotransporter member 1, also known as SLC5A1, is a human Gene. ^[9] Some of the glucose goes directly toward fueling brain cells and erythrocytes, while the rest makes its way to the liver and muscles, where it is stored as glycogen, and to fat cells, where it can be used to power reactions which synthesize some fats. Brain Cell is a Mail art project begun by Ryosuke Cohen in June 1985 Red blood cells are the most common type of Blood cell and the Vertebrate body's principal means of delivering Oxygen to the body tissues via the Blood The liver is a vital organ in the human body and is present in Vertebrates and some other animals Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells "Adipose" redirects here For the Doctor Who monster see " Partners in Crime " Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water Glycogen is the body's auxiliary energy source, tapped and converted back into glucose when there is need for energy.

See also

• Blood glucose or Blood Sugar
• HbA1c
• DMF (potential glucose-based biofuel)
• Glycation
• Glycosylation
• Photosynthesis
• Fructose

v • d • e  Glycolysis Metabolic Pathway

Glucose Hexokinase Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase Fructose 6-phosphate 6-phosphofructokinase Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose bisphosphate aldolase Dihydroxyacetone phosphate Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Triosephosphate isomerase Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase ATP ADP ATP ADP NAD+ + Pi NADH + H+ + 2 NAD+ + Pi NADH + H+ 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate Phosphoglycerate kinase 3-Phosphoglycerate Phosphoglycerate mutase 2-Phosphoglycerate Phosphopyruvate hydratase(Enolase) Phosphoenolpyruvate Pyruvate kinase Pyruvate Pyruvate dehydrogenase Acetyl-CoA ADP ATP H2O ADP ATP CoA + NAD+ NADH + H+ + CO2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ADP ATP H2O

References

External links

• EINECS number 200-075-1 (D-glucose)
• EINECS number 213-068-3 (L-glucose)
• CID 5793 from PubChem (D-glucose)
• CID 206 from PubChem (L-glucose)
• More on the chemistry and function of glucose in biology at EvoWiki
• Computational Chemistry Wiki
• What is Glucose